Technical report of:

“MULTI-STOREY PLAZA WITH BASEMENT”

Department of Civil Engineering

Submitted to:
Engr.Tanveer Younas

Submitted by:
Mahnoor Rauf

L1F17BSCE0013
3rd year (5th semester)
Section: CA

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 CONTENTS
1.Documentation 4

2.Materials for Construction 8

 Cement 8
 Aggregate 9
 Fine Aggregate 9
 Coarse Aggregates 9
 Water 10
 R.C.C 10

3.Materials Testing: 10
 Tests of Aggregates 10
 Crushing Strength 11
 Los Angles Abration Value 12
 Shape Test 12
 Water Absorption Test 12
 Tests of Concrete 12

4.Equipments and Machines: 13

 Batching Machine 13
 Concrete Mixer 13
 Transportation 13
 Compactors 14

5.Brick Masonry: 14
 Procedure of Brick Masonry 14

6.Plaster: 14
 Tools for Plastering 14
 Methods of Plastering 14

7.CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING: 15
 Sub-structure 15
 Shallow foundation 15
 Individual footings 16
 Strip footing 16
 Combined Footing 16
 Raft or Mat foundation 17
 Deep foundation 17
 Pile foundation 17
 Basement 18
 Super-structure 19
 Excavation 19

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 Pit excavation 19
 Trench excavation 19
 Bulk excavation 20
 Fill 20
 Cart Away 20
 Concrete Mixing Method 20
 Batching 21
 Curing of Concrete 22
 Structural Work 23
 Grade Beam or Plinth Beam 23
 Reinforcement Steel Bar 24
 Superstructure Beam 24
 Ceiling and Wall Finishing 25
 Floor Finishing 25

LIST OF TABLES
Sr.no: Name Page no.
1.1 Format of takeoff sheet we used in the site. 4
1.2 The format of bar schedule working paper we used at the site. 5
1.3 The format of bill of quantity we used at the site. 6
2.1 Composition of Portland cement 7
6.1 Different Coats of Plaster 13

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Sr.no: Name Page
7.1 Individual footing 14
7.2 Plinth beam in footing 14
7.3 Combined Footing 15
7.4 Combined Footing 15
7.5 Pile foundation 16
7.6 Pit and Trench Excavation and masonry work 18
7.7 Pit and Trench Excavation and masonry work 18
7.8 Tilt Drum Mixer Used in Site 19
7.9 Batching Box Used in Site. 20
7.10 Curing by Wet Covering 20
7.11 structural grade beam construction 21
7.12 Rebar at Plinth Level at Ground Floor for Parking 21
7.13 Reinforcement steel bar for beam 22
7.14 Ceiling and Wall Finishing 23

References:
Documentation
Office Work:
In my six months internship period I experience Office works that are worked mostly at the site this
includes some tasks performed by office engineer and quantity surveyor. Such as:
1. Taking off
2. Bill of quantity
3. Report writing
4. Reading and interpreting drawings
Taking off:
This is the process of preparing / defining a detailed list of all labor and materials necessary for the work
and entering the items on properly dimensioned 19 paper. The standard form used for entering the
dimensions taken or scaled from drawings to determine the accurate quantity in each trade of work,
except reinforcement steel, is called take off sheet or dimension paper. The main aim of this sheet is for
payment and cost estimation for purchasing and preparing bill of quantity.

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 Table: 1.1 Format of takeoff sheet we used in the site.
 Column 1 is used for stating the number of times an item occurs and is called the time stating
column.
 Column 2 is called dimension column as it is used to enter the dimensions of the items of works.
The dimensions are entered in the order indicated below: Length, Width, Height or thickness.
 Column 3 is called squaring column. The stated dimensions in column 2 are multiplied to
determine the quantity of the work either in m, m 2 , m3 or in Pcs. or No.
 Whereas column 4 is called description column and description of the work item is briefly
stated. Based on the above format I have calculated the quantity of concrete in 20 m 2 and in
m3 , formwork in m2 and excavation in m2 . We were to use m3 for depth greater than 30 cm
and if it is less than we use m2 .
A separate sheet (Bar Schedule) is used to prepare reinforcement quantities as shown below:
Bar schedule is used to know the amount of rebar used on the site and to tell the bar bender that the
amount of bar needed in some position of the building and its number. The following tasks are part of
the taking off (used to facilitate defining the quantities): Describing the item, bracketing (relating the
description to the quantity), dotting on, the ampersand (ditto), waste calculations, deduction of items,
correction of dimensions (nullifying).

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 Table: 1.2 The format of bar schedule working paper we used at the site.
Bill of Quantity:
The traditional purpose of bills of quantities is to act as a uniform basis for inviting competitive
tenders, and to assist in valuing completed work. Bills of quantity are first designed to meet the
needs of estimators, although some 21 estimators say the bill format has changed to assist the
consultants, in cost planning exercises through the widespread use of elemental bills. A
contractor can also make use of the bill of quantities in many ways, for example:
 To plan material purchasing (note the danger in ordering from a bill: the contractor
should always order materials from drawn information and the specification, making the
contract administrator aware of any differences)
 Preparing resourced programmes.
 Cost control during the contract to ensure work is within budget.
 Data collection during construction for bonus systems and feedback information for
estimators. It is the format which is used in a bill of quantity to list (include) a short
description of the specification along with its measuring unit, quantity and unit prices to
determine the total Cost for each trade of item. In the site the bill of quantity is done by
consultant with the contract document but at site we work it again for payment.

