Arab Tribes and The Umayyad Dynasty and Abbasid Revolution
Arab Tribes and The Umayyad Dynasty and Abbasid Revolution
Arab Tribes and The Umayyad Dynasty and Abbasid Revolution
Abstract
This essay analyzes the role played by the Arab tribes in the
expansion of Islam, the consolidation of Dar al-Islam [House of
Islam], as well as in power and administration during the
Umayyad dynasty. Given the traditional rivalries between the
Mudar and the Qahtan tribes, each confederation of tribes led
the expansion of Islam in a different direction: the Mudar toward
the east, and the Qahtan toward the west. The Umayyads con-
trolled power by exploiting tribal disputes. The same practice,
skillfully used by the `Abbasids, expelled the Umayyads from
power and ushered in a new dynasty.
Introduction
O humanity! We have made you male and female, and appointed you to
be peoples and tribes in order that you know one another. (Qur´an 49:13)
This passage shows the basic divisions, namely, male and female and espe-
cially peoples (sha`b) and tribes (qaba´il), that characterized Arab society
during the Prophet’s time and, later on, during that of Islam’s expansion and
consolidation of Dar al-Islam. Throughout the centuries, many Muslim
authors addressed these social divisions. For example, in his descriptions of
Arab society, Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) explained the importance of Arab
Roberto Marín-Guzmán holds two master’s degrees in Middle Eastern history (El Colegio
de México, 1983 and The University of Texas at Austin, 1989) and a Ph.D. (The University
of Texas at Austin, 1994) in the same field. He also studied Arabic and Arab culture at al-
Jami`ah al-Urduniyya (Amman, Jordan). Currently he is a professor of Middle Eastern his-
tory and Arabic language at the University of Costa Rica. He has written many scholarly
articles and has authored ten books dealing with the history of the Middle East and Islam.
58 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
tribal `asabiyah (solidarity) as a way to keep them together and oppose their
enemies.1 Putting aside the fact that he lived many centuries after the period
covered in this essay, his opinions are relevant. He showed that `asabiyah
existed even before Islam and regulated many of the inter-personal relations
among tribal members as well as the inter-tribal relations. Al-Maqrizi (d.
1442) wrote that Arab society was divided into six social categories
(tabaqat): sha`b (peoples), qaba’il (tribes), `ama’ir (kindred), butun (clans),
afkhadh (lineage) and fasa’il (family groups).2 This important analysis adds
more knowledge to the study of Arab tribes and their internal divisions as
regards families, clans, kindred, and lineage, even their various rivalries.
In general, the organization of the tribes and their `asabiyah were
important elements in the Islamic expansion. Since the early stages of the
Islamic empire, Arab tribes played a major role in conquering new territo-
ries during the caliphate of `Umar (634-44). They were also active in the
first fitnah against `Uthman (644-56), as well as in the origins of Shi`ism
and the opposition of Mu`awiyah against `Ali (656-61).
The Umayyads formed the first Muslim dynasty (661-750) and con-
trolled power by exploiting tribal disputes. The `Abbasids used the same
practice, quite skillfully, to replace the Umayyads. The traditional Arab
tribal rivalries played a major role during this time. This essay analyzes the
role of the Arab tribes regarding power, administration of the empire dur-
ing the Umayyad dynasty, as well as their involvement in the Umayyads’
fall and the origins of the `Abbasid revolution.
Poets also spread the ideals of muruwwah (virtue) and hasab (enumer-
ation of the ancestors’ famous deeds; nobility), which were important for
both the individual’s and the tribe’s esteem and for satirizing (hija’) the trib-
al enemy, then considered inferior.8 Although Islam preaches equality and
fraternity among all individuals, and that all Muslims were brothers and sis-
ters in the ummah (community), the tribal rivalries continued and much
hatred and fighting took place throughout the history of the Islamic empire.
The process of making and breaking alliances took place in both the
west and the east of the empire, and was a major reason for the success of
the`Abbasid revolution. In al-Andalus, for example, Arab tribes often allied
60 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
themselves with traditional enemies to fight another tribe from the same
confederation or sha`b to improve and defend their own position. Economic
interest was one reason for these strange, but not unusual, alliances. 9
The Arab tribes accepted Islam, as Ibn Hisham writes in his Sirat Rasul
Allah.10 Both the Northern and the Southern tribes participated eagerly in
the Islamic expansion, which had, along with religious motives, economic
and political reasons. Fred Donner emphasizes the religious motives for the
expansion. 11 Perhaps the main cause for their eager participation was the
share of booty,12 despite Shaban`s opinion that the Mudar favored a major
expansion while the Qahtan proposed a consolidation of the empire instead.
The disputes between the Qahtan and the Qays tribes increased during
the conquests for economic and political reasons. In the analysis and in the
general explanations of the tribes’ expansion along with that of Islam
(intishar al-Islam), one has to be aware of various elements of this process.
The following three are the most important:
First, the initial wave of expansion, directed toward Arabia’s north and
east, was carried out mainly by the Northern tribes, especially Arabs from
Makkah and the surrounding areas. These armies conquered Syria and
Palestine, after the battle of Yarmuk (636). Jerusalem surrendered (637) to
caliph `Umar, and Jazirah (Iraq) fell after the battle of Qadisiyah (637). 13 It
seems possible that most heros of the riddah war were from the Mudar con-
federation.14 Thus, in this expansion, the Mudar (or Qays) obtained a large
share of the booty as well as the best lands, for the Qahtan were not favored
at that time. According to al-Baladhuri, the Qahtan, the Southern tribes, or
Ahl al-Yaman, demanded equal treatment in privileges and land ownership,
although their role in the expansion was inferior to the Mudar’s.15
These conquests opened the doors for further expansion toward the
east. They were led by the Northern tribes, who benefited the most from the
resulting booty and wealth. The Southern tribes also participated, but in
lesser numbers, and so they received a far smaller share of the spoils and
revenues than their traditional enemies. The Northern tribes also occupied
the land. Moreover, very soon after they settled down they engaged in
trade, which brought them considerable benefits.
Second, when the Southern tribes saw their opportunities for benefit,
land, trade, and especially booty, closed in the east and blocked by their
tribal enemies, they initiated another wave of expansion westward, mainly
toward North Africa and al-Andalus, two regions that they conquered with
great benefit. A close reading of `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Abd al-Hakam’s (d.
871) Futuh Misr wa Akhbaruha reveals that the Southern tribes held the
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 61
main positions in the army and the governorship of provinces and cities. Al-
Maqqari (d. 1632) asserted in his Kitab Nafh al-Tib that as the Qahtan set-
tled in al-Andalus in great numbers they brought with them their hereditary
hatred of the Mudar and other tribes from the line of `Adnan.16 He also
asserted that the Qahtan tribes were more numerous in al-Andalus than
their adversaries, and always obtained a greater share of power and influ-
ence.17 This is probably one reason why the `Abbasid revolution was not as
well received in al-Andalus as it was in the East.
Moreover, al-Andalus was far from the caliphal centers of power.
Although not totally apart from the caliph’s main policies, al-Andalus faced
other problems, such as the struggles against the Christians and the Franks,
as well as the Berber revolts in both al-Andalus and North Africa, which
distracted the Qahtan from the `Abbasid propaganda (centered mainly in
Khurasan). The opposite occurred in the East, as can be seen by looking at
the tribal origin of those in important administrative and military positions,
who were mainly from the Northern tribes. Although al-Hajjaj intended to
maintain a balance of power between the two confederations while he gov-
erned Iraq and Khurasan by appointing Southerners in subgovernor posi-
tions, in the long run the Umayyads favored the Mudar over the Qahtan.
This information is provided in the major Arabic sources, such as al-Tabari,
al-Baladhuri, Ibn Majah, among others, and later Arabic works, such as al-
Suyuti’s Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’.18
However, one should not think that the Northern or the Southern tribes
settled exclusively in the east or the west, respectively, of Dar al-Islam.
Both tribal groups expanded and settled throughout the empire, a situation
that aggravated their traditional rivalries. In addition, they brought their tra-
ditional feuds to those distant regions.
Third, the expansion should not be understood only as originating from
a religious motivation. This process was neither an expansion of Islam nor a
single movement that stopped as soon as the tribes settled. The process was
quite the contrary, for Islam’s expansion also led the Arab tribes to undertake
one of the largest expansions in history: from Arabia to Iraq, Khurasan, and
the Chinese Empire, and to North Africa and Spain (al-Andalus).
