EXPERIMENT

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

5.1 Introduction
It is well known that if the effects of air resistance are ignored, any object dropped in the vicinity
of Earth’s surface will move with constant acceleration g. The direction of g is down, towards
Earth’s center and it’s magnitude is approximately . The motion of freely falling objects
is one dimensional motion with constant acceleration. In general, an object moving with an
initial velocity and a constant acceleration a, obeys the following kinematic equation:

(5.1)

where ∆s is the displacement of the object in time t. For an object initially at rest falling in a
gravitational field, equation (5.1) reduces to:

(5.2)

where h is the vertical displacement or height. Our experiment is based on equation (5.2).
Namely, if we have means of measuring height and time of the free fall for any object, then the
acceleration due to gravity can be easily determined using equation (5.2).
KEY CONCEPTS
Gravity, acceleration due to gravity
APPROXIMATE PERFORMANCE TIME 4 Hours
5.2 Learning Outcomes
In this experiment, we will learn how gravity works and how can we determine the gravitational
acceleration in the lab.
5.3 Experimental Objectives
The purpose of this activity is to determine the acceleration due to the Earth’s gravity by
measuring the time of fall of a picket fence dropped through a photogate. Can an object have an
increasing velocity and a constant acceleration? Can the velocity of an object be zero at the same
instant its acceleration is non zero?
5.4 Theoretical Introduction

5.4.1 Acceleration
Acceleration, in physics, is the rate of change of velocity of an object. An object's acceleration is
the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's Second Law.
The SI unit for acceleration is the meter per second squared (m/s2). Accelerations are vector
quantities which means that they have magnitude as well as direction and add according to the
parallelogram law. As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's
mass (a scalar quantity) and the acceleration.
For example, when a car starts from a standstill (zero relative velocity) and travels in a straight
line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the car turns there is an
acceleration toward the new direction. For this example, we can call the accelerating of the car
forward a "linear acceleration", which passengers in the car might experience as force pushing
them back into their seats. When changing directions, we might call this "non-linear
acceleration", which passengers might experience as a sideways force. If the speed of the car
decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the direction of the vehicle,
sometimes called deceleration. Passengers may experience deceleration as a force lifting them
away from their seats. Mathematically, there is no separate formula for deceleration, as both are
changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (linear, non-linear, deceleration) might be felt by
passengers until their velocity (speed and direction) match that of the car.
5.4.2 Acceleration due to Gravity
The acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration of a body due to the influence of the pull of
gravity alone, usually denoted by ‘g’. This value varies from one celestial body to another. For
example, the acceleration due to gravity would be different on the Moon as compared to the one
here on Earth. Similarly, you would have different values for both Jupiter and Pluto.
Since acceleration is a vector quantity, it must possess both a magnitude and a direction. The
values we were referring to earlier pertained to the magnitude. As for the direction, in all
instances, it should be directed to the center of the celestial body. Now, since these celestial
bodies are rather large relative to the size of the observer, in this case being you and I, the
direction is taken as downward.
Direction of g
Why downward? Well, as stated earlier, g is the acceleration of a body if we consider only the
pulling force of the gravitational field. Now, since the acceleration of a body always takes the
direction of the net force acting on that body, and since the only force we are considering is that
of gravity, then this acceleration should take the direction of gravity, i.e., downward.
Magnitude of g
The average value of g on the surface of the Earth is around . The value of g becomes
larger as the object gets nearer to the Earth’s core. So, you’d have a slightly larger g at sea level
compared to what you’d have at the peak of say, the Himalayas.
Furthermore, since the Earth is not a perfect sphere but, rather, an oblate spheroid, i.e., bulging at
the equator and flat at the poles, then you would have greater g’s at the poles than at the equator.
The accepted value for the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface is . With
the Smart Timer, the acceleration due to Earth’s gravity can be quickly determined
experimentally. The acceleration may be calculated from measurements of distance and time, or
it can be measured directly.
To calculate the acceleration from time measurements, the following formula must be used:

where

Note that is not , but is ⁄ .