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 Table:1.3 The format of bill of quantity we used at the site.
There are four clearly defined steps in preparation of Bill of Quantities:
 Taking off
 Squaring
 Abstracting
 Writing the bill off quantity
Report Writing
Reporting is a controlling / informative mechanism which will help in evaluating the status of a
project. It entails us how we are accomplishing our set targets at the onset of a project. It will
also help decision makers to follow the status of the project without being present physically on
the site. The reports should explain the history of the project. It should be realistic and self-
explanatory. Numbers in a report are far important than number crunching. Putting numbers for
a report writer like 10% or 90% may be simple but the meaning for the decision makers is very
vital. Putting wrong figures knowingly or unknowingly are devastating.
Types of Report:
The types of reports to be submitted in a project depends on project type; complexity; working
habit etc. In our project we work the following reports

Monthly report Weekly Progress Report:

This is the lowest report form. (lowest means the level of view of the project is high). In short -
it evaluates the accomplishment of the weekly plan and puts the next week schedule. This
report will show the achievement/ drawbacks of the project at the broadest level and help the
project manager ( PM) or Resident Engineer (RE) to solve the shortcomings at the grass root
level.
Major Contents of a Weekly Report:
Project data ,Accomplishment of weekly Plan, Weekly labor and Machinery Deployment,
Material Delivered to the site, major Problems of the week , Solutions given to the major

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problems, Anticipated problems to be solved for the next week , next week plan and so on.
Monthly Progress Report: This is a report with a view of many eyes. This will be thoroughly seen
by second level observers. The contractor, the client and the Consultant’s representative will
make an in depth view of the report to have full information about the project status. This is a
report where major bottle necks of the project will be narrated and the performance of the
parties will be vividly seen.
Major Contents of Monthly Progress Report:
Accomplishment of monthly Plan, Monthly labor and Machinery Deployment, Material
Delivered to the site, major 23 Problems of the month , Solutions given to the major problems,
Anticipated problems to be solved for the next month , next month plan, Contractual matters
-Delay Notifications (if any) ,variations ( if any) and so on.
Reading and Interpreting Drawings:
Drawings are the means by which the designer conveys the physical, quantitative, and visual
description of the project to the contractor. The drawings are a two-dimensional representation
of the physical structure that meets the objectives of the owner. They are also known as plans
or blueprints In our site there were 4 types of drawing;
1. Architectural drawing
2. Structural drawing
3. Sanitary drawing
4. Electrical installation drawing
These drawings are the main language between the architect, designer and any worker at the
site or office to build the model in position as specified by the designer and the client, based on
the agreement. Thus, to work as an engineer in the construction site it is mandatory knowing
drawings and any other specification. Drawings are the most common means of communication
for all types and sizes of project. Thus, I understand each drawing and knew every symbol
abbreviation for every section and I was able to communicate with different workers using it.

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

CEMENT:
Cement was first discovered by an English brick layer named Joseph Aspdin in 1824. He
called it Portland cement for the reason that the cement he discovered resembled the limestone
found in Portland. The approximate composition of Portland cement is given below

Table:2.1 Composition of Portland cement

The function of cement is to combine with water and to form cement paste. This paste first sets
i.e. it becomes firms and then hardens due to chemical reaction, called hydration, between the
cement and water. On setting & hardening, the cement binds the aggregate together into a
stone like hard mass & thus provides strength, durability & water-tighten to the concrete.
Quality of cement is based on grade of cement. The grades of cement are as
33 Grades
43 Grades

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53 Grades
 33 Grade OPC is used for general construction works like plastering and finishing works in
normal environmental conditions. However, its use is virtually phased out today.
 Coming to the 43 Grade OPC, it is the most commonly used grade for home construction. It
has its applications in plastering, finishing works, precast items, foundations, brick work, and
compound wall and so on. It has more strength development than the 33-grade cement.
 53 Grade OPC develops strength very fast. High rise building constructions use 53 grade
cement. This is applicable for use in structures where high grade concrete is required.
At the site Portland cement of 53 grades (JK SUPER CEMENT) is used. The cost per beg = 275
rupees
The initial setting time of cement = 30 minutes (1/2 hrs.)
The final setting time of cement = 10 hrs.

AGGREGATE:
Aggregates are small pieces of broken stones in irregular size and shapes. Neat cement
is very rarely used in construction works since it is liable to shrink too much and become cracks
on setting. More over, it will be costly to use neat cement in construction work. Therefore
cement is mixed with some inert strong & durable hard materials. They also reduce the cost of
concrete because they are comparative much cheaper as cement.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES:
FINE AGGREGATE (SAND):
The aggregate, which pass through 4.75 mm, I.S. sieve and entirely retain on 75 micron
(.075mm) I.S. sieve is known as fine aggregate.