Arabic became the official and religious language of the vast empire,
although some languages were kept for religious purposes (e.g., Coptic,
Greek, Latin, Persian) and others continued to be spoken (e.g., Berber,
Romance [Spanish], Aramaic, Turkish, and Persian). The conquered peo-
ples adopted Arabic culture. 19 The Arabization process took several cen-
turies and finally prevailed in the east (with the exception of Iran) and in
62 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
North Africa. The case of al-Andalus is totally different, since Islam and the
Arabic culture, language, and customs were replaced by those of the
Christian Spaniards20 after the Reconquista.21
The empire-wide expansion of the Arab tribes, which took many years,
proves several things. First of all, it shows their interest in acquiring booty,
wealth, and land in places outside Arabia. They were also seeking better con-
ditions. Al-Baladhuri’s statement that there were more Arabs in Iraq than in
Syria proves the extent of the migrations to the north and east.22 For many
Arabs of this time, this was an excellent opportunity to search for better eco-
nomic conditions abroad. In addition, the share of booty was always an
important incentive. An interesting speculation, although little evidence
exists for it since Arabic sources do not deal with it, is that Arabia was over-
populated in relation to the availability of food and water resources.
Another proof that these migrations were not undertaken in a single
wave is that the Arabic sources speak of problems between “old” and
“new” Arabs settled in different regions, whether they were in al-Andalus,
Iraq, Khurasan, or Ma wara’ al-Nahr (roughly modern-day Uzbekistan and
southwest Kazakhstan). These migrations brought new struggles wherever
the migrants settled, especially if the new Arab settlers belonged to the
opposite tribal confederation’s members already settled in those regions.
The system of land ownership and the establishment of junud (sing:
jund, armed groups) also caused increased tribal rivalries. The rapid expan-
sion from Arabia to Syria, Mesopotamia, Iran, Egypt, North Africa, and al-
Andalus made Muslims adopt the existing Byzantine and Persian institu-
tions. Lacking administrative experience and the institutions to control and
keep the conquered areas together, the Arabs transformed the basic division
of spoils and territories from the three categories explained by al-Baladhuri
in Muhajirun, Ansar, and the wives of the Prophet, 23 to a major and better
organized one following the ancient Roman practice of the limitanei: sol-
diers who received land in return for defending the empire’s frontiers. The
Muslims adopted this practice by settling the junud and building fortresses
(amsar, sing: misr) in the Dar al-Islam’s frontier areas (hudud).24
Al-Baladhuri analyzed the organization of the junud in Syria25 and
Egypt,26 as well as the divisions of the spoils of war and territories among
Muslim soldiers. For the case of Egypt, Ibn `Abd al-Hakam explained the
creation of a diwan for dividing the conquered territories. 27 After Jerusalem
capitulated, the`Ahd al-`Umariyah stipulated how the territories would be
divided.28 The presence of these armed tribal groups led to more inter-tribal
rivalries, especially in Khurasan and Iraq.29 The traditional Qays-Qahtan dis-
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 63
their own origins, but also their opinions about being direct descendants of
Isma`il. He wrote:
All Arabs are descended from Isma`il and Qahtan. Some of the people of
Yaman claim that Qahtan was a son of Isma`il and so, according to them,
Isma`il is the father of all Arabs. 37
privileges helped develop a middle class, so-called for lack of a better term.
This proves that there was a degree of social mobility. It was also possible
to join the middle class through education (become a member of the ulama)
and through success in trade, industry, and agriculture.
Throughout Islamic history, the opposite process also occurred. In
many instances, middle-class people lost their patrons or their property, or
saw their businesses collapse. Such events jeopardized their social status,
and, by impoverishing them, forced them to become part of the `ammah
(ra’ya in the Ottoman period). Those tribes not favored by the system
fought against it, hoping to gain the same privileges from a new govern-
ment. The betterment of those favored tribes stirred the envy, opposition,
and anger of the unfavored tribes. This led them to fight against their tradi-
tional enemies and against the Umayyad caliph, their enemies’ major sup-
porter. These tribal disputes, although ancient and traditional, assumed very
clear political and socioeconomic causes during the Umayyad period.
The possession and use of land brought many benefits to those in
charge. However, rather than cultivating their land with their own hands,
they used peasants or hired others through various agricultural contracts
(muzara`ah, mugharasah, musaqah) to do their work, and then enjoyed the
resulting revenues. However, they were supposed to respect and follow the
tradition of ihya’ al-ard al-mayyitah (revivifying the dead land, namely,
land reclamation). In an agricultural society, who received the revenues that
the land produced as well as who owned the parcels (qati`ah, pl. qata`i’) of
land was extremely important.38
In dealing with such issues of land ownership, agriculture, parcels, and
so on, one has to remember that at the beginning of the expansion, these
tribes were not supposed to settle down, but were to live in the garrison cities
(misr, pl. amsar). But they did settle down and acquire land, and the caliphs
granted them privileges. After this, they lived among the mawali and the
Persians in Khurasan and Iraq. They even adopted some Persian religious
celebrations, spoke Persian in their daily market transactions, and dressed
like Persians in that part of the empire.39 Shortly afterward, they were
engaged in trade between Khurasan and Ma wara’ al-Nahr.
Those granted important political administrative positions benefited a
great deal. In most cases they were in charge of tax collection, and usually
profited personally from the revenues. The case of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab in
Iraq and Khurasan, whether or not he illegally acquired personal benefits
from this activity, is a clear example. Caliph `Umar II jailed him allegedly
for stealing from the public treasury. This is only one of many examples.40
66 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
(again, the case of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab is a good example in this respect).
In fact, on numerous occasions the inter-tribal rivalries in Iraq and
Khurasan were sparked by the expansionist wars and the share of booty,
and also because of the way the Mudar, in defense of their own group,
blocked the Yemenites from participating in such campaigns.
Second, despite the great number of Arabs who moved to Iraq,
Khurasan, North Africa, and al-Andalus, they were always a minority
(although the ruling group) population among the local Persians, Berbers,
or Visigoths. For their expansionist wars, the Arabs had to enroll and orga-
nize armies of local people. The armies organized by Tariq ibn Ziyad and
Musa ibn Nusayr to capture al-Andalus were mainly Berber. 42 In the east,
Qutaybah ibn Muslim drafted local Persians who had participated in the
conquest of Central Asia as far away as Farghana. His army, like many sim-
ilar armies organized for the expansionist wars by Arab military leaders in
the east, was composed mainly of mawali. However, the mawali were not
treated as equals of Arab Muslims, for they received a smaller share of the
booty. Arabic sources are explicit about this and show how much discrim-
ination took place in the allotment of the booty.
This unjust treatment of Persians and Berbers conscripts was an impor-
tant reason for the mawali revolts both in the east and the west, in North
Africa and al-Andalus.43 In al-Andalus, for example, land distribution was
a contentious issue. Arabs controlled the best lands, and Berbers were con-
fined to the most arid regions of Galicia, León, Asturias, La Mancha, and
Extremadura. Abu al-`Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn `Idhari even
affirmed that Berbers disliked living in cities and preferred those arid lands
because they resembled their native territories in North Africa.44 These opin-
ions of a major chronicler should, obviously, be taken carefully.
sis of their disputes in other parts of the empire, although mentioned for
North Africa and al-Andalus, is beyond the scope of this essay when deal-
ing with the `Abbasid revolution, since it had little impact on the West.
The first three Umayyad caliphs, Mu`awiyah (661-80),45 Yazid (680-
83), and Mu`awiyah II (683-84),47 who formed the Sufyaniyah Umayyad
46
this, the former claimed more rights for having participated directly in the
conquest.55
Contrary to the Sufyanids’ more indirect way of governing, the
Marwanids always tried to balance the ashraf (the tribal leaders) and the
governors through a centralized system of government. The Marwanids
also established an army that was responsible to the Amir al-Mu’minin and
the governors and served as the main instrument for the empire’s central-
ization, defense, and administration. For the first time, it was loyal to the
caliph. 56 Syrian troops, who formed the imperial army, were sent to differ-
ent parts of the empire to put down revolts, centralize the administration,
and keep direct control of the empire. However, their presence in Iraq and
Khurasan caused further problems, as a result of the antagonism between
Syria and Iraq. Syrian troops were also sent to North Africa and al-Andalus
to stop Berber revolts. For example, Hisham sent Syrian troops (led by Balj
ibn Bishr) to subdue the Berber revolt in North Africa and al-Andalus. In
the Iberian Peninsula, inter-tribal feuds also occurred during the presence
of Syrian troops, since the governorship of al-Andalus was Yemenite.
