How Computers Work: The CPU and Memory

Figure 0 shows the parts of a computer:

 The Central Processing

Unit:
o (CPU),
o Buses,
o Ports and
controllers,
o ROM;
 Main Memory (RAM);
 Input Devices;
 Output Devices;
 Secondary Storage;
o floppy disks,
o hard disk,
o CD-ROM

Figure 0: Inside The Computer

This part of the reading will examine the CPU, Buses, Controllers, and Main Memory.
Other sections will examine input devices, output devices, and secondary memory.  

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The computer does its primary

work in a part of the machine we
cannot see, a control center that
converts data input to information
output. This control center, called
the central processing unit (CPU),
is a highly complex, extensive set
of electronic circuitry that
executes stored program
instructions. All computers, large
and small, must have a central
processing unit. As Figure 1
shows, the central processing unit
Figure 1: The Central Processing Unit consists of two parts: The control
unit and the arithmetic/logic unit.
Each part has a specific function.

Before we discuss the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit in detail, we need to
consider data storage and its relationship to the central processing unit. Computers use
two types of storage: Primary storage and secondary storage. The CPU interacts
closely with primary storage, or main memory, referring to it for both instructions and
data. For this reason this part of the reading will discuss memory in the context of the
central processing unit. Technically, however, memory is not part of the CPU.  

Recall that a computer's memory holds data only temporarily, at the time the computer
is executing a program. Secondary storage holds permanent or semi-permanent data
on some external magnetic or optical medium. The diskettes and CD-ROM disks that
you have seen with personal computers are secondary storage devices, as are hard
disks. Since the physical attributes of secondary storage devices determine the way
data is organized on them, we will discuss secondary storage and data organization
together in another part of our on-line readings.  

Now let us consider the components of the central processing unit.  

 The Control Unit 

The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire
computer system to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions. Like an orchestra leader,
the control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system
to do so. The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic/logic unit and memory. 

 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit 

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and
logical operations. 

The arithmetic/logic unit can perform four kinds of arithmetic operations, or mathematical
calculations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. As its name implies, the
arithmetic/logic unit also performs logical operations. A logical operation is usually a
comparison. The unit can compare numbers, letters, or special characters. The computer can then
take action based on the result of the comparison. This is a very important capability. It is by
comparing that a computer is able to tell, for instance, whether there are unfilled seats on
airplanes, whether charge- card customers have exceeded their credit limits, and whether one
candidate for Congress has more votes than another. 

Logical operations can test for three conditions: 

 Equal-to condition. In a test for this condition, the arithmetic/logic unit compares two
values to determine if they are equal. For example: If the number of tickets sold equals
the number of seats in the auditorium, then the concert is declared sold out. 
 Less-than condition. To test for this condition, the computer compares values to
determine if one is less than another. For example: If the number of speeding tickets on a
driver's record is less than three, then insurance rates are $425; otherwise, the rates are
$500. 
 Greater-than condition. In this type of comparison, the computer determines if one
value is greater than another. For example: If the hours a person worked this week are
greater than 40, then multiply every extra hour by 1.5 times the usual hourly wage to
compute overtime pay.

A computer can simultaneously test for more than one condition. In fact, a logic unit can usually
discern six logical relationships: equal to, less than, greater than, less than or equal to, greater
than or equal to, and not equal. 

The symbols that let you define the type of comparison you want the computer to perform are
called relational operators. The most common relational operators are the equal sign(=), the less-
than symbol(<), and the greater-than symbol(>). 

 Registers: Temporary Storage Areas 

Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data. They are not a part of
memory; rather they are special additional storage locations that offer the advantage of
speed. Registers work under the direction of the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer
instructions or data and perform arithmetic or logical comparisons at high speed. The
 control unit uses a data storage register the way a store owner uses a cash register-as a
temporary, convenient place to store what is used in transactions. 