FUNCTION OF FINE AGGREGATE:

The function of using fine aggregate in a concrete mix is to fill up the voids existing in
the coarse aggregate and to obtain a dense and strong concrete with less quantity of cement
and increase the workability of the concrete mix.

COARSE AGGREGATE:
The aggregate, which pass through 75 mm I.S. sieve and entirely retain on 4.75 I.S. sieve
is known as coarse aggregates. At the site the coarse aggregate was 10mm & 20mm (graded).
FUNCTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE:
The coarse aggregates are used in mixing of concrete. It is mixed cement, sand with
water. These aggregates increase the strength of bonding in aggregates. Coarse aggregates are
used in construction of plan cement concrete (PCC), foundation, beams and columns etc.

GRADING OF CONCRETE:
The art of doing gradation of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis is known as
grading of aggregate. The grade of concrete is depends on size of aggregates. The principle of
grading is that the smaller particles will fill up the voids between large particles. This results in
the most economical use of cement paste for filling the voids & binding together the aggregate
in the preparation of concrete. Thus proper grading of fine & coarse aggregate in concrete mix
produces a dense concrete with less quantity of cement.

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 REINFORCEMENT:
The material that develops a good bond with concrete in order to increase its strength is
called reinforcement. Steel bars are highly strong in tension, shear, bending moment, torsion
and compression.

WATER:
It is an important ingredient of concrete because it combines with cement and forms a
binding paste. The paste thus formed fills up the voids of the sand and coarse aggregate
bringing them into close adhesion.
In this project source of water is a tube well which is closely spaced to the building. The
quality of water is good and can be used for drinking purpose aiso.

R.C.C.
Though plain cement concrete has high compressive strength and its tensile strength is
relatively low. Normally, the tensile strength of a concrete is about 10% to 15% of its
compressive strength. Hence if a beam is made up of plain cement concrete, it has a very low
load carrying capacity since its low tensile strength limits its overall strength. It is, there
reinforced by placing steel bars in the tensile zone of the concrete beam so that the
compressive bending stress is carried by concrete and tensile bending stress is carried by steel
reinforcing bars. Generally in simply supported and
Cantilever beams the tension zone occurs at bottom and top of beam respectively.

MATERIAL TESTING
TESTS OF AGGREGATES:
Below are some of the important test which are perform on aggregates at every construction site to
check the quality of the aggregate for better construction and fulfil the requirement of the client.
1. Crushing Test
2. Impact Test
3. LOS Angles Abrasion Test
4. Shape Test
5. Water Absorption Test
CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST:
Standard: IS: 2386 (Part IV)-1963 Methods of test for aggregate for concrete Part IV Mechanical
Properties.
Equipment used:
 Steel Cylinder
 Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)

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  Cylindrical metal measure
 Tamping Rod
 Balance (0-10kg)
 Oven (3000c)
 Compression testing Machine (2000KN) .
Procedure:
1. The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each layer is tamped 25
strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck off, using the
tamping rod as a straight edge.
2. The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the nearest gram (WA)
and this weight of aggregate is used for the duplicate test on the same material.
3. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test sample
is added in thirds, each third being subjected to 25stokes from tamping rod.
4. The surface is leveled and the plunger is inserted so that it rests horizontally on the surface.
The whole assembly is then placed between the platens of testing machine and loaded at a
uniform rate so as to reach a load of 40 tones in 10 minutes.
5. The load is then released and all aggregate is removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36 mm. IS
sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
6. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (WB).

LOS ANGLES ABRATION VALUE:

Standard: IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963
Equipment’s used:
The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:
(i) Los Angeles Machine: It consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both the ends with
an internal diameter of 700 mm and length 500 mm and capable of rotating about its
horizontal axis. A removable steel shaft projecting radially 88 mm into cylinder and
extending full length (i.e.500 mm) is mounted firmly on the interior of cylinder. The shelf
is placed at a distance 1250 mm minimum from the opening in the direction of rotation.
(ii) Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter and Each
weighing between 390 to 445g; six to twelve balls are required.
(iii) Sieve: 1.70, 2.36,4.75,6.3,10,12.5,20,25,40,50,63,80 mm IS Sieves.
(iv) Balance of capacity 5kg or 10kg (v) Drying oven (vi) Miscellaneous like tray

SHAPE TEST:
Equipment’s used:
 Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge
 Length/Elongation Index Gauge
 Aggregate sample to be tested
Shape of particle:
1. Rounded (river gravel)
2. Flaky (laminated rock)
3. Elongated
4. Angular( crushed rock)

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Flaky:
 A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times
the mean size.
 These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other
two dimensions.
 Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than
30% then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
Flakiness Index: It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.
Elongation:
 These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two
dimensions and it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean
size. Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated
particles are greater than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for
the intended use.
Elongation Index:
 It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated
index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage
of total weight of the sample.