During the Marwanid period, the caliphs started relying on military men
as governors. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf is a clear example of a person of humble
origins rising to important positions through military services, which he
began in the shurtah (police) of Damascus. He eventually became the archi-
tect of `Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan’s military, political, and economic
reforms. 57 As part of the centralization program, the Marwanids started new
institutions with a clear purpose. The barid (postal system) was very well
organized both as an efficient communication system and as an excellent
way to keep the government informed about possible problems or revolts in
the provinces. The writing and sealing of documents were developed
through the institutions of diwan al-rasa’il and diwan al-khatam.
The Marwanids also introduced a specific Muslim coinage in their
lands, replacing the old Sasanid and Byzantine coins. Real Muslim coins
were minted under `Abd al-Malik and his governor al-Hajjaj. They were
purely epigraphic and without the ruler’s portrait, for Islam forbids the
depiction of any human or animal figures.58 Having their own coins, along
with the Syrian army and the centralization plans, gave the Marwanid
Umayyad dynasty, great power, and efficient control of the empire.
`Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685-705), who succeeded the brief reign
of Marwan I 59 and married a Qaysi woman of the `Abs, supported and relied
on the Qays tribal confederation, especially through the support he gave the
Thaqafi tribe by appointing al-Hajjaj governor of Iraq. By this time, al-
70 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
Hajjaj had already defeated Ibn al-Zubayr in the Hijaz. Al-Hajjaj consoli-
dated the Qays’ power in Iraq and Khurasan.
His mission was not easy, and numerous struggles were launched
against him. It is possible to infer that the caliph was aware of the difficul-
ties and problems associated with controlling the tribes, and, in an attempt
to convince al-Hajjaj to move to that area, even offered him the city-fortress
of Kufah as a gift (sadaqah). In a letter quoted by al-Baladhuri in his Ansab
al-Ashraf, the caliph wrote: Ya Hajjaj qad a`taytuka al-Kufah sadaqatan fa-
ta’ha wata’t yatada’al minha ahl al-Basrah. (Oh Hajjaj, I have given you
al-Kufah as a gift, therefore, control it so firmly that the people of al-Basrah
will be intimidated [they will be fearful and they won’t revolt against
you].” 60 `Abd al-Malik appointed him in order to gain effective control of
Iraq and to stop all rebellions. In order to accomplish these tasks, al-Hajjaj
obliged Arabs to join the army to defeat the Khawarij and to participate in
new wars of expansion. Those who refused faced decapitation, an effective
threat, although some Arabs complained about his tyrannical methods. In
such a decree, one can easily see why so many Arabs accuse the Umayyads
of brutality and despotism.
Al-Hajjaj was able to control the tribes in Iraq because of their weak
position. Their internal problems and the Khawarij threat had weakened
them to the point that, despite occasional and poor resistance, they accepted
him, especially in the major garrison cities of Kufah and Basrah. He faced a
more serious Khawarij opposition in Iraq in both the rural and the urban
areas. For example, the Azariqah of Basrah strongly opposed the Ummayd’s
control of the city. In Kufah, Shahib ibn Yazid led the Khawarij resistance to
al-Hajjaj.61 To quell the Khawarij revolts, Syrian forces were sent to Iraq.
Also during this time, the garrison city of al-Wasit was founded, according
to the sources, mainly to serve as a base for the Syrian troops.62
Although al-Hajjaj tried to balance the Arab tribal disputes and power
struggles, and although he appointed al-Muhallab ibn Sufrah and Yazid ibn
al-Muhallab of the Azd tribe as governors of Khurasan and kept them there
for several years, in the long run he favored the Qays’ power. Later on, he
replaced Yazid ibn al-Muhallab with Qutaybah ibn Muslim, a Qaysite from
the weak Bahilah clan. The Southern tribes opposed these political mea-
sures, and new tensions arose between the two tribal confederations.
Qutaybah ibn Muslim governed Khurasan for 10 years (705-15) and
favored the expansionist wars, as proved by his numerous successful con-
quests in Central Asia. He conquered those important cities that contributed
so much to Islam’s greatness: Samarqand, 63 Bukhara,64 Paykand, 65 and
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 71
The role played by the mawali was also of great relevance, since
according to general Umayyad policy, new converts were not fairly treated
because they were not Arabs. The mawali supported this revolt, for they
viewed it as a way to fight against the unjust Umayyad rule, the official dis-
crimination that considered them inferior, and the heavy taxation. For the
same reasons, the Persian dahaqin also supported the rebellion. After the
revolt was suppressed, they faced serious consequences: Al-Hajjaj removed
them from their previous position of tax collectors. Other rebellions
throughout the Muslim history had very similar causes. Their appeals for
change and equality in Muslim society were important aspirations that
resurfaced frequently. The `Abbasid revolution was no exception in this
respect.
In the long run, the Umayyad dynasty favored the Northerners over the
Southerners. Yazid ibn al-Muhallab’s revolt in 720 against Yazid II exem-
plifies both these inter-tribal rivalries and the opposition to the Umayyads.80
Thus, this revolt should be analyzed from the perspective of inter-tribal dis-
putes and enmity toward Umayyad rule. The popular support that Ibn al-
Muhallab gained in Basrah and other places in Iraq, from both the Northern
and Southern tribes, is proof of anti-Umayyad feeling. However, he
obtained more support from the Southern tribes, despite the fact that his
own tribe (the Azd) did not entirely support him. The ideology, the appeals
to religion and freedom from Umayyad control, and the Syrian troops (he
proclaimed a jihad against the Syrians) could make one think about his
proto- or semi-independent aspirations for Iraq and possibly for Khurasan.
Again, the celebrated al-Hasan al-Basri opposed this movement, as he had
done earlier with Ibn al-Ash`ath’s revolt.81 Although he did not favor the
Umayyads openly, neither did he accept Yazid ibn al-Muhallab’s aspira-
tions and claims to the caliphate.82
Ibn al-Muhallab’s revolt was extremely important, enjoyed popular
support, and may be considered a precursor of the `Abbasid revolution. In
addition to Arab tribal help, he also gained mawali support. Although there
is no evidence in the sources that the dahaqin helped him, it is reasonable
to infer that they did, for they had supported Ibn al-Ash`ath’s revolt. Also,
it is reasonable to speculate that they backed this revolt in the hope of
recapturing their previous position as tax collectors, which they had lost for
supporting Ibn al-Ash`ath. They could also have helped Ibn al-Muhallab,
because they were interested in more expansionist wars to keep the Arabs
away and avoid the assimilation programs forwarded in the famous Fiscal
Rescript of the recently disappeared caliph `Umar II (717-20).
74 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
For the dahaqin, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab was portrayed as a leader who
favored Islam’s expansion due to his involvement in campaigns in
Transoxiana while serving as governor of Khurasan under Sulayman.83 His
revolt had a catastrophic end when he faced the Umayyad army. 84 However,
his impact was considerable, because the `Abbasids took several of the tra-
ditions developed after this revolt. First, Ibn al-Muhallab repudiated the
Umayyads and asserted that a member of the Banu Hashim would be
appointed as Amir al-Mu’minin.85 This tradition was adopted by the
Hashimiyah and, through this group, by the `Abbasids. Second, Yazid ibn
al-Muhallab called himself “Qahtani,” which could be understood as the
one who raised the black flag (the `Abbasids’ color), the symbol of opposi-
tion to the Umayyads, whose banner was white.
The inter-tribal fighting characterizing the Umayyad period increased
during the last 25 to 30 years of their rule, because the major two of the last
four caliphs, Hisham (724-43) and Marwan II (744-50), openly relied on
the Mudar, despite the fact that `Umar II (717-20) had kept a balance
between the tribes. When the caliphs favored the Mudar, the Yemenites
considered this situation detrimental to their own interests. The support of
a particular tribal confederation was, in most cases, crucial to the caliph’s
ability to stay in power.
The disputes between the Northern and Southern tribal confederations
were also exploited by the `Abbasids, who were fully aware of the Yeminites’
power in Khurasan and their enmity toward the Mudar and the Umayyads.