Explanation of why ⁄ is used in the formula for calculating g

⁄ ⁄ ( )

⁄ ⁄ ⁄

5.5 Apparatus and Experimental Preparation

Given below is a short description of the equipment used.
 Smart Timer
 Picket Fence
 Photogate
5.5.1 Introduction
The PASCO ME-8930 Smart Timer is an accurate, versatile digital timer and measurement
system for the student laboratory. The Smart Timer offers 0.1 ms timing resolution and an easy-
to-use memory function. The Smart Timer measures several types of events detected with
PASCO’s digital sensors, including speed and acceleration using standard photogates. The
PASCO ME-9387 Smart Pulley, the ME-9207B Free Fall Adapter, the ME-6810 Time-of-Flight
Accessory, or the ME-9259A Laser Switch also works with the Smart Timer. The Smart Timer
counts radiation emission events detected with the SN-7927 G-M Tube/Power Supply or the SE-
7997 G-M Tube. The Smart Timer features two input channels and a 2-line, 16-character
alphanumeric liquid crystal display that indicates the operating mode and experimental results.
5.5.2 Features
The Smart Timer’s memory function makes it easy to time events that happen in rapid
succession, such as a Dynamics Cart passing twice through the photogate, once before and then
again after a collision. The 0.1ms resolution is especially useful in some experiments, such as
measuring velocity or acceleration during free fall. The Smart Timer can calculate velocity
before and after a collision between two carts using a single timer. With the new fence design
and sensing logic, parallax errors are eliminated and timing accuracy is improved considerably
over existing timing options. The Smart Timer’s internal microcontroller also eliminates the
problem of incorrect readings due to multiple passes through the same photogate by
“understanding” the type of measurement selected and ignoring multiple passes.
The Smart Timer has many different options for timing and calculating values based on inputs
from a variety of sensors. The graphics on the keypad aid in the selection of the appropriate
timing mode. Options include One or Two Gates, Fence, and Pendulum modes. These modes
allow you to measure the speed of an object as it passes through the photogate or between two
photogates, or to measure the period of a pendulum. The stopwatch mode lets you use the timer
as an electronic stopwatch.
The Smart Timer can measure speed and acceleration for both linear and rotational motion
experiments. Alternatively, the time can be measured directly, and the speed and acceleration can
then be calculated by the student. The speed and acceleration measurement features can be
enabled or disabled using a switch inside the Smart Timer.
5.5.3 Use with Photogates
The Smart Timer is optimized for use with PASCO’s ME-9204B Accessory Photogate (available
separately). These narrow-beam infrared photogates plug directly into the Smart Timer and are
used to provide the timing signals. An LED in one arm of the photogate emits a narrow infrared
beam. As long as the beam strikes the detector in the opposite arm of the photogate, the signal to
the timer indicates that the beam is unblocked. When an object blocks the beam so it doesn’t
strike the detector, the signal to the timer changes.
In One Gate Mode, a single photogate lets you measure the time, velocity, or acceleration of a
fence as it passes through the photogate. Two photogates are used for collision experiments
using one or two carts or for experiments where the velocity of a cart must be measured at two
different points. In Two Gate Mode, two photogates are used and the time to travel between the
two can be measured. This mode can also be used to measure time of flight using the ME-6810
Time-of-Flight Accessory.
5.5.4 Use with the Smart Pulley
For rotary motion studies, the ME-9387 Smart Pulley (available separately) is ideal. It combines
a photogate with a pulley, and when used with the Smart Timer, allows direct measurement of
angular speed and acceleration. When used with a string connected to a glide or Dynamics Cart,
the Smart Timer and Smart Pulley can be used to determine linear acceleration (cm/s2) as well.
 Note: The use of pulleys with different diameters and/or different number of spokes than
the Smart Pulley or the ME-9450 Super Pulley will give incorrect results in the speed and
acceleration calculations.
5.5.5 Power Options
The Photogate Timer can be powered using the included 9VDC adapter. It will also run on 4-AA