WATER ABSORPTION TEST:

Standard: IS: 2386 (Part 3) – 1963 – Method of test for aggregates for concrete (Part I)
Particle size and shape.
Equipment’s used:
 Wire basket
 Oven (3000c)
 Container for filling water and suspending the basket
 An air tight container
 Balance[0-10 kg]
 Shallow tray & absorbent clothes.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST:

Standard: IS: 516-1959 – Methods of tests for strength of concrete.
Equipment’s used:
 Compression testing machine (2000 KN)
 Curing tank/Accelerated curing tank
 Balance (0-10 Kg) Representative samples of concrete shall be taken and
used for casting cubes 15 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm or cylindrical specimens of
15 cm dia. x 30 cm long.
PERMEABILITY TEST:
Equipment’s used:
A concrete permeameter apparatus consisting of the following basic components,
 A permeameter cell which can maintain a seal over the circumference of a
saturated cylindrical concrete specimen and which is capable of operating
effectively under pressures of up to 1000kPa.
 A means of supplying de-aired water to the top surface of the concrete
specimen contained within the permeameter cell at a constant pressure head of

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 up to 1000kPa. MAIN ROADS Western Australia Water Permeability of Hardened
Concrete.
 A pressure gauge to measure input pressure and a thermometer to measure
ambient temperature.
 Data acquisition equipment to record, at suitable intervals of time, the pressure,
volumetric flow of water into and out of the concrete specimen and the
ambient temperature
1. Diamond cut saw.
2. Balance of suitable capacity readable to 0.1g with a limit of performance of not
more than 0.6g at the 99% confidence level.
3. Supply of de-aired water.
4. Vacuum pump.
5. Vernier callipers.
6. Diamond corer drill.
7. 100mm diameter concrete mould complying with AS 1012.8.
8. Worksheet (optional). A graphical representation of the data, including the
calculation of the D’Arcy Coefficient of Permeability is suitable.

SLUMP TEST:
Equipment’s used:
 Slump cone,
 Scale for measurement,
 Temping rod (steel)

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST:

Standard: IS: 516: Methods of tests for Strength of Concrete
Apparatus:
Flexural Strength Machine.

EQUIPMENTS AND MACHINES

BATCHING MACHINE:
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. The machines which used for
batching is known as batching machine.
CONCRETE MIXER:
This is a power mechanically operated machine which is used to mix the concrete. It consists a hollow
cylindrical part with inner side wings. In which cement, sand, aggregates and water is mix properly.
TRANSPORTATION:
The process of carrying the concrete mix from the place of it’s mixing to final position of deposition is
termed as transportation of concrete. There are many methods of transportation as mentioned below
Transport of concrete by pans
Transport of concrete by wheel barrows
Transport of concrete by tipping Lorries
Transport of concrete by pumps
Transport of concrete by belt conveyors

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COMPACTORS:
When the concrete has been placed, it shows a very loose structure. Hence, it must be compacted to
remove the air bubbles and voids so as to make it dense and solid concrete to obtain a high strength.
There are two method- of compaction. Manual compaction Mechanical compaction.
Generally in large projects mechanical compactors are used . There are various mechanical compactors
which uses according to requirement as needle and screed vibrators needed to compact the column and
floor respectively.

BRICK MASONARY
PROCEDURE OF BRICK MASONRY:
In frame structure brick work starts after construction of foundation, column, beam, and slabs.
Following procedure is adopt to construct the brick masonry
1. Initially clean and wet the surface on which brick wall is be constructed.
2. Set a straight alignment by using threads in both side of a wall .
3. Prepare the cement mortar.
4. At this site cement sand ratio is 1:6 for all walls.
5. Mortar is laid on surface base and then bricks are laid over it .
6. Prepare a course and then again laid the mortar on existing course and provides bricks in such a
way that the vertical joint should not stand in a line.
7. To break the verticality of joints generally English or Flemish bond is adopted.
8. Use the plumb bob to check the verticality at regular interval.
9. Also use square to check the wall is constructing straight or not.
10. After each 1 meter height of wall provide a layer of reinforced cement concrete of 1.5 to 2
inches.
11. It will increase the strength of structure.

PLASTER
TOOLS FOR PLASTERING:
 Gauging
 Trowel
 Metal Float
 Floating Rule
 Plumb Bob
 Sprit Leve
 Brushes

METHOD OF PLASTERING:
According to the thickness of wall there are three method of plastering.
 One coat method
 Two coat method
 Three coat method
ONE COAT METHOD:
It is in the cheapest form of construction that plaster is applied in one coat. This method is quietly used
in rural areas for the construction of low category and cheap house.

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TWO COAT METHOD:
Following procedure is carried out for two coating plaster work:
Clean the surface and keep it well watered on which plaster work to be done. If it is found that the
surface to be plastered is very rough and uneven, a preliminary coat is applied to fill up the hollows
before the first coat of plaster is put up on the surface. Now the first coat is applied on the surface. The
usual thickness of first coat for brick masonry is 9mm to10mm. Second coat of plaster is applied after
about 6 hours and the thickness of second coat is usually about 2mm to 3mm.It is finished as per
requirement.
THREE COAT METHOD:
The procedure for plaster in three coats is the same as above except that the num of coats of plaster is
three.

