The Nature of Mathematics:

Mathematical Language and

Symbols
MATH 10 – MATH IN THE MODERN WORLD
Characteristics of Mathematical Language
1. Precise – able to make very fine distinctions.
2. Concise – able to say things briefly.
3. Powerful – able to express complex thoughts with ease.
English language vs. Mathematical
language
English Mathematics
Symbols English alphabet and punctuations English alphabet, numerals, Greek letters,
grouping symbols, special symbols
Name Noun Expression
Complete Sentence Sentence
Thought
Action Verbs Operations and other actions (e.g.,
simplify, rationalize)
What’s in a Verbs of differing tenses “is” to express equality, inequality,
sentence membership in a set, etc.
Attribute of a Fact or fiction True or false
sentence
Mathematical Expressions vs.
Mathematical Sentences
• A mathematical expression is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest which
does not state a complete thought.
• Examples: Numbers, sets, functions, ordered pairs, matrices, vectors
• A mathematical sentence is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols that states a complete thought.
• Thus, it makes sense to ask about the truth of a mathematical
sentence, but not of a mathematical expression.
Mathematical Expressions vs.
Mathematical Sentences
Mathematical Expressions Mathematical Sentences
•2 • 1+2=4
•𝑥 •𝑥>1
• 𝑡+3 • 𝑡+3=3+𝑡
1 • 1⋅𝑥 =𝑥
•
2
Synonyms in Mathematics
• Like words in the English language, numbers can have lots of different
names.
• For example:
5, 2 + 3, 10 ÷ 2, 6 − 2 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
all look different, but are all different names for the same number.
The meaning of “simplify”
• Fewer symbols: 3 + 1 + 5 = 9
• Fewer operations: 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 5 ⋅ 3
1 foot
• Better suited for current use: 1 = 12 inches
2 1
• Preferred style / format: =
4 2
The meaning of “elegance”
• Often attributed to proofs
• Uses a minimum of additional assumptions or previous results
• Usually succinct
• Derives a result in a surprising way (from an apparently unrelated set
of theorems)
• Based on new and original insights
• A method that can be easily generalized to solve a family of similar
problems
Example of Elegant “Proof”
𝑛 2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
3
෍𝑖 =
2
𝑖=1
Some Basic Concepts in Mathematics
• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
Definition
• A set is a well-defined collection of objects. These objects are called
elements and are said to be members of the set.
• We shall use capital letters to represent sets and lowercase letters to
represent elements.
• For a set 𝐴, we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 if 𝑥 is an element of 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∉ 𝐴 if 𝑦 is
not an element of 𝐴.
Designating Sets
• A set can be designated by listing its elements within set braces.
• Given a set 𝐴 consisting of the first five positive integers, then 𝐴 =
{1,2,3,4,5}.
• Such a listing of all the elements of a set is known to be in set-roster
notation.
• Note that 3 ∈ 𝐴 and 10 ∉ 𝐴.
Remark
• The set may also be written as
𝐴 = {𝑥|𝑥 is an integer and 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5}
• However, {𝑥|1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5} is not an adequate description of set 𝐴, unless it
has been agreed that the elements we are considering are just integers.
• When such an agreement is adopted, we say that are specifying a
universe or universe of discourse 𝑼. We then only select elements of 𝑼
to form our sets.
Special Sets
• ℤ = the set of integers {0,1, −1,2, −2,3, … }
• ℕ or ℤ+ = the set of positive integers {1,2,3, … }
• ℤ− = the set of negative integers {−1, −2, −3, … }
• ℝ = the set of real numbers
• ℝ+ = the set of positive real numbers
• ℝ− = the set of negative real numbers
Example
(Ex. 2.2, #5) Which of the following sets are equal?
• A = {0,1,2}
• B = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| − 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 3}
• C = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| − 1 < 𝑥 < 3}
• D = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ| − 1 < 𝑥 < 3}
• E = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+ | − 1 < 𝑥 < 3}
Remarks
• In the previous example, 𝐴, 𝐷, and 𝐸 are finite sets, while 𝐵 and 𝐶
are infinite sets.
• For any finite set 𝐴, |𝐴| denotes the number of elements in 𝐴 and is
referred to as the cardinality or size of 𝐴.
Definitions
• If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets, then 𝐴 is called a subset of 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if
and only if, every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵.
• If in addition, 𝐵 contains an element not in 𝐴, then we say that 𝐴 is a
proper subset of B. This is denoted by A  B.
• The null set, or empty set is the (unique) set containing no elements.
It is denoted by  or { }.
• A set containing a single element is called a singleton set.
Example 1
• Let 𝑈 = {1,2,3, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 1,2 , 1,2, 𝑧 }. Then 𝑈 = 8.
• Suppose 𝐴 = 1,2, 𝑧 . Then, 𝐴 = 3 and
(a) 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑈 (d) 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑈
(b) 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑈 (e) 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑈
(c) 𝐴 ∈ 𝑈 (f) 𝐴 ∉ 𝑈
Example 2
2
• Let 𝐴 = 2, 2 , 2 , 𝐵 = 2, 2 , { 2 } and 𝐶 = 2 . Determine
whether each of the following statements is true or false:
a. 𝐴⊆𝐵
b. 𝐵⊆𝐴
c. 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵
d. 𝐶⊆𝐵
e. 𝐶 is a proper subset of 𝐴
Example 3
• Which of the following are true statements?
a. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
b. 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧
c. 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
d. 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧
e. 𝑥 ∈ {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
Definition
• Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The cartesian product of 𝐴 and B, denoted by
𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.