size, 1.5 volt alkaline batteries which will provide over 100 hours of operation in typical use.
5.5.6 Operating the Smart Timer
1. Plug the ¼-inch phone plug from the photogate into the Smart Timer’s input channel 1 or
2. For all experiments using a single photogate or pulley, either of the two available jacks
may be used interchangeably. For all other modes see the individual descriptions below.
2. Plug the 9 VDC power adapter into the small receptacle on the side of the timer and into
a standard 110 VAC, 60Hz wall outlet.
3. Position the photogate head so the object to be timed will pass through the arms of the
photogate, blocking the photogate beam. Loosen the clamp screw if you want to change
the angle or height of the photogate, and then tighten it securely.
4. Slide the power switch to the ON position. The Smart Timer will “beep” and show
PASCO scientific on the display. From this point, the three-step setup of the Smart
Timer is easy:
a. Press the Select Measurement key until the desired measurement type is
displayed on the top line of the display. Note that the menu rolls over to the
beginning after the last type is selected.
b. Press the Select Mode key until the measurement mode is displayed after the
measurement type. You cannot begin a measurement until both the type and mode
have been selected.
c. Once a complete measurement has been selected, press Start/Stop to begin. You
will hear a “beep”, and a asterisk (*) will appear on the second line of the display.
In most modes, the (*) indicates that the Smart Timer is now waiting for an event
to occur, like a fence passing through a photogate.
5. If an event occurs, the Smart Timer beeps again, displays a result, and the (*) disappears.
Pressing Start/Stop before an event occurs will remove the (*) and allow you to change
the measurement type.
5.5.7 Smart Timer Modes of Operation
The Smart Timer has 18 modes of operation organized into five groups: Time, Speed,
Acceleration, Counts, and Test. The following are detailed descriptions of the Smart Timer’s
modes of operation.
Time Modes
One Gate: In One Gate mode, timing begins when the beam is first blocked and continues until
the beam is blocked again. This mode can be used to measure the speed of an object as it passes
through the photogate. If an object of length L blocks the photogate for a time t, the average
velocity of the object as it passed through the photogate was L/t.
Fence: In Fence mode, the timer measures the time between successive interruptions of the
photogate. Timing begins when the beam is first blocked and continues until the beam is
unblocked and then blocked again. The Smart Timer can remember ten such interruptions and
will allow the user to scroll through the times using either the Select Measurement or the Select
Mode keys. Pressing the Start/Stop once will allow another measurement type to be selected.
Pressing it twice begins a new Fence Mode measurement. Note that once a measurement has
begun with an initial block of the photogate, the Smart Timer will continue to time until ten
interruptions are counted before stopping the measurement and displaying the result. Pressing
Start/Stop will stop the measurement, and any recorded times will be displayed.
Two Gates: In this mode, the Smart Timer measures the time between blocking two photogates.
This mode is useful for not only air tracks and Dynamics Tracks but also with the ME-6810
Time-of-Flight Accessory. In this mode, you must plug the photogate you expect to encounter
first into input channel 1, and the second photogate into input channel 2.
Pendulum: In Pendulum mode, the timer measures the period of one complete oscillation.
Timing begins as the pendulum first cuts through the beam. The timer ignores the next
interruption, which corresponds to the pendulum swinging back in the opposite direction. Timing
stops at the beginning of the third interruption, as the pendulum completes one full oscillation.
Press the Start/Stop key again to begin a new timing cycle.
Stopwatch: The Manual mode is actually a dual-use function. It provides a means of manually
timing events (like using a stopwatch) by pressing the Start/Stop key. It also allows timing of
events using the ME-9207B Free-Fall Adapter and the ME-9259A Laser Switch, which function
via a block/unblock sequence.
Using the Stopwatch: Enter Stopwatch mode and press the Start/Stop key. The Smart
Timer will beep and a “*” will appear on the second line of the LCD. Press the Start/Stop