Table 6.1 Different Coats of Plaster

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING
Construction of the building is done in at least two steps. Which are following:
 Sub Structure
 Super Structure.

SUB STRUCTURE:
Foundation is a part of the sub structure. Sub structure is constructed according to soil quality at that
site. If soil have good bearing capacity than we use shallow foundation in construction. And if the
bearing capacity of the soil is not good or suitable than we use deep foundation at that site. Sub
structure is a load bearing structure and it is designed for load bearing.
FOUNDATION:
A foundation is the element of any structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from
the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep. The low
artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the ground is called
foundation. Foundation is a load bearing structure which bearS all loadS coming on the building or any
structure. Foundation is generally of two types: A. Shallow Foundation. B. Deep Foundation. Generally
foundation in building construction is Shallow foundation (Raft Foundation)
SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that
the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then
constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, the entire footing is visible to the eye, and is
therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each footing takes the concentrated load of the
column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the actual weight on the soil does not exceed the
safe bearing capacity of the soil. It includes some types of shallow foundation such as:

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INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS:

Fig:7.1 Individual footing Fig:7.2 Plinth beam in footing

Individual footings are one of the most simple and common types of foundations. These are used when
the load of the building is carried by columns. Usually, each column will have its own footing. The
footing is just a square or rectangular pad of concrete on which the column sits. To get a very rough idea
of the size of the footing, the engineer will take the total load on the column and divide it by the safe
bearing capacity (SBC) of the soil. For example, if a column has a vertical load of 10T, and the SBC of the
soil is 10T/m2, then the area of the footing will be 1m2. In practice, the designer will look at many other
factors before preparing a construction design for the footing. Individual footings are usually connected
by a plinth beam, a horizontal beam that is built at ground or below ground level.
STRIP FOOTINGS:
Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as a long strip that
supports the weight of an entire wall. These are used where the building loads are carried by entire
walls rather than isolated columns, such as in older buildings made of masonry.
Combined Footing:
The following pictures show combined footing before concert cast and after cast: A combined footing is
usually used to support the columns of unequal loads. In such case, the resultant of the applied loads
would not coincide with the centroid of the footings and consequently the soil pressure would not be
uniform. Combined foundation is an efficient foundation solution is when there are two interior columns
which are so close to each other that the two isolating footings stress zones in the soil areas would
overlap.

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Fig:7.3 Combined Footing Fig:7.4

RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATION:

Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often used when basements are to be
constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation; the weight of the building is
spread evenly over the entire footprint of the building. It is called a raft because the building is like a
vessel that 'floats' in a sea of soil. Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore
building loads have to be spread over a large area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means
that if individual footings were used, they would touch each other.
DEEP FOUNDATION: A deep foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to
the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does, to a subsurface layer or a
range of depths.
PILE FOUNDATION:
A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed into the ground so
that structures can be supported on top of it. Pile foundations are used in the following situations:
1) When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support the weight of the building,
so the loads of the building have to bypass this layer and be transferred to the layer of stronger soil or
rock that is below the weak layer.
2) When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise structure. Pile foundations
are capable of taking higher loads than spread footings. There are two types of pile foundations, each of
which works in its own way
End Bearing Piles:
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil or rock. The load
of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In a sense, this pile acts like a
column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the surface which is the intersection of a weak
and strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak layer and is safely transferred to the strong
layer.
Friction Piles:
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to the soil across
the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of the pile, which is cylindrical in
shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil. To visualise how this works, imagine you are pushing a
solid metal rod of say 4mm diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is
strong enough to support some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more load

17
it can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile
can support is directly proportionate to its length.

Fig: 7.5 Pile foundation

Basement:

Multi storey car parks are essentially elementary building structures, albeit with certain specific
performance criteria that must be met. The overall structural form will be heavily influenced by the
design geometry adopted. Underground car parks will, to a large extent, be determined by the structure
above (for example a multi storey building or a public garden).

The structural frame can be either reinforced concrete (precast units or cast in-situ), steel or a
composite structure (steel beams and columns, supporting concrete floor slabs). Ribbed or coffered
slabs are often used. Lightweight-aggregate concrete can reduce overall loadings significantly, and has
better fire performance – but smaller span: depth ratios and additional shear reinforcement are needed.

Concrete must be designed to be durable against chemical corrosion attack. Non-slip finishes in
particular to ramps are also prudent, to prevent skidding. Heated structures are also possible, although
their effectiveness can be questionable.

Wind loads and vibration also need to be taken into account. Structural resistance to explosions (over
and above fire resistance) should also be considered. Underground car parks will need extensive
retaining wall design, incorporating tanking and land drainage.

