Contents

Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction:..............................................................................................................................................3
Background theory:...................................................................................................................................3
Types of bars depending upon loads:...................................................................................................3
Bar material:..............................................................................................................................................5
Significance:...............................................................................................................................................5
Design of bars:...........................................................................................................................................5
Theoretical and analytical:.......................................................................................................................6
Shear stress:...........................................................................................................................................6
Tensile stress:.........................................................................................................................................7
Compressive stress:...............................................................................................................................7
Principal stress:.....................................................................................................................................8
In-plane shear stress:.............................................................................................................................8
Observations and calculations:.................................................................................................................9
Conclusion:..............................................................................................................................................10
References:...............................................................................................................................................10

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 Abstract
Axially loaded members are the structural components subjected only to tension or compression
e.g. coil springs, solid bars with straight longitudinal axis, cables etc. Coil springs act primarily
in shear or torsion but overall stretching or shortening is analogous to a bar in tension or
compression. In uniformly axial loaded bar, load “P” acts to the lateral axis of the bar in uniform
manner.
As we have selected the project for the subject “Mechanics of Materials” so our main concern is
to find “Principal and maximum in-plane shear stresses in a uniformly axial loaded bar”. When
an external force (pressure) is applied on bar then internal loadings (stresses) are created inside
the bar. A bar has to resist different stresses which are shear, tensile and compressive stresses.
We have to find maximum normal stress (Principal stress) and maximum in-plane shear stress. .
This project has been very helpful for understanding Mechanics of Materials by applying its
knowledge for real time objects.

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Introduction:
The Rods/Bars are any member which are subjected to axial (Tensile/Compressive but no
Transverse/Torsional loads) Loads only. But rods are definitely circular cross section
whereas Bars are of can be non-circular cross section. Various types of stresses act on a bar
which the bar has to resist:
 Normal stresses (tensile/compressive) which act perpendicular to the cross-sectional
area.
 Shear stresses which act parallel to the cross-sectional area.
 Thermal stresses which are due to rise in temperature when load “P” is applied to the bar.
All of these stresses act on the bar in parallel fashion but here we are interested to find maximum
normal stress (Principal stress) and maximum shear stress.

Background theory:
The purpose of bar is to bear axial load perpendicular to its transverse axis. The difference
between bar and beam is based upon loadings and not on shape. A beam has a long structural
member in a (mostly) horizontal position supported on one (fixed) or more supports and a load is
placed on it at one or more points. It could be any cross section including round, square or
anything.  However a specific cross section that has more material at the top and bottom gives a
better strength to weight ratio. Hence most common beam is an I-beam. Whereas a bar is a
structural member that is normally loaded in tension. It could be a Steel bar inside a concrete
beam or it could also have any cross section but it is normally circular cross section. 
Types of bars depending upon loads:
Depending upon stresses, bars are divided into three main groups:
1. Bars with intermediate axial loads:
 The change in length of the bar δ can be determined by adding algebraically the
elongations and shortenings of the individual segments.
 Identify segments of the bar (i)
 Draw free-body diagrams and determine internal axial forces Ni.

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2. Bars consisting of prismatic segments:
 The same approach used for intermediate axial loads can be used here. Each segment of
the bar has its own forces, dimensions and material properties.
 Identify segments of the bar (i)
 Draw free-body diagrams and determine internal axial forces Ni.

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3. Bars with continuously varying loads and/or dimensions:
 The bar has a cross-sectional area A(x) that varies gradually along its length.
 The bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its ends and a variable external load P(x)
distributed along its length (e.g. weight of a vertical bar or friction forces on the surface
of the bar).

Bar material:
A tough, hard material must be used to withstand the various stresses, resist spline wear and
provide good resistance to fatigue. A medium carbon alloy steel containing such elements as
nickel, chromium and molybdenum is the usual choice.

Significance:
 The project is selected for the purpose because stresses and axial loaded bars are purely
related to Mechanics of Materials. By using application of Mechanics of Materials we
can find out the forces required and their effect (internal loadings) on the whole system.
 To apply the laws of Mechanics of Materials to experience its application for real world.
 To find all the best possible stresses produces in a uniformly axial loaded bars due to
external loadings.
 To learn it’s theoretical as well as manufacturing steps.

Design of bars:
While the bar has to resist different types of stresses it must have certain stiffness, flexibility and
factor of safety to avoid any type of damage.
Stiffness and flexibility: If the material of the spring is linearly elastic the load “P” and
elongation δ are proportional or P=k δ
k = P / δ is the stiffness (or “spring constant”) with units N/m
f = δ / P is the flexibility (or “compliance”) with units m/N
For prismatic bar:
σ=Eε

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(P/Ao)=E (δ/Lo)

δ = PLo/EAo
k=P/ δ =EAo/Lo & f= δ /P = Lo/EAo
k and f play an important role in computational analysis of large structures, where they are
assembled into stiffness and flexibility matrices for the entire structure.
Factor of safety:
The actual strength of a structure must exceed its required strength.
Factor of safety n = Actual strength/ required strenght
Usually n is chosen to be between 1 and 10.

Theoretical and analytical:

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Tensile stress: Tensile stress is a quantity associated with stretching or tensile forces. Usually,
tensile stress is defined as the force per unit area and denoted by the symbol σ. The tensile stress
(σ) that develops when an external stretching force (F) is applied on an object is given by σ =
F/A where “A” is the cross sectional area of the object. Therefore, the SI unit of measuring
tensile stress is Nm-2 or Pa. Higher the load or tensile force, higher the tensile stress.

Compressive stress: Compressive stress is the opposite of tensile stress. An object experiences a
compressive stress when a squeezing force is applied on the object. So, an object subjected to a
compressive stress is shortened. Compressive stress is also defined as the force per unit area and
denoted by the symbol σ. The compressive stress (σ) that develops when an external compressive
or squeezing force (F) is applied on an object is given by σ = -F/A. Higher the compressive
force, higher the compressive stress.

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Principal stress:
Principal stresses are the maximum normal stresses at an angle at which shear stress is zero
(negligible).

Formula:

Angle:

In-plane shear stress:

Formula:

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Angle:

Observations and calculations:

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Conclusion:
It is concluded that in everyday life, in every simple bars to complex bars, mechanics of
materials is involved. Due to external loads, internal reactions (stresses) are produced. Principal
stresses are due to maximum normal (tension and compressive) stresses and in-plane stresses are
due to maximum shear stresses.

References:
 Mechanics of materials by RC Hibbeler 9th edition.

 Mechanics of materials by Beer and Johnson 5th edition.

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