key again to start the timer. Press the Start/Stop key to stop timing and display the
elapsed time. Press the Start/Stop key again. The old result is cleared and the “*”
reappears. This RESET-START-STOP sequence is repeated for each new elapsed time.
Whenever the “*” is not showing, the mode may be changed.
 Using the Alternate Timing Function: Connect an appropriate accessory to input
channel #1 or #2. Enter Stopwatch mode and press the Start/Stop key. The Smart Timer
will beep and a “*” will appear on the second line of the LCD. At this time the accessory
will be powered. By blocking and unblocking the beam in the case of the Laser Switch,
or by dropping the steel ball in the case of the Free Fall Adapter, the elapsed time will be
measured. The Smart Timer will resolve 100 microseconds in the alternate timing mode.
 Notes about the Stopwatch Mode:
1. Although it is possible to use older style fences in the alternate timing function
to obtain photogate beam block times, the Smart Timer will provide much
higher accuracy when used with the included fences and the standard timing
modes.
2. Two photogates cannot be plugged into the Smart Timer when you are using a
photogate to start and stop the timer. A single photogate can be plugged into
channel #1 or #2 to start and stop the timer. But if two photogates are plugged
in, when one gate is blocked, the other gate immediately is counted as an
unblock, and the timer will display 0.0001 seconds, regardless of the length of
time the first photogate is blocked.
3. You cannot start the timing with the Start/Stop key and end it with a photogate
block or vice versa.
4. If a photogate is plugged in and blocked when you try to use the Start/Stop key
as a stopwatch, the Smart Timer will be timing the photogate and waiting for the
photogate to become unblocked. So when you push the Start/Stop key, the
asterisk disappears and when you push the Start/Stop key again, the asterisk
reappears. No time is displayed until the photogate is unblocked.
Speed Modes
One Gate: In this mode a 1 cm flag passes through the photogate. The Smart Timer measures
the time and calculates the average speed in cm/s.
Collision: In this mode either one or two carts and one or two photogates can be used for a
collision experiment. Once Start/Stop is pressed, the Smart Timer waits for the first collision
and begins timing. The Smart Timer stops timing when two carts have passed through their
respective photogates twice. Timing can always be stopped manually by pressing Start/Stop and
the Smart Timer will display speed(s) based on the information it has (you will need to press
Start/Stop for single cart collisions). The display will present the results in the following format:
1: xx.x,yy.y
2: xx.x,yy.y
The first number represents the input jack and the following two numbers indicate the initial
speed (xx.x) and final speed (yy.y), respectively.
Pulley (rad/s): The Smart Timer will measure the speed of a pulley passing through a photogate
in units of radians/second. One measurement will be taken each time the Start/Stop switch is
pressed. The Smart Timer cannot differentiate between clockwise and counterclockwise
directions. Note that, as in many other modes, if a “*” shows in the first character position of the
second line, the Smart Timer is actively waiting for an external timing event to occur. If the “*”
is not showing, the Timer measurement mode may be changed. This mode has a minimum speed
requirement. The photogate must be blocked twice within two seconds to obtain a valid reading,
translating to a minimum speed of 0.31 rad/s.
Pulley (rev/s): Besides displaying in different units, this mode uses the display differently than
in the radians/second measurement. The display provides a real-time measurement of the speed
of the pulley by updating once per second. Once a speed is displayed, press the Start/Stop key to
freeze the display. The Smart Timer indicates that the measurement is frozen by displaying a “!”
in the first column. Press Start/Stop to erase the “!” and start collecting new measurements. Any
time the first column is blank or has a “!” displayed, the type of measurement being done can be
changed by pressing the Select Measurement or Select Mode keys. To move to a different
measurement, press Start/Stop again. Like the radians/second measurement, there is a two-
second maximum time for two photogate blocks, translating to a minimum speed of 0.05 rev/s.
Also note that accuracy decreases rapidly as pulley speeds increase above 600 rpm. At 600 rpm,