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SUPER STRUCTURE:
Super-structure is a part of structure that is above plinth level (P.L). Generally, columns and walls are
constructed in super structure. Following are the important parts of super-structure.
1) Floor
2) Roof
3) Lintel
4) Parapet
5) Sun Shade
6) Doors & Windows

Excavation
Excavation is the first step of construction. It refers to the process of removing soil or rock from its
original location, typically in preparation for constructing foundations, basements, and underground
utility lines and for grading of the ground surface. Excavated material required for backfill or grading fill
is stockpiled on the site for subsequent use. Excavation work I have seen was including bulk excavation,
pit excavation and trench excavation. The main aim of the excavation work is to remove organic soils or
unwanted soil for the safety of the building from chemical attacking. Excavation shall be carried out to
the lines, levels, width, depth and grades and shown 25 on the drawings, directed by the Engineer or as
appropriate to the works to be placed in the excavation.
Pit excavation:
It is an excavation made for foundation footing pad with column by considering working space of 200 up
to 300mm to each side of the dimension.
Trench excavation:
It is an excavation made for constructing foundation walls stone masonry with leaving working area for
both sides of the wall of specified width on the plan.
 This depth is filled by the stone masonry which placed on 5cm thick lean
 concrete
 Stone masonry should be laid with specified mortar, well filled joint
 The stone should be hard, sound, free from crack and weathering
 It should be freshly quarried from an approved quarry
 It is not round surface

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 Fig:7.6 Pit and Trench Excavation and masonry work. Fig:7.7
Bulk excavation:
It is an excavation made for making the ground level or an excavation made for filling selected material.
Or we can say that bulk excavation means removing black cotton soil because as you know black cotton
soil is very expansive and it has a low bearing capacity therefore we must remove it from the site and
the area is back filled with selected materials.
Fill:
Fill work will follow the erection of foundation column. Bulk, pit and trench excavations need to be back
filled with a better soil type, which will have better 26 compaction character and would bring the
minimum required proctor density. In order to attain the minimum standard as mentioned on the Bill of
Quantity, they deploy appropriate machineries.
Cart Away:
This is the disposing off extra excavated material away from the construction site. Cart away is
calculated by deducting the back fill from the total volume of soil excavated.

Where,
T.S =total soil, B.F =back fill, T.E = soil obtained from trench excavation ,P.E = soil excavated from pit
excavation, B.E = Bulk Excavated soil, N.B:-since cart away is measured by meter cube, all the other soil
amounts are changed to meter cube.

Concrete Mixing Method Concrete:

Concrete is a composite consisting of the dispersed phase of aggregates (ranging from its maximum size
coarse aggregates down to the fine sand particles) embedded in the matrix of cement paste. This is a
Portland cement concrete with the four constituents of Portland cement, water, stone and sand. These
basic components remain in current concrete but other constituents are now often added to modify its

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fresh and hardened properties. This has broadened the scope in the design and construction of concrete
structures. It has also introduced factors that designers should recognize in order to realize the desired
performance in terms of structural adequacy, constructability, and required service life. These are
translated into strength, workability and durability in relation to properties of concrete. In addition,
there is the need to satisfy these provisions at the most cost effective price in practice. Since our
building is a reinforced concrete structure the concrete work was commenced every day for
constructing/development of every part of the building.

Hand Mixing :
Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works. As the mixing cannot be through &
efficient, it is desirable to add 10% more cement to compensate the inferior concrete produced by this
method.

Machine Mixing:
Machine mixing obviously gives better and uniform mixes than hand mixing and because of this reason,
it is generally recommended. There are different types of concrete mixers such as, Tilting drum mixer,
non-tilting drum type, pan mixer type, truck mixer, plant mixer etc.

Fig:7.8 Tilt Drum Mixer Used in Site

Batching:
Prior to the mixing of ingredients it is essential to measure the materials accurately to ensure the right
proportions. The concrete may be batched either by weight or by volume. The batching is done by using
batching box which is shown in the following figure:

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 Fig:7.9 Batching Box Used in Site.

Curing of Concrete:
Different method of procedures has been adopted for curing in the site. These are:
 Spraying of water
 Pounding of water
 Wet covering
 Sprinkling water on concrete

Fig:7.10 Curing by Wet Covering

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Structural Work:

Fig:7.11 structural grade beam construction

It has a direct contact with the foundation columns and is constructed above the masonry wall. The
reinforcement and provision of detailing is similar to other types of beams. It is used to carry and
transfer super structural loads to the foundations.

Fig: 7.12 Rebar at Plinth Level at Ground Floor for Parking

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Reinforcement Steel Bar
In the following figure we can see steel bars of beam:

Fig: 7.13 Reinforcement steel bar for beam

Reinforcement steel bars play great role in making reinforced concrete structure more strong and
durable. All reinforcement is free from loose mill scale, loose rust, oil and grease, or other harmful
matter, which might prevent the proper adhesion to concrete. As necessary reinforcements cleaned by
wire brushing. The reinforcement must always be cleaned before placed in position or before concrete
poured.
Slab :
Slab is a plane horizontal structural element used to support live loads and equipment loads and
transfer these loads to the supporting beams or walls. Slabs can be one way or two way depending on
the ratio of the long span to the short span if the ratio of the long span to the short span is greater than
two, the slab is said to be one way; but if this ratio is less than two, the slab is said to be two way. When
a slab is one way, the bending is one directional and when it is two way, the bending is two directional.
Slabs can be categorized into three; solid, flat, or ribbed. Solid slab is made of reinforced concrete. In
case of our site we are able to see construction of solid slab.
Superstructure Beam;
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight, span
and external reaction to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams generally carry vertical
gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads i.e. loads due to an earth quake or
wind .The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns walls which then transfer the force to
adjacent structural compression members.
Column:
Column is a vertical structural member transmitting axial compression load with or without moments.
The cross sectional dimension of a column are generally considerably less than its height. Column
supports mainly vertical loads from the floors and roof and transmits this load to the foundation.