That is,
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
Example
• (Ex. 2.2, # 11) Let 𝐴 = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏}. Use the set-roster
notation to write each of the following sets, and indicate the number
of elements that are in each set:
a. 𝐴×𝐵
b. 𝐵×𝐴
c. 𝐴×𝐴
d. 𝐵×𝐵
Definition
• Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵,
with 𝐴 as domain and 𝐵 as co-domain of 𝑅.
Ways to Expressing a Relation
• As a set of ordered pairs
• Given 𝐴 = 1,2 , 𝐵 = 1,2,3 , we define 𝑅 = { 1,1 , 1,3 , 2,2 }.
• As an expression or equation
𝑥−𝑦
• Given any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 means that is an integer.
2
• As an arrow diagram
Examples
• For 𝐴 = {1,2}, 𝐵 = 1,2,3 , and relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 given below,
do the following:
• Explain explicitly which ordered pairs are in 𝐴 × 𝐵 and which ones are in 𝑅.
• Is 1𝑅2? 2𝑅3? 2𝑅2?
• What are the domain and co-domain of 𝑅?
• Draw an arrow diagram for 𝑅.
1. Given any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 means 𝑥 < 𝑦.
2. Given any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 means (𝑥 + 𝑦)/2 is an integer.
Definition
• A function 𝐹 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is a relation with domain 𝐴 and
co-domain 𝐵 in which no two distinct ordered pairs have the same
first element.
Example 1
• For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ × ℝ, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶 means that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4. Is 𝐶 a
function?
Example 2
• Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝑌 = {1,2,3,4}, which of the relations 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶
defined below are functions from 𝑋 to 𝑌?
a) 𝐴 = { 𝑎, 1 , 𝑏, 2 , 𝑐, 3 }
b) For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 × 𝑌, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 means that 𝑥 is a vowel and 𝑦 is even
c) 𝐶 is defined by the arrow diagram
Definition
• Let 𝑓 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵|𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 } and 𝑔 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵|𝑦 =
𝑔 𝑥 } be two functions. Then 𝑓 equals 𝑔, written 𝑓 = 𝑔 if and only if
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in 𝐴.
Example
• Define functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 from ℝ to ℝ by the following formulas: for
all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
2𝑥 3 +2𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 +1
Is 𝑓 = 𝑔? Explain.
Mathematical sentences and logic
• Statement or proposition
• Must express a complete thought
• A declarative sentence that is true or false but not both
• Connectives
• “and” (conjunction), “or” (disjunction), “if-then” (implication or conditional),
“if and only if” (biconditional)
• Quantifiers
• “all”, “some”, “any”, “every”, “nothing”
• Universal quantifier: “For all” or ∀
• Existential quantifier: “There exists” or ∃
Logical Connectives and Symbols
Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of statement
Not 𝑝 Not ∼𝑝 Negation
𝑝 and 𝑞 And 𝑝∧𝑞 Conjunction
𝑝 or 𝑞 Or 𝑝∨𝑞 Disjunction
If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If… then 𝑝→𝑞 Conditional
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 If and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 Biconditional
Truth Values of a Conjunction and
Disjunction
• The conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true.
• The disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true when at least one of the propositions is
true.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F F
Quantified Statements and Their
Negations
Statement Negation
All 𝑋 are 𝑌. Some 𝑋 are not 𝑌.
No 𝑋 are 𝑌. Some 𝑋 are 𝑌.
Some 𝑋 are not 𝑌. All 𝑋 are 𝑌.
Some 𝑋 are 𝑌. No 𝑋 are 𝑌.
Example 1
• Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. 𝑥 + 1 = 5.
Example 2
• Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 7 < 5 or 3 > 1
b. (−1)50 = 1 and (−1)99 = −1
c. −5 ≥ −11
d. 7 ≠ 7 or 9 is a prime number
e. The square of any real number is a positive number.
Example 3
• Write each of the following sentences in symbolic form. Represent
each simple statement in the sentence with the letter indicated in the
parentheses. Also state whether the sentence is a conjunction, a
disjunction, a negation, a conditional, or a biconditional.
a. If today is a Wednesday (𝑤), then tomorrow is Thursday (𝑡).
b. I went to the post office (𝑝) and the bookstore (𝑏).
c. A triangle is an equilateral triangle (𝑙) if and only if it is an equiangular
triangle (𝑎).
d. I will major in mathematics (𝑚) or computer science (𝑐).
Example 4
• Write each of the following symbolic statements in words. Use
𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠 as defined below:
• 𝑝: The tour goes to Italy.
• 𝑞: The tour goes to Spain.
• 𝑟: We go to Venice.
• 𝑠: We go to Florence.
a. 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
b. 𝑝 → 𝑟
c. 𝑠 ↔∼ 𝑟
d. 𝑟 ∨ 𝑠
Example 5
• Write the negation of each statement. Start each negation with
“Some”, “No”, or “All”.
a. All bears are brown.
b. No smart phones are expensive.
c. Some vegetables are not green.
d. None of the students took my advice.