Khurasan was essential to the `Abbasids’ propaganda and their army’s orga-
nization. They had popular support in this area, as reported in a tradition.
Although written after the `Abbasids took power, this tradition says that
the `Abbasids chose Khurasan for their propaganda because its people
already accepted and supported them. However, the same tradition says
that the people of Kufah leaned toward the children of `Ali ibn Abi Talib, the
people of Basrah were loyal to the memory of `Uthman, the Syrians sup-
ported the Umayyads, and the people of Jazirah (Iraq) were Khawarij. 86
By supporting the Qahtan against their traditional enemies the Qays,
the `Abbasids also gained their support in the war against the ruling
dynasty. The `Abbasid army, through Abu Muslim al-Khurasani, recruited
a large number of Yemenites, who were also good and experienced fight-
ers. Major Arabic sources contain traditions dealing with the `Abbasids’
secret propaganda in which inter-tribal rivalry can be seen as a main issue
in the `Abbasid revolution. Other Arabic sources reveal that one of the first
missions of the `Abbasid emissaries and propagandists was to approach and
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 75
Mudar and obtained some help from them, which is evident by their enroll-
ment in the `Abbasid army. This second idea is more reasonable, since,
according to some traditions, in the early stages of the `Abbasid da`wah,
religion (din) was the strongest call to support the movement, even stronger,
in certain ways, than tribal solidarity (`asabiyah).92
The Southern tribes, so unfavorably treated during the last two decades
of Umayyad rule, also joined the `Abbasid revolution in the hope that the
new government would improve their political and social status. The
`Abbasids were very skillful in maneuvering the inter-tribal disputes for
their own interests and objectives.93 In their call, they appeared to join the
Shu`ubiyah movement by appealing to the equality (musawah) of all
Muslims. The Yemenites responded positively, since they wanted justice to
prevail. The `Abbasids also managed to transform the Yemenites’ griev-
ances into an active political and military force of opposition to the
Umayyads. Sufyan ibn Mu`awiyah of the al-Muhallab family made an
unsuccessful attempt to capture Basrah for the `Abbasids in 749, which is
evidence of the Qahtan`s support for the `Abbasid cause. 94 Undoubtedly,
deep at the bottom of the `Abbasid strategy, the constant factor of Arab
inter-tribal rivalries was always present and played a significant role in the
revolution’s popular dimensions.95
It is important to bear in mind that the Umayyads tried all possible ways
to control power and gain legitimacy. They convinced many Muslims that
the Umayyads were the Prophet’s only relatives, even before the `Abbasids
started their propaganda. Several traditions, especially preserved by the later
source al-Maqrizi’s Kitab al-Niza`, report the Umayyads claimed superior-
ity to the Banu Hashim and to the Prophet himself, a claim much criticized
by several Muslims and one that tainted the Umayyads’ commitment to
Islam. In this respect, the tradition quoted by al-Maqrizi says:
[This deception on the part of the Umayyads and their partisans reached
the point] that one day, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ascended the wooden stairway
of the pulpit and proclaimed over the heads of those present: “Is your mes-
senger more precious to you or your caliph?” He meant that `Abd al-Malik
ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam was superior to the messenger of God. When
Jabala ibn [Zahr] heard him, he exclaimed: “By God, I swear that I will
never pray behind him again! Moreover, if ever I see anybody taking up
arms against al-Hajjaj, I will certainly take up arms myself and join him.”96
For the `Abbasids, their claims of legitimacy had two levels: First, they
were descendants of the Prophet’s family (rida min al Muhammad [the cho-
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 77
sen from Muhammad’s family]), and second, the political activism and prac-
tices of the Shi`ite Zayd ibn `Ali, the great grandson of `Ali and Fatimah,
had led a revolt in 740 against the Umayyads. He claimed the right to lead
not only because of inheritance (nass), but because he was the boldest and
most active of all the family’s members.97 The `Abbasids capitalized on both
grounds (the ideology and the political practice) and gained popular support
for their struggle against the Umayyds, as well as legitimacy after they
assumed power and established the second dynasty of Islam.
Conclusion
Pre-Islamic Arab society was characterized by profound tribal divisions
and rivalries. The two tribal confederations represented two different ways
of production, two opposed perceptions of the world. While the Qahtan
(Southerners) settled down and devoted themselves mainly to agriculture,
the Mudar (Northerners) were primarily nomads. Both confederations dis-
puted water, land, and trade routes. Despite their conversion to Islam, their
feuds continued and were transported wherever they went, be it to Iraq,
Khurasan, North Africa, or al-Andalus.
These tribes played a significant role in Islam’s expansion. The Mudar
directed the expansion toward the north and the east and blocked their ene-
mies from acquiring booty, land, and administrative positions. The Qahtan
then directed the Muslim armies toward the west. In Iraq and Khurasan,
both confederations disputed land, power, and prestige. Their feuds in
Kufah and Basrah, as well as the later foundation of the garrison city of al-
Wasit to control the tribes, are relevant issues of Umayyad history. To keep
power and either consolidate the empire or gain more territory, the
Umayyads exploited tribal disputes.
Despite the exceptions analyzed above, the Umayyads mainly favored,
in the long run, the Mudar confederation. The `Abbasids, in their secret pro-
paganda, which had a clear ideology and claims of legitimacy for power,
attracted the Qahtan tribes, against whom the Umayyads discriminated.
The `Abbasids were skillful enough to be gentle and attract the Mudar
tribes to their side. The Umayyad practice of exploiting tribal disputes,
skillfully used by the `Abbasids, eventually drove the Umayyads from
power and brought a new dynasty to rule the empire. The role of the tribes
was essential in this change of dynastic power. The `Abbasids also obtained
the help of the Shi`ites through the Hashimiyah as well as the support of the
mawali, both of which enabled the `Abbasids to realize their objectives.
78 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
Notes
1. Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddimah, ed. Wafi `Ali `Abd al-Wahid (Cairo: 1965),
passim; Roberto Marín-Guzmán, “Ibn Khaldun y el Método Científico de la
Historia,” Revista Estudios 6 (1985): 87-109.
2. Al-Maqrizi, Kitab al-Niza’ wa al-Takhasum fi ma bayna Bani Umayyah wa
Bani Hashim, ed. Von Geerhardus Vos (Leiden: 1888). Translated into
English as Book on Contention and Strife between Banu Umayya and Banu
Hashim, trans. Clifford E. Bosworth (Manchester: 1980), 103.
3. For more information concerning the kings of al-Hirah, see Ibn Qutaybah, Al-
Ma`arif, ed. Tharwat `Ukasha (Cairo: 1969), 645-50. See also: Philip Hitti,
History of the Arabs (New York: 1951), 81-83; Ibn `Abd Rabbihi, Al-`Iqd al-
Farid (Cairo: 1948-53), 2:85; Montgomery Watt, Mahoma, Profeta y Hombre
de Estado (Buenos Aires: 1973), 20; Naji Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah fi
al-Mashriq khilal al-`Asr al-Umawi (Beirut: 1980), 36-37; al-Hamdani, Kitab
Sifah Jazirat al-`Arab, ed. David Heinrich Müller (Leiden: 1968), 129-31 and
205-6; al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden: 1866; 2d ed.
Leiden: 1968), 59 and 136; al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-Tiwal (Cairo: 1960),
54-55: Al-Mas`udi, Muruj al-Dhahab wa Ma`adin al-Jawhar, ed. G. Barbier
de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille (Paris: 1917), 4:353; al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh
al-Ya`qubi, ed. Th. Houtsma (Leiden: 1883; reprint, Beirut: 1960), 1:229 and
264; al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, ed. M. J. de Goeje, (Leiden:
1879-1901), passim, esp. 1:1102, 1:1555-56, and 1:1604-5; Roberto Marín-
Guzmán, Introducción a los Estudios Islámicos (San José, Costa Rica: 1983),
passim. Roberto Marín-Guzmán, “Las causas de la expansión islámica y los
fundamentos del Imperio Musulmán,” Revista Estudios 5, (1984): 39-67;
Roberto Marín-Guzmán, El Islam: Ideología e Historia (San José, Costa Rica:
1986), 136. See also Roberto Marín-Guzmán, “Algunas notas sobre el origen,
desarrollo y expansión del Islam,” Tiempo Actual 8, no. 32 (1984): 71-79; Carl
Brockelmann, History of the Islamic Peoples, trans. Joel Carmichael and
Moshe Perlman (New York: 1960), 8-10; H. Lammens, “Lakhm,” Encyclo-
paedia of Islam (1) (Leyden: 1928), 3:11-12; H. Lammens, “Djudham,” Ency-
clopaedia of Islam (1) (Leyden: 1913), 1:1058-59; Irfan Shahid, “Lakhmids,”
Encyclopaedia of Islam (2) (Leiden: 1986), 5:632-34; G. Rothstein, Die
Dynastie der Lakhmiden in al-Hira (Berlin: 1899), passim; Roberto Marín-
Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution: A Case Study of
Medieval Islamic Social History (Cambridge, MA: 1990), passim.