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Finishing:
Plastering:
Plastering work is the end work to bring construction decoration with plaster, such as a layer of plaster
on an interior wall or exterior walls. The process of creating plaster work called plastering. It has been
used in projects to fill rough and uneven surface. Cement mortar is a mixture of water, cement and sand
which is used for plastering purpose on the site.
Ceiling and Wall Finishing:
Gypsum chuck:
It can be considered as both internal walls finishing and ceiling finishing process. Gypsum chucking is
performed over well plastered wall or roof after all the moisture get dried. It is applied only for internal
walls since it is easily failed by dampness. Gypsum chucking means painting a thick gypsum paste,
gypsum with water, to create a smooth and good looking surface. It also helps to decrease paint
consumption of the wall by filling all the voids and creating a smooth surface.
Application procedure:
Mixing: -
To mix add the water into clean container then add the powder gypsum onto the water and mix slowly
until mix is homogeneous to avoid foaming. Paint the paste repeatedly through by squeezing over the
wall or roof to have a final smooth surface. The following picture shows gypsum work of ceiling and wall
finishing:

Fig: 7.14 Ceiling and Wall Finishing

Floor Finishing:
Floor finish is one of the last steps of a construction. Among the floor finishing factor that will influence
the selection of floor finishing are as follows:
 Function of the floor
 Price
 Maintenance
 Comfortable

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 REFERENCES
 Google.com
 Wikipedia
 Building By-laws
 Books on Building Construction

QUESTION#2

various code of ethics

BUILDING BY LAWS:
For the construction of any building, certain restrictions are laid down by Municipal bodies, Urban
development authorities ,and other government departments as town planning trusts to clear open
spaces to be left around the buildings.
OBJECTIVE OF BUILDING BYLAWS:
 Allows disciplined and systematic growth of buildings and towns and prevent haphazard
development.
 Protect safety of public against fire, noise , health hazards and structural failures.
 Provides proper utilization of space. Hence maximum efficiency in planning can be derived from
these bylaws.
 They give guidelines to the architect or an engineer in effective planning and useful in
preplanning the building activates.
 They provides health, safety and comfort to the peoples living in the building.
 Due to these bylaws, each building will have proper approaches, light air, ventilation which are
essential for health , safety and comfort.
PLINTH AREA REGULATIONS:
The minimum area of buildings of different classes shall be governed by the following:
1. In an industrial plot, the plinth area should not exceed 60% of the site area

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 2. In a market area, the plinth area should not exceed 75% of the area of site, provided sufficient
off-street parking facilities for loading and unloading of vehicles are provided on the same plot
as the building

Table: 1 Maximum permissible covered area

HEIGHT REGULATIONS:
 Habitable rooms:
The minimum height from the surface of the floor to the ceiling or bottom of slab should be not les than
2.75m. For air-conditioned rooms, a height of not less than 2.4 m measured from the top of the floor to
the lowest point of the air conditioning duct or the false ceiling should be provided.
 Bathrooms, water closets and stores:
The height of all such rooms measured from the floor in the ceiling should not be less than 2.4m. In the
case of a passage under the landing, the minimum headway may be kept as 2.2m.
 Kitchen:
The height of the kitchen measured from the floor to the lowest point in the ceiling should not be less
than 2.75m except for the portion to accommodate floor trap of the floor
SIZE REGULATIONS:
 Habitable rooms:
The area of habitable rooms should not be less than 9.5 sq. m where there is only one room. Where
there are two rooms, one of these should not be less than 9.5 sq. m and other be not less than 7.5 sq. m
with a minimum width of 2.4m.
 Kitchen:
Minimum floor area required is not less than 5.5 sq. m. It should not be less than 1.8min width at any
part. With a separate storeroom, the area may be reduced to4.5 sq. m. A kitchen cum dining room
should have a floor area not less than 9.5 sq. m with a minimum width of 2.4m. Each kitchen should be
provided with a flue.
 Bathrooms and water closets:
The size of bathroom should not be less than 1.5m x 1.2m or 1.8 sq. m. If it is combined with water
closet, its floor area should not be less than 2.8 sq. m. the minimum floor area of a water closet should
be 1.1 sq. m.
LIGHTING AND VENTILATION REGULATIONS:
1. Rooms:

