start

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OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 87, the reader should
be able to:
• Prepare for ASE Suspension and Steering
(A4) certification test content area “B”
(Suspension System Diagnosis and Repair).
• Describe the various types and styles of rear
suspension.
• Explain the difference among the different
types of rear axles.

Continued
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OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 87, the reader should
be able to:
• List the steps necessary to replace rear
shock absorbers.
• Explain how to replace rear leaf and coil
springs.

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KEY TERMS:
axle windup • chapman strut • hotchkiss drive

IRS • live axle • panhard rod

semi-independent suspension • semi-trailing arm • solid

axle

torque arm • track rod • trailing arm

watts linkage

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All suspensions have two basic jobs: keeping the tires
on the ground and providing a smooth ride.

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SOLID REAR AXLES
A solid axle can be used on
either a rear-wheel-drive or
front-wheel-drive vehicle.
Figure 87–1 Solid axles are used on rear-
wheel-drive vehicles as well as front-wheel
drive vehicles.

On a rear-wheel-drive vehicle,
a solid rear axle consists of the
differential gears and axle
shafts inside a solid housing.
On a front-wheel-drive, a
solid axle is a U-shaped or
tubular beam that may contain
a torsion bar, rod, or tube. Continued
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Solid axles have some handling characteristics that are inferior to
those of an independent suspension. Disadvantages of a solid axle
include the following:
Increased proportion of unsprung weight
Side-to-side road shock transference
Poorer tire adhesion
Increasing the proportion of unsprung weight decreases ride
quality. Transferring road shock from side-to-side causes wheel
tramp and shimmy, and poor tire adhesion accelerates tire wear.

See Figure 87–2.

Continued
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Figure 87–2 A solid axle supports the springs, so the axle and suspension components are
unsprung weight. When one wheel rides over a bump, the shock transfers through the solid
axle to the opposite side, leading to unstable handling.

Continued
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The sprung weight of the frame and body must be heavy to oppose
the unsprung weight of a solid axle, especially on a driven axle.

Unsprung weight, wheel tramp, and shimmy all reduce tire

adhesion. The effects of these problems are more noticeable in
rear-wheel-drive vehicles due to the weight of the rear axle and
differential assembly.

On a typical front-wheel-drive vehicle, the simple axle beam is not

heavy enough to decrease ride quality or cause extreme tire wear.
The rear tires of a front-wheel-drive model always wear more
slowly than the front tires because the rear axle is so much lighter
than the power train.

If engine torque is applied to the rear axle to drive the vehicle, the
axle is referred to as a live axle.
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 What is Axle Windup?
Axle windup is a product of the law of physics, which states that every
action produces an equal and opposite reaction. As the axle shafts rotate in
one direction to drive the wheels, the axle housing attempts to rotate in the
opposite direction. The force of this reaction tends to lift the front end of the
vehicle during acceleration.
Axle windup is a particular problem with a solid, driven rear axle because
the axle housing concentrates reacting force. Under extreme acceleration,
the reacting force can actually tilt the drive shaft upward and lift the front
wheels off the ground.
Leaf springs, control arms,
pinion snubbers, and torque
arms all are means of
controlling axle windup.
Figure 87–3 When the axle housing
reacts against the force of axle shaft
rotation, the front of the differential
tilts upward, creating axle windup.

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LEAF SPRING REAR SUSPENSIONS
A leaf spring suspension is a simple system because it does not
require control arms to brace and position the axle. The leaf
springs link the axle to the frame and serve two purposes:
Absorbing road shock
Locating the axle under the vehicle

Most rear-wheel-drive trucks use a solid rear axle with leaf springs
in an arrangement called a Hotchkiss drive.

Leaf springs on a driven axle control axle windup by transferring

force from the axle housing to the frame. The front portion of the
leaf spring, from the axle housing to the frame mount, acts like a
trailing control arm. See Figure 87–4.
Continued
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Figure 87–4 A typical rear-wheel-drive pickup truck rear suspension equipped with leaf springs.
This type of arrangement is called a Hotchkiss drive and the drive train forces are controlled by
the rear suspension components.

Continued
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Leaf springs are used on the rear of many light- and medium-duty
trucks and vans. The wheel spindles bolt to the flanges, the centers
of the leaf springs rest on the seats, and U-bolts secure the springs
to the axle.

A shackle attaches the rear of each spring to the unit-body frame,

while the front of each spring pivots through a bolt and bushing
connected to a hanger that bolts to the body.

See Figure 87–5.

Continued
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Figure 87–5 An exploded view of a beam axle with multi-leaf springs.