4. A. Fischer, “Kays `Aylan,” Encyclopaedia of Islam (1) (Leyden: 1927), 2:652-
57; A. Fischer, “Kahtan,” Encyclopaedia of Islam (1) (Leyden: 1927), 2:628-
30; Julius Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and its Fall, trans. Margaret Graham
Weir (Beirut: 1963), passim. For the tribal settlements, see al-Dinawari, Al-
Akhbar al-Tiwal, passim, esp. 16-17 for the Rabi`ah settlements in Yamamah
and Bahrayn. For the Rabi`ah and the Mudar, see also al-Istakhri, Kitab Masalik
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 79
al-Mamalik, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden: 1927), 14. For the Ghassan and Asad
tribes and the Yemenite settlements in al-Jazirah al-`Arabiyah, see al-Istakhri,
Kitab Masalik al-Mamalik, 14. See also Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 626-37 for
a detailed study of the Yemenites and their kings. Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi al-
Ta’rikh, 4:159. (Cairo ed.); al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-Tiwal, 277-80. See also
Patricia Crone, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity
(Cambridge: 1980), 43; Kitab al-`Uyun wa al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq,
ed. M. J. de Goeje and P. de Jong (Leiden: 1869), 3:2-3. See also al-Ya`qubi,
Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:285. For a general view, see also Hugh Kennedy, The
Early `Abbasid Caliphate (London and Sydney: 1986), 35-37; Marín-Guzmán,
Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, passim. It is important to bear
in mind that most Arab tribes were allied with other tribes, thus accepting the
confederations. Very few tribes wished to be on their own. To confederate
was relevant for many, especially for weaker tribes seeking protection from
stronger ones. These pre-Islamic alliances had a relevant place in society.
Despite their impact, Islam denied such alliances and preached a religious
relationship of the individual with the ummah and with Allah. Islam also
preached fraternity among all people. Prophet Muhammad is reported to
have said: la hilfah fi al-Islam wa lakin tamassaku bi hilf al-jahiliyah [There
is no alliance in Islam, but respect the alliances of the Jahiliyah]. For more
information, see al-Isfahani, Kitab al-Aghani (Bulaq: 1285 a.h.), 12:157.
5. See al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1895, 1899, 1924-25, 1934-
35, 1937, 1970-71, 1986-87, and 1996 (Leiden edition); Yaqut, Mu`jam al-
Buldan, ed. F. Wüstenfeld (Leipzig: 1866-73), 3:530; Ibn `Abd Rabbihi, Al-
`Iqd al-Farid, 3:345; al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-Tiwal, 7. See also al-Istakhri,
Kitab Masalik al-Mamalik, 14; Reinhart Dozy, Historia de los Musulmanes
de España (Buenos Aires: 1946), 1:115-21; Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and
the Age of the Caliphates (London and New York: 1986), 86-87. For a
detailed description of the Yemenite-Mudar struggles, and for the `asabiyah
of these tribes, see Thuraya Hafiz `Arafah, Al-Khurasaniyun wa Dawruhum
al-Siyasi fi al-`Asr al-`Abbasi al-Awwal (Jiddah: 1982), 20-28; Moshe
Sharon, Black Banners from the East: The Establishment of the `Abbasid
State: Incubation of a Revolt (Jerusalem and Leiden: 1983), passim, esp. 15.
6. Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies (London: 1967), 1:54-57.
7. Ibid., 1:51-52. See also Goldziher, Muslim Studies, 2:381. For more informa-
tion concerning the poet Jarir ibn `Atiyah of the Umayyad court, see al-
Nadim, Kitab al-Fihrist, ed. Gustav Flügel (Leipzig: 1871; reimpression
Beirut: 1964), passim; The Fihrist of al-Nadim, trans. Bayard Dodge (New
York: 1970), 1:241-43. See also al-Isfahani, Kitab al-Aghani, 20:13 and 10:4;
Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan wa Anba’ Abna’ al-Zaman, ed. Ihsan `Abbas
(Beirut: 1972), 1:294; Roberto Marín-Guzmán, Kitab al-Bukhala’ [El Libro
de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz: Fuente para la historia social del Islam Medieval
(Mexico: 2001), 164-65.
80 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
8. Goldziher, Muslim Studies, 1:50- 55. Goldziher wrote: “Satires were an indis-
pensable part of war. The tribal poet boasted that he was no mere composer
of verses but an instigator of war, who sent forth mocking verses against those
who scorned his tribe” (p. 50) and: “Thus, in a contest between tribes, the
arrows flew from the mouths of poets as much as from the quivers of war-
riors, and the wounds that they inflicted were deeply embedded in the tribe’s
honour and were felt for generations. It is therefore not astonishing to learn
that poets were greatly feared amongst the Arabs” (p. 51).
9. G. R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam (London and Sydney: 1987), 36.
See al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1497 (Leiden ed.) for a good
study of the alliance between the Azd and the Rabi`ah. See also Sharon, Black
Banners, 54-55, and 58, where he explains that in Khurasan the term Yaman
meant the alliance between Azd and Rabi`ah. For more details concerning
this, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1290 (Leiden ed.); al-
Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:399, quoted by Sharon, Black Banners, 58.
The famous Andalusian historian Ibn Hayyan dealt with these strange, but by
no means unusual, alliances between different groups. He mentioned the
alliance of the Shi`ite Husaynids and Hasanids of North Africa with `Abd al-
Rahman III, the Umayyad caliph of al-Andalus. See Ibn Hayyan, Al-
Muqtabis fi Akhbar Balad al-Andalus: Crónica del Califa `Abdurrahman III
an-Nasir entre los años 912 y 942, Sp. trans. Ma. Jesús Viguera and Federico
Corriente (Zaragoza: 1981), 5:217-26. See also Ibn Hayyan, “Al-Hakam II y
los Bereberes según un texto inédito de Ibn Hayyan,” ed. and Sp. trans.
Emilio García Gómez, Al-Andalus 13 (1948): 209-26.
10. `Abd al-Malik Ibn Hisham, Sirat Rasul Allah: The Life of Muhammad, trans.
A. Guillaume (London: 1955), passim, esp. 450-51. For the Northerners’ con-
version to Islam, see 3-107, 450-51, and 620. The Southern tribes also sent del-
egations to the Prophet and accepted Islam. As for the important Southern tribe
of al-Kindah, Ibn Hisham wrote: “Al-Ash`ath Ibn Qays came to the Prophet
with the deputation of Kindah (and accepted Islam)” (641). Concerning the
Azdi, he wrote: “Surad came to the apostle and became a good Muslim with
the deputation from al-Azd. The apostle put him in command of those of his
people who had accepted Islam and ordered him to fight the neighbouring
polytheists from the tribes of the Yaman with them,” (642). For more infor-
mation concerning the Kindah tribe, see al-Hamdani, Kitab Sifah Jazirat al-
`Arab, 86. For the study and understanding of al-Kindah’s expansion from
Yemen (Hadramawt) northward, dominating important parts of the Arabian
Peninsula, see al-Hamdani, Kitab Sifah Jazirat al-`Arab, 169. For their loca-
tion between al-Sham and Iraq, see Yaqut, Mu`jam al-Buldan, 3:421. See also
F. Krenkow, “Kinda,” Encyclopaedia of Islam (1) (Leyden: 1927), 2:1018-19.
For a general explanation of the Arab conversion to Islam, see `Arafah, Al-
Khurasaniyun wa Dawruhum, 21. For a detailed description of the Arabs’ reli-
gions before Islam, see Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 621, where he explained
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 81
that Christianity was found among some members of Rabi`ah, Ghassan, and
Quda`ah; and Judaism among some Himyar, Banu Kinanah, Banu al-Harith
ibn Ka`b, and Kindah. The rest were polytheists. Marín-Guzmán, Popular
Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, 12. See also Marín-Guzmán, Kitab al-
Bukhala’ [El Libro de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz, 44-61.