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 a. Every habitable room which should have for the admission of air and light, one or more
apertures such as windows and fanlights, opening directly to the external air or into an
open verandah and of an aggregate area, inclusive of frames, of not les than i. One-
tenth of the floor area excluding doors for dry hot climate. ii. One-sixth of the floor area
excluding doors for wet/hot climate. No portion of a room should be assumed as lighted
if is more than 7.5m away from the door or window which is taken for calculation as
ventilating that portion. Cross-ventilation by means of windows and ventilators or both
shall be effected in at least living room of tenement either by means of windows in
opposite walls or if this is not possible or advisable, then atleast in the adjoining walls.
b. Bathrooms and water closets: The rooms should be provided with natural light and
permanent ventilation by one of the following means:
 Windows having an area of not less than 10% of the floor area and located in an exterior wall
facing a street alley, yard or an air shaft whose dimensions in the direction perpendicular to the
window is not less than one-third the height of the building on which the window is located,
subject to a minimum limit of 1m and maximum 6m.
 Skylights, the construction of which shall provide light and ventilation required in (i) above.

Ventilation ducts:
 Provided such ducts have 130 square cm of area for each square meter of area with a minimum
total area of 300 square cm and least dimension of 9cm.
c) Stores, backrooms:
These will have at least half the ventilation required for living room.
d) Basement and floors: Basements and rooms located therein except room shall be lighten and
ventilated by windows in exterior walls having a ventilating area of not less than 2.5% of the
floor area.
e) Kitchen shall be ventilated according to standards prescribed for habitable rooms near the
ceiling as far as possible.
f) Stairways: every staircase should be lighted and ventilated from an open air space of not less
than 3m depth measured horizontally in case of ground and one upper floor structure, 4.5 m in
case of ground and two upper and in higher structure than this, the open air space shall not be
less than 6m, provided that the lighting area shall not be less than 1 sq.m per floor height. Every
staircase shall be ventilated properly.

OPEN SPACE AROUND RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:

Front open space:
 every building should have a front yard of minimum width of 3m and in case of two or
more sides a width of an average of 3 m but in no case it shall be less than 1.8 m. Such a
yard shall form an inseparable part of the site.
 Rear open space:
 Every residential building shall have a yard of an average width of 4.5 m and at no place
the yard measuring less than 3 m as an inseparable part of the building, except in the
case of back to back sites where the width of the yard could be reduced to 3m provided
no erection, re-erection or material alteration of the building shall be undertaken, if at
common plot line straight lines drawn downwards and outwards from the line of
intersection. of the outer surface of any rear wall of the building with the roof
perpendicular to that line form an angle of more than 63.5 degree to the horizontal.

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Side open space:
 Every residential building may have a permanently open air space not less than 1m in
width on one of its sides other than its front and rear and such side open space shall
form an inseparable part of the site. In case, side open air space is to be used for
ventilation, it shall be in accordance with the requirements mentioned in the previous
paragraph. In case, the side open space abuts a road, the width shall not be less than
3m.

FIRE PROTECTION REGULATIONS:

High-rise buildings have unique challenges related to fire protection such as longer egress times
and distance, evacuation strategies, fire department accessibility, smoke movement and fire
control. The numbers of persons living on high-rise buildings are high compared to lowrise
buildings, and only evacuation method in case of fire is the staircase. So, the fire protections of
high rise buildings have gained significant attention worldwide. Thus, in case of high rise
buildings, the following provision should be made for safety of buildings from fire:
(i) National building code should be followed for fire-safety requirement of
high rise structures and at least one lift should be designed as fire-lift as
defined in the Code and be installed.
(ii) At least one stair-case shall be provided as a fire staircase as defined in
the National Building Code. Provided that this shall not be applicable if
any two sides of a staircase are kept totally open to external open air
space.
(iii) Water Supply:
Underground tank of the capacity of one lakh liters and two lakh liters for
the buildings situated within the municipal limit and outside of the
municipal limit respectively be invariably provided in all the high rise
buildings. Water in the normal use tank should come only through the
overflow of fire tank so provided.
(iv) In high rise buildings, the internal fire hydrants shall be installed as
provided in the National Building Code or as prescribed in the Indian
Standard Code of practice for installation of internal fire hydrants in high
rise buildings.
(v) In case of high rise buildings, an external fire hydrant shall be provided
within the confines of the site of the building and shall be connected with
Municipal Water mains not less than 4″ in diameter. In addition, fire
hydrant shall be connected with Booster Pump from the static supply
maintained on site.
(vi) In case of high rise buildings separate electric circuits for lift installation,
lighting of passages, corridors and stairs and for internal fire hydrant
system shall be provided.
(vii) All the requirements under the above regulations shall be clearly
indicated on plans duly signed by the owner and the person who has
prepared the plans. The Competent Authority may direct the owner to
submit such further drawings as may be necessary to clarify the
implementation of the provisions of the above regulations.

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(viii) Every building having a height of more than 25 Mts. shall be provided
with diesel generators which can be utilized in case of failure of the
electricity.
(ix) The standard of National Building Code must be adopted fully in
providing stair-case and alarm system.
(x) There should be Provision of dry-powder fire extinguisher to the extent of
two on each floor with a capacity of 5 kgs, in all the high rise buildings.

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