accuracy is 1%.
Acceleration Modes
One Gate: The Smart Timer uses the time measurement between two equally spaced (5 cm)
block/unblock/block sequences to calculate average acceleration. In activities using the Smart
Timer Picket Fence, the Picket Fence must be positioned so that the photogate blocks only the 3-
bar segment (5cm fence) of the Picket Fence. Note that the Smart Timer is able to discern
between acceleration (positive number) and deceleration (negative number).
Linear Pulley: In this mode, the Smart Timer converts rotary motion of a PASCO pulley to an
equivalent linear acceleration in cm/s2.
Angular Pulley: In this mode, the Smart Timer converts rotary motion of a PASCO pulley to an
equivalent angular acceleration in rad/s2.
Two Gates: When two photogates are placed an arbitrary distance apart, the average
acceleration between the two can be calculated. In this mode, the inputs used are not arbitrary.
The first photogate to be encountered must be connected to input #1 and the second to input #2.
Count Modes
30 Seconds: The timed 30-second count mode will count high-to-low voltage transitions on
either input and display them on the second line of the liquid crystal display. After the counting
period is over, the Smart Timer will beep once, remove the power to the external device, and
freeze the display. Pressing Start/Stop erases the old count and begins a new timing interval. If
you wish to stop the count during a timing interval, press Start/Stop. The display will freeze the
current count and the “*” will disappear from the first column. At this time you may select a new
measurement or start a new timing interval. The maximum counting rate for any of the counting
modes is 5,000 counts per second and the maximum count is 9,999,999.
60 Seconds: Other than timing the count interval for 60 seconds, the 60-second count mode is
the same as the 30-second mode.
5 Minutes: Other than timing the count interval for 5 minutes, the 5-minute count mode is the
same as the 30-second mode.
Manual: Manual mode will count high-to-low voltage transitions on either input and display
them on the second line of the liquid crystal display. There is no time limit for counting, however
the upper limit on the number of total counts is still 9,999,999. Each count will be accompanied
by a short beep. Used with a PASCO SN-7927 G-M Tube/Power Supply, this mode is useful for
group demonstrations to show the random nature of atomic disintegration and the inverse-square
relationship between number of disintegration’s detected and distance from the radioactive
source.
Test Mode
Gates: In the Test: Gates measurement, the external measuring accessory is powered as long as
the top line of the display reads Test: Gates. This mode is useful for experiment setup or for
testing accessory photogates, G-M tubes, or other Smart Timer accessories. Pressing the Select
Measurement key will exit the test mode and remove power to the external device. The display
graphics depict a blocked photogate as a vertical line and an unblocked photogate as an arrow.
Timing Diagrams
The timing diagrams shows the interval, t that is measured in each timing mode. In each
diagram, an elevated line corresponds to the photogate being blocked, and a depressed line
corresponds to the photogate being unblocked. The calculation modes assume the use of a fence
of fixed width (1 cm or 5 cm) or a pulley having a diameter (groove to groove) of 4.8 cm and 10
spokes, such as the Super Pulley or Smart Pulley.
LOCK Switch
The internal LOCK switch provides a way to temporarily lock out speed and acceleration modes.
To access the LOCK switch, turn the power off, and remove the bottom half of the Smart Timer
case as if you were going to replace the batteries. Look along the lower edge of the printed
circuit board, and note the LOCK switch button at the edge. The circuit board also has the words
“LOCK” and “UNLOCK” printed along the same edge. Moving the switch to the LOCK
position will cause the display to read MODE UNAVAILABLE whenever speed or acceleration
modes are selected.
TIME
Use time  Use the time
 Time
measurements to measurement
students
Use the time determine the to calculate the
Measure the running.
measurement to acceleration of a launch speed
period of a  Operate Free
calculate the cart of the of the ball.
pendulum. Fall Adapter
speed of a cart. acceleration due  Operate the
to gravity of a and Laser
Time-of-Flight
Picket fence. Switch.
Accessory.