Computers usually assign special roles to certain registers, including these registers: 
o An accumulator, which collects the result of computations.
o An address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of
data is stored in memory. Each storage location in memory is identified by an
address, just as each house on a street has an address.
o A storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent
to memory.
o A general-purpose register, which is used for several functions.
 Memory and Storage 
Memory is also known as primary storage, primary memory, main storage, internal
storage, main memory, and RAM (Random Access Memory); all these terms are used
interchangeably by people in computer circles. Memory is the part of the computer that
holds data and instructions for processing. Although closely associated with the central
processing unit, memory is separate from it. Memory stores program instructions or data
for only as long as the program they pertain to is in operation. Keeping these items in
memory when the program is not running is not feasible for three reasons: 
o Most types of memory only store items while the computer is turned on; data is
destroyed when the machine is turned off.
o If more than one program is running at once (often the case on large computers
and sometimes on small computers), a single program can not lay exclusive claim
to memory.
o There may not be room in memory to hold the processed data.

How do data and instructions get from an input device into memory? The control unit
sends them. Likewise, when the time is right, the control unit sends these items from
memory to the arithmetic/logic unit, where an arithmetic operation or logical operation is
performed. After being processed, the information is sent to memory, where it is hold
until it is ready to he released to an output unit. 

The chief characteristic of memory is that it allows very fast access to instructions and
data, no matter where the items are within it. We will discuss the physical components of
memory-memory chips-later in this chapter.

To see how registers, memory, and second storage all work together, let us use the
analogy of making a salad. In our kitchen we have:

o a refrigerator where we store our vegetables for the salad;

o a counter where we place all of our veggies before putting them on the cutting
board for chopping;
o a cutting board on the counter where we chop the vegetables;
o a recipe that details what veggies to chop;
o the corners of the cutting board are kept free for partially chopped piles of veggies
that we intend to chop more or to mix with other partially chopped veggies.
o a bowl on the counter where we mix and store the salad;
o space in the refrigerator to put the mixed salad after it is made.

The process of making the salad is then: bring the veggies from the fridge to the counter
top; place some veggies on the chopping board according to the recipe; chop the veggies,
possibly storing some partially chopped veggies temporarily on the corners of the cutting
board; place all the veggies in the bowl to either put back in the fridge or put directly on
the dinner table.

The refrigerator is the equivalent of secondary (disk) storage. It can store high volumes of
veggies for long periods of time. The counter top is the equivalent of the computer's
motherboard - everything is done on the counter (inside the computer). The cutting board
is the ALU - the work gets done there. The recipe is the control unit - it tells you what to
 do on the cutting board (ALU). Space on the counter top is the equivalent of RAM
memory - all veggies must be brought from the fridge and placed on the counter top for
fast access. Note that the counter top (RAM) is faster to access than the fridge (disk), but
can not hold as much, and can not hold it for long periods of time. The corners of the
cutting board where we temporarily store partially chopped veggies are equivalent to the
registers. The corners of the cutting board are very fast to access for chopping, but can
not hold much. The salad bowl is like a temporary register, it is for storing the salad
waiting to take back to the fridge (putting data back on a disk) or for taking to the dinner
table (outputting the data to an output device).

Now for a more technical example. let us look at how a payroll program uses all three
types of storage. Suppose the program calculates the salary of an employee. The data
representing the hours worked and the data for the rate of pay are ready in their respective
registers. Other data related to the salary calculation-overtime hours, bonuses, deductions,
and so forth-is waiting nearby in memory. The data for other employees is available in
secondary storage. As the CPU finishes calculations about one employee, the data about
the next employee is brought from secondary storage into memory and eventually into
the registers. 

The following table summarizes the characteristics of the various kinds of data storage in
the storage hierarchy. 

Storage Speed Capacity Relative Cost ($) Permanent?