11. See Fred Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton: 1981), passim, esp.
1-49. In another of his works, he studied the role of the military institutions in
the early caliphate. Fred Donner, “The Growth of the Military Institutions in
the Early Caliphate and Their Relation to Civilian Authority,” Al-Qantara 14,
no. 2 (1993): 311-26. See also Fischer, “Kahtan,” 655. For more information
in the Arabic sources, see Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-Tiwal, 113-19.
12. The Qur’an provides the explanation for the spoils of war (al-anfal) in Surat
al-Anfal, 7:1, 41. The spoils of war have also been explained in the Sunnah.
See Al-Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh al-Sunnah (Beirut: 1969), 691-92. See also M. A.
Shaban, The `Abbasid Revolution (Cambridge: 1970), passim.
13. Marín-Guzmán, “Las causas,” 39-67; Marín-Guzmán, El Islam: Ideología e
Historia, 144; Brockelmann, History, 54. For more information on the conquest
of Iraq, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk (Cairo: n.d.), 4:72
(Egyptian ed.); al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, 255-62; al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar
al-Tiwal, 119-27; Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 163; Francesco Gabrieli,
Mahoma y las Conquistas del Islam (Madrid: 1967), passim; Al-Mas`udi,
Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf (Beirut: 1981), 266-69; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-
A`yan wa Anba’ Abna’ al-Zaman, 4:233 ff; Leone Caetani, Annali Dell’Islam
(Milano: 1905-26), 2 (2):831-61. For an account of the conquest of Iraq and
the taxation imposed during the time of `Umar, see Ya`qub ibn Ibrahim Abu
Yusuf, Kitab al-Kharaj (Cairo: 1392 a.h.), 30-31; al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-
Buldan, 448-49, where he asserted that the taxation impossed in Iraq by `Umar
was according to the Prophet’s practices (see also 300-1); al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh
al-Ya`qubi, 2:143-44. For the jund administration of Iraq (Basrah and Kufah),
see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk, 4:115 (Egyptian ed.); al-Ya`qubi,
Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:142-47; Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 182-83.
14. Marín-Guzmán, “Las causas,” 39-67. Marín-Guzmán, El Islam: Ideología e
Historia, 72-73. For more information concerning the riddah war and Abu
Bakr’s life, see al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, 94-100; al-Suyuti, Ta’rikh al-
Khulafa’, ed. Muhammad Muhiy al-Din `Abd al-Hamid (Cairo: 1964), 27-
108; Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 167-78; al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi,
2:123-38; Ibn Majah, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’, ed. Muhammad Muti` al-Hafiz
(Damascus: 1979), 22; al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 263-66; Leone
Caetani, Annali Dell’Islam, 2 (1), 510-18 (for more information on the riddah
war, see: II (1) 553-61, especially 727-28). See also Marín-Guzmán, Popular
Dimensions of the ´Abbasid Revolution, 12-13.
15. Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, ed. W. Ahlwardt (Griefswald: 1883), 11:282.
See also Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 142.
82 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
16. Al-Maqqari, Kitab Nafh al-Tib, ed. Reinhart Dozy and Gustave Dugat
(Leiden: 1855-61; reimpression, Amsterdam: 1967); Muhammedan Dynasties
in Spain, trans. Pascual de Gayangos (New York: 1964), 2:24. As this trans-
lation is poor and imprecise, reading the original Arabic is absolutely neces-
sary. In this essay, most of the references to Kitab Nafh al-Tib are from the
original Arabic, although for some general information and when the transla-
tion is reliable, the reader is suggested to consult the English version. See also
Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 39-60; Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions
of the `Abbasid Revolution, 14.
17. Al-Maqqari, Kitab Nafh al-Tib, 2:24. See also Kitab al-`Uyun wa al-Hada’iq
fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq, 3:3.
18. See the major Arabic sources quoted in this essay: al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul
wa al-Muluk; al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf and Futuh al-Buldan; Ibn Majah,
Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’; al-Suyuti, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’; Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi
al-Ta’rikh (Cairo: 1290 a.h.; see also the Leiden-Beirut Ed., 1965). See also
al-Istakhri, Kitab Masalik al-Mamalik, 7-9 for a good description of Dar al-
Islam’s extensions and frontiers. For the settlements of the Arab tribes, see 12-
14, 36-55, and 78-88. Patricia Crone, in her Slaves on Horses (p. 43) asserts
that al-Hajjaj did not favor the Qays confederation over the Yemenites. To
support this idea, she provides a list of the subgovernors under al-Hajjaj
(Appendix 3, numbers 1 to 47) in which a fair division of power and positions
between the two confederations is clearly demonstrated. However, we need
to remember that al-Hajjaj, a leader and a very skillful politician, tried to keep
a balance between the tribes. But in the long run, his policies, as well as the
Umayyad administration, favored the Qays in positions of power and in land
ownership, as proven by the Arabic sources. Al-Hajjaj started a school of
rulers under his influence who followed his policies. Notably, these rulers
were mainly from the Qays. For further information concerning the role of the
Arabs as well as the importance of the mawali in the origins of the `Abbasid
revolution, see Kennedy, The Early `Abbasid Caliphate, 37-39, 42-45.
19. For more details on the importance of the various languages in the Muslim
empire, with special emphasis on Persian and Turkish in the eastern provinces,
see Richard Frye, The Golden Age of Persia (New York: 1975), 202-7, 212.
See Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom, 492 ff., where he explains the predomi-
nance of Persian in Khurasan and in Ma wara’ al-Nahr, where Arabs had to
learn and practice it for such daily activities as the inter-relations in the market
(suq). This proves that Arabization took many years to be completed. See also
Crone, Slaves on Horses, 61. For the western provinces, especially for al-
Andalus, see Ramón Menéndez Pidal, El español en sus primeros tiempos
(Buenos Aires: 1942), 33-56 and 118-19; Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Orígenes
del español: Estado lingüístico de la Península Ibérica hasta el siglo XI
(Madrid, 1950), 415-40; Montgomery Watt, Historia de la España Islámica
(Madrid: 1980), 173-74; Évariste Lévi-Provençal, España Musulmana:
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 83
47. Ibn Majah, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’, 28-29; Al-Suyuti, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’, 210-
11; al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 281; Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf,
4B:62-65; `Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, l14. For more information
on the Banu Abu Sufyan, see al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 4B, passim, esp.
124-49; H. Lammens, “Mo’awiya II ou le dernier Sofianides,” Rivista degli
Studi Orientali 7, fascicolo 1, (1916): 1-49.
48. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk, 2:161 (Egyptian ed.). See also
Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, 24; Marín-
Guzmán, Kitab al-Bukhala’ [El Libro de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz, 48-49.
49. Michael Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest (Princeton: 1984), 248-49;
Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 21-38. The Azd tribe was one of the most
important Arab tribes, with more than 27 subdivisions that are now called
“Qahtan.” For more details, see Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 22. For
more information on these subdivisions, see also Yaqut, Mu`jam al-Buldan,
3:330 ff; on their mobilization from the areas they previously inhabitated,
especially near Makkah and the northern Hijaz, to al-Sham, see Ibn Khaldun,
Kitab al-`Ibar wa Diwan al-Mubtada’ wa al-Khabar (Beirut: 1956), 2:524-
28; on Khurasan as a frontier of the Muslim empire, see al-Hamdani, Kitab
Sifah Jazirat al-`Arab, 32; and for a clear description of Khurasan as a fron-
tier region near the Turkish land (Ard al-Turk), see 38 and 43.
50. Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 5:132-33 and 136-40; Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-
Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:468-83. (Leiden ed.). See also Ibn Qutaybah, Al-
Imamah wa al-Siyasah, 2:12-13; Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 179;
`Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 113. Al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi,
2:255-56 wrote that after Yazid’s death, several tribes living in the Hijaz and
many other places of the empire supported Ibn al-Zubayr. Al-Ya`qubi gave a
list of the representatives of Ibn al-Zubayr in such places as Hims, Kufah,
Basrah, Damascus, Filastin (Palestine), Qinnasrin, Khurasan, and Egypt. Al-
Ya`qubi even mentioned that the people of Egypt submitted (lit. obedience)
to Ibn al-Zubayr. He wrote: “Wa Ahl Misr fi Ta’atihi [Ibn al-Zubayr]” [The
people of Egypt were under his obedience]. For more details, see al-Ya`qubi,
Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:255 ff. See also Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 356 ff;
Kennedy, Prophet, 87, 91, and 93; Crone, Slaves on Horses, 34-36.