Continued
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TRAILING ARM REAR SUSPENSIONS
A trailing arm extends from a frame crossmember located ahead
of the rear axle back to the axle housing or a wheel knuckle.
Trailing arms run parallel to the centerline of the chassis.

A trailing arm mounts to the frame with bushings, which allows

the arm to pivot as the wheel rides over bumps. Some rear
suspensions use two sets of trailing arms, one set positioned
higher in the chassis than the other.

The arms in this arrangement are commonly referred to as the

upper and lower control arms, they are called trailing arms. The
word trailing applies to any link where the supported member
trails the arm. See Figure 87–6.
Continued
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Figure 87–6 A trailing arm rear suspension with a solid axle used on a front-wheel-drive
vehicle.

Continued
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Trailing arms may be used to brace either a driven or nondriven
solid rear axle against front-to-rear forces, but they do not provide
much resistance to side-to-side, or lateral, forces.

The axle itself is one means of locating the wheels side-to-side,

and solid rear suspensions frequently use another rod to provide
additional support. Trailing arms transfer axle windup force to the
frame and control front-to-rear axle movement.

On a few models, especially those with a high-performance

suspension, a torque arm provides additional resistance to axle
windup.

See Figure 87–7.

Continued
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Figure 87–7 The Camaro and
Firebird rear suspension
systems use a torque arm to
control axle windup.

The torque arm extends

parallel to the drive shaft
between the rear axle and
transmission.

One end of the torque

arm is rigidly bolted to
the differential housing,
while the other end
attaches to the
transmission through a
cushioned bracket to
allow some flex.
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A trailing arm rear suspension on a nondriven solid axle virtually
always includes a track rod, also called a Panhard rod.

A track rod is a rod attached to the body or frame on one end and the
rear axle on the other. The purpose of the track rod is to keep the rear
axle centered under the vehicle. The suspension may use either coil
springs or struts.

The rear axle is a U-shaped steel beam that is open on the bottom.
Flat metal axle end plates, to which the wheel spindles bolt, are
attached to each end of the beam. A torsion tube or rod fits inside the
beam and is welded to the axle end plates

See Figure 87–8.

Continued
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The trailing arms, welded
to the outboard ends of the
axle, extend forward and
attach to the frame with
pivot bushing mounts.

Figure 87–8 A typical beam axle

rear suspension uses trailing arms
and coil springs along with a track
rod, also called a Panhard rod, to
control side-to-side axle
movement.

A bracket on top of the

beam axle locates the ring-
type lower strut mount,
and the upper strut mount
attaches to a reinforced
area of the wheel well. Continued
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SEMI-TRAILING ARM REAR SUSPENSIONS
A semi-trailing arm is similar to a trailing arm in that it extends
back from a frame member to the axle.

A trailing arm is parallel to the vehicle centerline whereas a

semi-trailing arm pivots at an angle to the vehicle centerline.

Semi-trailing arms have an advantage over trailing arms as they

control both side-to-side and front-to-rear motion. Typically, a
semi-trailing arm suspension uses coil springs, air springs, or
pivot-base struts.

A semi-trailing arm suspension may be used with either a solid

axle or an independent suspension.

Continued
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Ford suspension uses two pairs, upper and lower, of semi-trailing
arms and a center pivot arrangement to locate the driven rear axle.

This axle centering

pivot bracket and
linkage is called a
Watts linkage.

Figure 87–9
This Ford rear suspension uses upper and lower
semi-trailing arms to mount the rear axle and a
Watts linkage to control side-to-side movement.

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INDEPENDENT REAR SUSPENSIONS
The use of independent rear suspension, called IRS, has grown
dramatically over the past several decades to the point where
such systems are now fairly common, especially on front-wheel-
drive vehicles and some rear-wheel-drive vehicles.
The reduction in unsprung weight is particularly noticeable for
driven axles, which are constructed to transfer the weight of the
differential and axles to the frame.

A vehicle with an independent rear suspension rides and holds

better than a similar vehicle equipped with a solid rear axle. An
SLA-type of independent suspension may be used at the rear of a
rear-wheel-drive vehicle.

See Figures 87–10 and 87–11. Continued

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Figure 87–10 An independent rear suspension
provides a better ride because less weight is
unsprung and the suspension is able to react
quickly to bumps in the road without affecting
the opposite side.

Figure 87–11 A typical short/long-arm

independent rear suspension.

Continued
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The main benefit of an SLA suspension is that it reduces tire
scrub and improves traction. The positioning of the control
arms determines the suspension roll center location. The
lower the roll center, the less body roll.