SPEED
Continuously
Measure the initial and final monitor angular
Measure the Measure one
speeds of two carts during a speed in
speed of the speed on a Smart
collision for conservation of conservation of
cart. Pulley.
momentum. angular momentum
experiments.

ACCEL
 Measure acceleration
of a cart at one point Measure the Measure the
Measure the average
on the track. acceleration of a acceleration of a
acceleration of a cart
hanging mass in hanging mass in
 Measure acceleration over the whole
rotational inertia rotational inertia
due to gravity (g) of a length of the track.
experiment. experiment.
Picket Fence.

COUNT
 Count blocking events for the specified period of time.
 Measure radiation emission events with the GM Tube/Power supply.
5.5.8 Accessory Options
The following PASCO accessories are available to help extend the utility of the Smart Timer.
Accessory Photogate (ME-9204B): The stereo phone plug of the Accessory Photogate plugs
into either of the phone jacks on the side of the Smart Timer, giving you the option of two
identical photogates operating from a single timer.
Time-of-Flight Accessory (ME-6810): The Timer-of-Flight Accessory facilitates the accurate
measurement of the flight time of a ball launched by a PASCO projectile launcher.
Free Fall Adapter (ME-9207B): The Free Fall Adapter facilitates easy and accurate
measurements of the acceleration of gravity. It comes with everything you need, including two
steel balls (of different size and mass), a release mechanism, and a receptor pad. The release
mechanism and the receptor pad automatically trigger the Smart Timer, so you get more accurate
measurements of the free fall time of the steel ball.
Laser Switch (ME-9259A): This highly collimated photo detector is identical to a photogate,
except that a laser (available separately) is used as the light source. With the Laser Switch, the
motion of objects that are too big to fit through a standard photogate can be measured. Thus, you
can measure the period of a bowling ball pendulum or the velocity of a car, for example.
G-M Tube/Power Supply (SN-7927): The G-M Tube Power Supply is a Geiger-Muller Probe
that senses beta, gamma, and alpha radiation.
5.6 Experimental Procedure
PART A—Determining the acceleration from time and distance measurements
1. Mount the photogate on a stand, or hold the Photogate steady so it is
parallel to the floor, as shown in Figure.
2. Insert the plug of the photogate into channel 1 or 2 of the Smart
Timer, and set up the Smart Timer to measure Time, Fence.
3. Hold the Smart Timer Picket Fence in a position so it will drop
vertically through the photogate and so the 5 cm fence will block the
photogate beam as the fence drops through the photogate.
Note: Three conditions must be met for greatest accuracy:
a. The Picket Fence must be dropped at a 90º angle to the photogate
beam in such a way that it does not rotate on the way down. One
method to improve the drop is to hold the edge of the Picket
Fence with a cloth spin or binder clip, and drop the fence by
squeezing the clothespin or clip.
b. The Picket Fence must be dropped so the 5cm marks cut the
photogate beam.
 c. The Picket Fence must pass close to the LED that emits the photogate beam.
4. Press and drop the fence.
5. Record and , and calculate the acceleration in meters/second2.
PART B—Determining the acceleration directly.
1. Repeat steps 1 – 4 in Part A with the following modification: Set the Smart Timer to
measure Acceleration: One Gate. Repeat several times and calculate the average
acceleration (g).

5.7 Experiment Related Questions

Q. No. 1 How do the two methods for determining the acceleration on a body due to Earth’s
gravity compare?
Q. No. 2 How do the experimental measurements compare to accepted values?
Q. No. 3 What is gravitational potential?
Q. No. 4 Would gravitational force is dependent on the nature of the medium present in
between the two masses?
Q. No. 5 What are the orbits of satellites; circular or elliptical?
Q. No. 6 The figure shows a planet in elliptical orbit around the sun S. Where the kinetic
energy of the planet is maximum?
 Q. No. 7 Does the orbital speed of Jupiter is greater than Earth?

Q. No. 8 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon is ⁄ that on the surface
of the earth and diameter of the moon is ⁄ that of earth. What will the ratio of
escape velocities of earth and moon?
Q. No. 9 What would be the effect on your results if the picket fence were not vertical as it
fell through the photogate? How big an effect might this have on determining g?
Q. No. 10 State Newton's law of gravitation and using this law, show that if the earth exerts
equal force on the two bodies on its surface, then their masses are equal.
Q. No. 11 Derive an expression for acceleration due to gravity?
Q. No. 12 Show that acceleration due to gravity is independent of the mass of the object?
Q. No. 13 The value of acceleration due to gravity on earth varies from place to place. Justify
this statement?
Q. No. 14 It is said that acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth is same for all
objects irrespective of their mass, but why does a piece of paper take more time to
reach the ground than a coin when dropped simultaneously from the same height?
Q. No. 15 Suppose the earth began to shrink without any change in its mass, will there be any
change in the value of acceleration due to gravity?
Q. No. 16 How could we measure the mass of a body if we would know the speed of a
orbiting body around it?
Q. No. 17 Describe Einstein theory of gravity?
Q. No. 18 What's the difference between the gravity as seen by Einstein, and that by Newton?
Q. No. 19 Describe other methods to calculate the value of g?
Q. No. 20 What is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of Mars?
5.8 References
[1] D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Sixth Ed,
(John Wiley and Sons 2001).
[2] “Acceleration due to gravity” Web:
http://mypages.iit.edu/~segre/sample_article.pdf.