51. For more information concerning Marwan ibn al-Hakam, see Ibn Majah,
Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’, 29; al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 282-86. For more
details concerning Mu`awiyah ibn Yazid, see al-Suyuti, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’,
210-11; al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 281; Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Imamah wa
al-Siyasah, 2:10-11; Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 353-58; Brockelmann, History,
76-78; Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, 25.
52. Roberto Marín-Guzmán, “La Escatología Musulmana: Análisis del
Mahdismo,” Cuadernos de Historia, no. 44 (San José, Costa Rica: University
of Costa Rica, 1982), passim; Marín-Guzmán, El Islam: Ideología e Historia,
170-72; Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom, passim, esp. 159-60 and 181.
88 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
53. Al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, 414. For more details on the Northern tribes’
support of Ibn al-Zubayr’s revolt, see al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 4:136-
40. See also `Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 113, where he makes the
interesting observation that the Northern tribes joined and supported Ibn al-
Zubayr because they feared the power that the Yemenites were gaining
through the Umayyads’ support.
54. M. A. Shaban, El Islam (Madrid: 1976), 1:106-7; Marín-Guzmán, El Islam:
Ideología e Historia, 135-62. See also Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions
of the `Abbasid Revolution, 24-25.
55. Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 179-82 and 183-89; Marín-Guzmán, Kitab
al-Bukhala’ [El Libro de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz, 44-61.
56. Muhammad Diya’ al-Din al-Rayyis, ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan wa al-
Dawlat al-Umawiyah (Cairo: 1969?), 46-48; `Abd al-Wahid Dhannun Taha,
Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi (Mosul: 1985), 204-5; Crone,
Slaves on Horses, 37-39. For the army as an institution, see Marín-Guzmán,
“Some Reflections on the Institutions of Muslim Spain,” 26-56.
57. For more details concerning al-Hajjaj’s role in taxation in Iraq and the devel-
opment of iqta’, see Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-Kharj, 63; `Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn
Yusuf al-Thaqafi, passim, esp. 23-24 and 85-87. Ihsan Sidqi al-`Amad dis-
cusses (85-87 and 101) the origins and development of the relations between
the Thaqafi tribe (mainly located in Ta’if) and the Umayyads. These relations
were improved mainly under Marwan ibn al-Hakam, when al-Hajjaj and his
father participated in the administration of Fustat (Egypt). The Arabic sources
contain contradictory accounts of when al-Hajjaj and his father left Egypt for
Syria, either in the time of Marwan ibn al-Hakam or `Abd al-Malik ibn
Marwan. However, the sources agree that al-Hajjaj and his father joined in
Syria the military expedition organized by Marwan ibn al-Hakam to stop the
fitnah led by Ibn al-Zubayr in the Hijaz. Whether or not that meant that they
moved to al-Sham is still a point under discussion. Later on, a Thaqafi (al-
Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf) working for the Umayyads defeated Ibn al-Zubayr. Al-
Hajjaj was also the architect of `Abd al-Malik’s reforms. For more informa-
tion concerning al-Hajjaj’s activities in Ta’if, see Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif,
548. See also the following sources: `Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi,
385-386; Ibn `Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr wa Akhbaruha, 109 ff; Ruwayha,
Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, passim, esp. 112 and 128-42; Taha, Al-
`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 26-27. See also Ibn Qutaybah,
Al-Ma`arif, 396-97. For more details on al-Hajjaj’s bay`ah to `Abd al-Malik
ibn Marwan, see Al-`Uyun wa al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq, 3:9 and see
3:10-11 for al-Hajjaj’s administrative positions; Kennedy, Prophet, 100;
Crone, Slaves on Horses, 42 ff. For ´Umar Ibn `Abd al-`Aziz following the
iqta’ institution, see Yahya ibn Adam al-Qurashi, Kitab al-Kharaj (Lahore:
1395 a.h.), 83-89; Rayyis, `Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, 187-93; Morony, Iraq
after the Muslim Conquest, 37-38 and 95. For more details on al-Hajjaj’s role
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 89
in the shurtah of Damascus, see Ibn `Abd Rabbihi, Al-`Iqd al-Farid, 5:14. For
a general study of iqta’ and its evolution, see Claude Cahen, Les peuples
musulmans dans l’histoire médiévale (Damascus: 1977), 231-69. For more
information on al-Hajjaj’s governorship of Iraq, see Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi
al-Ta’rikh, 4:374-80. For more details on his position in Basrah, see 4:380-87
(Leiden-Beirut ed.). Al-Hajjaj also appointed a mawla in his shurtah in Iraq.
For more details, see al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:328. See also Patricia
Crone, “Mawla,” Encyclopaedia of Islam (2) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989), 4:
Fasc. 111-12, 874-82, esp. 879; Marín-Guzmán, Kitab al-Bukhala’ [El Libro
de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz, passim, esp. 63-64, 131-32, 164-66.
58. See Arthur Pope, An Introduction to Persian Art since the Seventeenth
Century (London: 1930), passim; Roberto Marín-Guzmán, “El Islam, una
religion,” Crónica 3 (1982), 81-90; Marín-Guzmán, El Islam: Ideología e
Historia, 107-21. Concerning the mint that struck the first Muslim dirhams in
Arabic without images, in 695 or 696, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-
Muluk, 2:939 (Leiden ed.). See also al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, 465-66,
who thinks that the first totally epigraphic Muslim coins were minted in 693
and 694, not in 695-696. Al-Mawardi, Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyah wa al-Wilayat
al-Diniyah (Cairo: n.d.), 76-77; Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-
Thaqafi,164-66, esp. 165. For the Islamic mint, see Morony, Iraq after the
Muslim Conquest, 38-51; Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-
Thaqafi, 160-81; Kennedy, Prophet, 88. See also Marín-Guzmán, Popular
Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 26-27.
59. Ibn Majah, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’, 29; Al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 282-
86; Kennedy, Prophet, 93. See also Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of
the `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 26-27.
60. Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 4:240 (manuscript), quoted by Hasan, Al-
Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 138. See also Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 357, where he
explained `Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan’s appointment of al-Hajjaj as governor
of Iraq after al-Hajjaj defeated Ibn al-Zubayr in the Hijaz and started recon-
structing the Ka`bah in Makkah. See also Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 396-97.
61. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1018 (Leiden ed.); Al-Baghdadi,
Al-Farq bayna al-Firaq, passim; Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 4B:90-94;
Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi al-Ta’rikh, 4:365-67 and 4:437-39 (Leiden-Beirut
ed.); Ibn Rustah, Kitab al-A`laq al-Nafisah, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden: 1892),
217; Henri Laoust, Les schismes dans l’Islam (Paris: 1977), 40-41; Morony,
Iraq after the Muslim Conquest, 473-75; Montgomery Watt, Free Will and
Predestination in Early Islam (London: 1948), 36-37; Montgomery Watt, The
Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh: 1973), passim, esp. 20-21;
`Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, passim, esp. 229-249. For more details
on the Azariqah Khawarij group, see ibid., 232-39. For more details on the
Shabibiyah, see ibid., 240-49. See also Ruwayhah, Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj
ibn Yusuf, 154-56; Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, pas-
90 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
sim, esp. 97-101; Kennedy, Prophet, 98; Francesco Gabrieli, “Sulle origini del
movimento Harigita,” Rendiconti dell’ Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei Classe
di Scienze Morali e Storiche, no. 3: Fascicolo 6 (Nov. 1941), 110-17. For more
details on al-Hajjaj facing the Azariqah in Iraq, see al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-
Ya`qubi, 2:275-76; Crone, Slaves on Horses, 39. For the study of the Syrian
troops sent to fight the Azariqah in Tabaristan, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul
wa al-Muluk, 2:1018 (Leiden ed.); Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 11:338 ff.
For more information on the fight against Shahib in Iraq, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh
al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:943 ff. (Leiden ed.).