Unit-body front-wheel-drive vehicles frequently use strut

suspensions at the rear axle. The strut mounts to the knuckle
and replaces the upper control arm.

The first designer to put MacPherson-type struts in a rear

suspension was an Englishman, Colin Chapman. For this reason, a
rear strut suspension is often referred to as a Chapman strut
suspension by European manufacturers and engineers.

Continued
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The MacPherson strut system is the most popular independent rear
suspension for late-model front-wheel-drive vehicles.

Figure 87–12 This independent rear

suspension uses a MacPherson strut,
two parallel lower transverse control
arms, and a trailing arm.

Continued
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Figure 87–13 The toe-control rod provides an extra brace to keep the rear wheels straight
ahead during braking and acceleration on this modified-strut-type independent rear
suspension.

Modified strut rear

suspensions are found
on a variety of front-
wheel-drive models
from a number of
different manufacturers.

Continued
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Figure 87–14 The upper drawing shows a transverse-leaf-spring-type independent rear
suspension that uses an “H”-shaped lower control arm. The lower drawing shows a transverse
leaf spring suspension that uses two parallel lower links and a trailing arm.

General Motors produced two different rear modified strut systems

with transverse leaf springs. A transverse leaf spring is also used
on the Chevrolet Corvette and the Cadillac XLR.
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SEMI-INDEPENDENT REAR SUSPENSIONS
A semi-independent suspension is
used only at a nondriven rear axle.
Figure 87–15 The crossbeam is placed toward the front
of the vehicle rather than the centerline of the rear
wheels on a semi-independent-type rear suspension.

The design is based on a crossbeam

that is similar to the beam axle of a
solid, nondriven rear suspension.
The crossbeam is placed ahead,
rather than at the centerline, of
the wheels.

Continued
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 Trailing arms extend rearward
from crossbeam to wheels.

Semi-independent indicates that

although an axle does not
directly link the wheels, the
wheels are not completely
independent of each other.
They are indirectly connected
through the crossbeam.

Some semi-independent rear

suspensions use struts.

Figure 87–16 A semi-independent rear

suspension with MacPherson struts.

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REAR SUSPENSION SERVICE
Rear suspension service starts with a thorough test drive, to observe
any unusual noises or vibrations that may be caused by a fault with
a rear suspension component.
After a test drive perform a thorough visual inspection.
Figure 87–17 Check all rubber
bushings for excessive cracking.

Use an appropriate prybar

and move all bushings and
joints, checking for
deterioration or freeplay.

Continued
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Inspect the shock absorber or struts for leakage or damage. Inspect
the bump stops for damage.
Figure 87–18 Carefully inspect the bump stops for damage during a thorough visual inspection.

BUMP STOP

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If the bump stops are damaged, this may indicate that the springs
are fatigued and the vehicle is at lower-than-normal ride height, or
that the shocks or studs are unable to control the springs.

Figure 87–19 A broken spring was

discovered during a routine under-
vehicle visual inspection. Notice the
witness marks that show that the
spring coils have been hitting
each other.

“WITNESS MARK” BROKEN END

OF COIL SPRING

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 REAR SHOCK REPLACEMENT
Before removing the rear shock absorbers, the rear axle must be
supported to prevent stretching of the rear brake flexible hose.

Shocks are attached to the frame or body of the vehicle at the top
and to a bracket on the rear axle housing at the bottom.

Often, the top of the rear shock absorber is fastened inside the
vehicle.

NOTE: Shocks and/or struts should always be replaced as a pair.

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Air Shock Installation Air-adjustable shock absorbers are a
popular replacement for conventional rear shock absorbers. Air
shocks can be used to level the vehicle while towing a trailer or
when heavily loaded. When the load is removed, air can be
released from the shocks to return the vehicle height to normal.

Most replacement air shocks are directional and labeled left and
right. This ensures the plastic air hose line exits the shock toward
the center or rear of the vehicle and is kept away from the wheels.

The plastic air shock line attaches to the shock absorber with an
O-ring or brass ferrule and nut. An air leak can result if this O-ring
or ferrule is not installed according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Route the plastic air line along the body,
keeping it away from the exhaust and any other body parts where
the line could be damaged.
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Rear Coil Springs
Replacement Coil springs in the rear are easily replaced on both
front-wheel-drive and rear-wheel-drive vehicles. The procedure:
1. Raise the vehicle safely on a hoist.
2. Remove both rear wheels.
3. Support the rear axle assembly with tall safety stands.
4. Remove the lower shock absorber mounting bolts/nuts and
disconnect the shock absorber from the rear axle assembly.
5. Slowly lower the rear axle assembly by either lowering the
height of the adjustable safety stands or raising the height
of the vehicle on the hoist.
6. Lower the rear axle just enough to remove the coil springs.