Registers Fastest Lowest Highest No
RAM Very Fast Low/Moderate High No
Floppy Disk Very Slow Low Low Yes
Hard Disk Moderate Very High Very Low Yes

Modern computers are designed with this hierarchy due to the characteristics listed in the
table. It has been the cheapest way to get the functionality. However, as RAM becomes
cheaper, faster, and even permanent, we may see disks disappear as an internal storage
device. Removable disks, like Zip disks or CDs (we describe these in detail in the online
reading on storage devices) will probably remain in use longer as a means to physically
transfer large volumes of data into the computer. However, even this use of disks will
probably be supplanted by the Internet as the major (and eventually only) way of
transferring data. Floppy disks drives are already disappearing: the new IMac Macintosh
from Apple does not come with one. Within the next five years most new computer
designs will only include floppy drives as an extra for people with old floppy disks that
they must use.

For more detail on the computer's memory hierarchy, see the How Stuff Works pages on
computer memory.. This is optional reading.

 How the CPU Executes Program Instructions 

Let us examine the way the central processing unit, in association with memory, executes
a computer program. We will be looking at how just one instruction in the program is
executed. In fact, most computers today can execute only one instruction at a time,
though they execute it very quickly. Many personal computers can execute instructions in
less than one-millionth of a second,
whereas those speed demons known
as supercomputers can execute
instructions in less than one-
billionth of a second. 

 Before an instruction can be

executed, program instructions and
data must be placed into memory

Figure 2: The Machine Cycle

 from an input device or a secondary storage device (the process is further complicated by
the fact that, as we noted earlier, the data will probably make a temporary stop in a
register). As Figure 2 shows, once the necessary data and instruction are in memory, the
central processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction: 

1. The control unit fetches (gets) the instruction from memory.

2. The control unit decodes the instruction (decides what it means) and directs that
the necessary data be moved from memory to the arithmetic/logic unit. These first
two steps together are called instruction time, or I-time.
3. The arithmetic/logic unit executes the arithmetic or logical instruction. That is, the
ALU is given control and performs the actual operation on the data.
4. Thc arithmetic/logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a
register. Steps 3 and 4 together are called execution time, or E-time.

The control unit eventually directs memory to release the result to an output device or a
secondary storage device. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine
cycle. Figure 3 shows an instruction going through the machine cycle. 

Each central processing unit has an internal clock that produces pulses at a fixed rate to
synchronize all computer operations. A single machine-cycle instruction may be made up
of a substantial number of sub-instructions, each of which must take at least one clock
cycle. Each type of central processing unit is designed to understand a specific group of
instructions called the instruction set. Just as there are many different languages that
people understand, so each different type of CPU has an instruction set it understands.
Therefore, one CPU-such as the one for a Compaq personal computer-cannot understand
the instruction set from another CPU-say, for a Macintosh.

It is one thing to have instructions and

data somewhere in memory and quite
another for the control unit to be able
to find them. How does it do this? 

Figure 4: Memory Addresses Like Mailboxes

Figure 3: The Machine Cycle in Action
The location in memory for each
instruction and each piece of data is identified by an address. That is, each location has an
address number, like the mailboxes in front of an apartment house. And, like the mailboxes, the
address numbers of the locations remain the same, but the contents (instructions and data) of the
locations may change. That is, new instructions or new data may be placed in the locations when
the old contents no longer need to be stored in memory. Unlike a mailbox, however, a memory
location can hold only a fixed amount of data; an address can hold only a fixed number of bytes -
often two bytes in a modern computer. 

Figure 4 shows how a program manipulates data in memory. A payroll program, for example,
may give instructions to put the rate of pay in location 3 and the number of hours worked in
location 6. To compute the employee's salary, then, instructions tell the computer to multiply the
data in location 3 by the data in location 6 and move the result to location 8. The choice of
locations is arbitrary - any locations that are not already spoken for can be used. Programmers
using programming languages, however, do not have to worry about the actual address numbers,
because each data address is referred to by a name. The name is called a symbolic address. In
this example, the symbolic address names are Rate, Hours, and Salary.

Now that we see conceptually how a computer works, we will look at

the hardware components that make up the internals os a modern
computer. Click here to continue the required reading.