See Figure 87–20.

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Figure 87–20 The shock absorber needs to be disconnected before removing the coil spring.

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CAUTION: The shock absorber is usually the only component that
limits the downward movement of the rear axle to allow removal of the
rear coil springs. Some vehicles may be equipped with rear suspension
height sensors for the adjustable suspension system or an adjustable rear
proportioning valve for the rear brakes. Some vehicles also require that the
rear stabilizer bar or track rod be disconnected or removed before lowering
the rear axle assembly. Always consult service information for the
procedure and torque specifications for the vehicle being serviced.

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Rear Leaf Springs
Replacement Rear leaf springs often need replacement due to one
of the following common causes:
1. Individual leaves of a leaf spring often crack, then break
When a leaf spring breaks, the load-carrying capacity of the
vehicle decreases and it often sags on the side with the broken
spring. Metal fatigue, corrosion, and overloading are three of
the most common causes of leaf spring breakage.

See Figure 87–21

Continued Continued
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Figure 87–21 The center bolt is used to hold the leaves of the leaf spring together. However, the
role for the center bolt also weakens the leaf spring. The crack shown is what a technician
discovered when the leaf spring was removed during the diagnosis of a sagging rear suspension.

Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
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NOTE: When one rear spring on one side sags, the opposite front end of
the vehicle tends to rise. For example, if the right rear spring breaks or
sags down, the left front of the vehicle tends to rise higher than the right
front. This unequal vehicle height can make the vehicle difficult to handle,
especially around corners or curves.

2. If the center bolt breaks, the individual leaves can move and
the rear axle is no longer held in the correct location. When one
side of the rear axle is behind the other side, the vehicle will
dog track.

Dog tracking refers to the sideways angle of the vehicle while

traveling straight. It is commonly caused by the rear axle
steering the vehicle toward one side, while the driver controls
the direction of the vehicle with the front wheels.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

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To replace leaf springs in the rear of a rear-wheel-drive vehicle,
follow these steps:

1. Raise the vehicle safely on a hoist.

2. Support the rear axle with safety stands.
3. Remove the rear shackle bolts and forward mounting bolt
or mounting bracket.
4. Remove the U-bolts.
5. Being careful of any nearby brake line, remove the spring.
6. Install the new spring, being careful to position the center
bolt correctly into the hole on the axle pedestal.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

2009Pearson
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TROUBLESHOOTING REAR ELECTRONIC
LEVELING SYSTEMS
Check for normal operation. Some leveling systems require the
ignition key be on (run), while other systems operate all the time.

Begin troubleshooting by placing approximately 300 lb (135 kg)

on the rear of the vehicle. If the compressor does not operate,
check to see if the sensor is connected to a rear suspension
member and that the electrical connections are not corroded.

Also check the condition of the compressor ground wire. It must

be tight and free of rust and corrosion where it attaches to the
vehicle body. If the compressor still does not run, check to see if
12 volts are available at the power lead to the compressor.
Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
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If necessary, use a fused jumper wire directly from the positive
(+) of the battery to the power lead of the compressor. If the
compressor does not operate, it must be replaced.

If the ride height compressor runs excessively, check the air

compressor, the air lines, and the air shocks (or struts) with soapy
water for air leaks.

Most air shocks or air struts are not repairable and must be
replaced. Most electronic leveling systems provide some
adjustments of the rear ride height by adjusting the linkage
between the height sensor and the rear suspension.

See Figure 87–22.

Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
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Figure 87–22 Most electronic level-control sensors can be adjusted, such as this GM unit.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

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SUMMARY
1. Solid rear axles are commonly used on rear-wheel-drive and
front-wheel-drive vehicles.

2. A Hotchkiss rear suspension uses the leaf springs to absorb

axle windup.

3. Trailing arms run parallel to the centerline of the vehicle and

are used to locate a solid rear axle.

4. A track rod (Panhard rod) or Watts linkage is used to keep the

rear axle centered under the vehicle

Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
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SUMMARY (cont.)
5. Independent rear suspension (IRS) usually uses coil springs
but can use a transversely mounted leaf spring.

6. The rear suspension should be supported whenever replacing

the rear shock absorbers.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

2009Pearson
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 end

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
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UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
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NJ07458
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