62. Brockelmann, History, 89; Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam, 67;
Kennedy, Prophet, 102. For more information on al-Wasit, see Ibn al-Athir,
Al-Kamil fi al-Ta’rikh, 4:495-97 (Leiden-Beirut ed.); Al-Hamdani, Kitab
Sifah Jazirat al-`Arab, 148; Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest, 158-59;
`Amad, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 443-54. This author asserted (p. 443)
that the real reason behind al-Wasit’s foundation and construction was so that
al-Hajjaj could have a new capital from which he could administer and con-
trol his province (wilayah) and control the Arab tribes as well. In his Mu`jam
al-Buldan (5:348), Yaqut asserted that those who populated al-Wasit, besides
the Syrian troops, were generally Iraqi Arabs, especially people from Kufah,
who supported al-Hajjaj. See also ibid., 4:883, where he explained that al-
Hajjaj wanted to build a new and special city for his administrative purposes,
as he did not wish to remain in Kufah. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-
Muluk, 6:383-84 (Egyptian ed., 1969-70). See also al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul
wa al-Muluk, 2:1125 (Leiden ed.). In his Al-Ma`arif, 357, Ibn Qutaybah
stated that al-Hajjaj built Wasit in 83 A.H. Among Muslim historians and geo-
graphers, there is no concensus about why the city was called al-Wasit. For a
good discussion in this respect and for a comparison of what the Arabic
sources say, see `Amad, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 153-
54; al-Muqaddasi, Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma`rifat al-Aqalim (Beirut, reimpres-
sion of the 1906 Leiden ed., n.d.), 118. See also Sabatino Moscati, “Il tradi-
mento di Wasit”, in Le Museon, no. 64 (1951): 177-186; Amikam Elad, “The
Siege of al-Wasit (132/749): Some Aspects of `Abbasid and `Alid Relations
at the Beginning of the `Abbasid Rule,” in Studies in Islamic History and
Civilization in Honour of Professor David Ayalon, ed. Moshe Sharon
(Jerusalem: Leiden, 1986), 59-90; `Arafah, Al-Khurasaniyun wa Dawruhum,
77-82; Kennedy, Prophet, 115. See also Brockelmann, History, 105-6;
Kennedy, The Early `Abbasid Caliphate, 36; Marín-Guzmán, Popular
Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 100-1.
63. See Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 4:87; Kennedy, Prophet, 103; Ibn al-
Athir, Al-Kamil fi al-Ta’rikh, 4:571-76 (Leiden-Beirut ed.); al-Ya`qubi, Kitab
al-Buldan, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden: 1892), 293-94; Dinawari, Al-Akhbar
al-Tiwal, 327-28; Al-`Uyun wa al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq, 3:2; Al-
Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:286-87.
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 91
64. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ja`far Narshakhi, Ta’rikh i-Bukhara: Description
topographique et historique de Boukhara avant et pendant la conquête par
les arabes (Amsterdam: 1892, reimpression 1975); History of Bukhara, trans.
Richard Frye (Cambridge, MA: 1954), 47-55; Kennedy, Prophet, 103. See
also Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 4:86-87; al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-
Ya`qubi, 2:285-86; Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi al-Ta’rikh, 4:535 and 542
(Leiden-Beirut ed.); al-Ya`qubi, Kitab al-Buldan, 292-93; al-Dinawari, Al-
Akhbar al-Tiwal, 327-28; Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom, 437-38;
Ruwayhah, Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, 192.
65. Hamilton Gibb, The Arab Conquests in Central Asia (New York: 1970), 32-
35; Richard Frye, Bukhara: The Medieval Achievement (Norman, OK: 1965),
15; Ruwayha, Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, 192.
66. Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 4:87; Al-`Uyun wa al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-
Haqa’iq, 3:2; Al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:286; Kennedy, Prophet, 104.
67. Al-Ya`qubi, Kitab al-Buldan, 294; `Ali Bahjat, Qamus al-Amkinah wa al-
Biqa’ al-Lati Yaridu Dhikruha fi Kutub al-Futuh (Cairo: 1906), 160-61; Ibn
Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 4:87-88. See also Gibb, The Arab Conquests, 52-
53; M. A. Shaban, The `Abbasid Revolution (Cambridge: 1970), 69-70;
Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom, 436; Ruwayhah, Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj
ibn Yusuf, 192. For more details concerning Farghana as one of Dar al-Islam’s
frontiers, see al-Istakhri, Kitab Masalik al-Mamalik, 6 and 11-12; Marín-
Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 28-29.
See also Roberto Marín-Guzmán, “The `Abbasid Revolution in Central Asia
and Khurasan: An Analytical Study of Taxation, Conversion and Religious
Groups in Its Genesis,” Islamic Studies 33, nos. 2-3, (1994): 227-52.
68. Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom, 434-39; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan,
4:86-91; Elton Daniel, The Political and Social History of the Khurasan under
`Abbasid Rule, 747-820 (Minneapolis: 1979), passim; Shaban, The `Abbasid
Revolution, 69-70; Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam, 84-85; Brockelmann,
History, 82-83; Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 218-219.
For more information on the bay`ah to al-Walid, see Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi
al-Ta’rikh, 4:513-15 and 4:522-23 (Leiden-Beirut ed.); al-Dinawari, Al-
Akhbar al-Tiwal, 326. For more details concerning al-Walid I’s careful policies
and Qutaybah ibn Muslim’s military campaigns in Central Asia, see Al-`Uyun
wa al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq, 3:11 ff.
69. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1181 (Leiden ed.). See also Ibn
Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 4:86-87; Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions
of the `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 28.
70. For more information on Sulayman, see Ibn Majah, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’, 31-
32; al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-Tiwal, 329-30; al-Suyuti, Ta’rikh al-Khulafa’,
225-28; al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, 291; al-Mas`udi, Muruj al-
Dhahab, 5:396-415. For more details on Sulayman’s reign, see Al-`Uyun wa
al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq, 3:16-37; al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi,
92 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
2:293-300. For more information on Qutaybah ibn Muslim’s revolt, see al-
Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1238 (Leiden ed.); al-Baladhuri,
Futuh al-Buldan, 422-24.
71. Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 11:282.
72. Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kamil fi al-Ta’rikh, 4:l59 (Cairo ed.). For a good study of the
relations between al-Muhallab and al-Hajjaj, see al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-
Tiwal, 277-80. See also Crone, Slaves on Horses, 43. For more information
on the replacement of Yazid Ibn al-Muhallab by Qutaybah ibn Muslim al-
Bahali see Al-`Uyun wa al-Hada’iq fi Akhbar al-Haqa’iq, 3:2-3. See also al-
Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:285, where he explained that al-Hajjaj
removed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab from the governorship of Khurasan and
appointed al-Mufaddil and, later on, Qutaybah ibn Muslim al-Bahali.
73. Hasan, Al-Qaba’il al-`Arabiyah, 163-82. For more information on the Arab
settlements after the conquests (futuh), see 163-79. For a study of the tribes
after Yazid’s death, see 179-80. For the Qays settlements in Khurasan, see 181-
82. For the Tamim, see 183-89. For the Azd settlements and alliances with
other tribes, see 189-91. For more details on some of the struggles between Ibn
al-Ash’ath and al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, see al-Mas`udi, Al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf,
288-89. For the events taking place in Kufah and Basrah, see 288. Ibn al-
Athir, Al-Kamil fi al-Ta’rikh, 4:467-69 and 4:501-2. For more details, see
4:413-16 and 4:461-62 (Leiden-Beirut ed.). Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 357;
Al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:277-79; al-Dinawari, Al-Akhbar al-Tiwal,
316-24; Ruwayhah, Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, 172-76. For more
information on the historic fact that Yazid ibn al-Muhallab sent back to al-
Hajjaj only the Qays followers of Ibn al-Ash’ath, see 174. See also al-Tabari,
Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1318 ff. (Leiden ed.); Kennedy, Prophet, 102;
Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, 30.
74. See Hellmut von Ritter, “Studien zur Geschichte der Islamischen Frömmigkeit
al-Hasan al-Basri,” Der Islam, no. 21 (1933), 1-83, esp. 50-52. For more
information on Ibn al-Ash`ath’s opposition to al-Hajjaj, see Ruwayhah, Jabbar
Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, 169-70; Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
al-Thaqafi, 84-90. This author analyzes the role of religion in this revolt,
which was supported by a great number of qurra’ and fuqaha’ (84-87). On the
other hand, Taha also emphasizes the idea that al-Hajjaj appealed to Islam as
well. Al-Hajjaj considered those supporting Ibn al-Ash`ath infidels (kafirun)
and enemies of Islam (85-86). For more details on the support of the qurra’
and the fuqaha’ for Ibn al-Ash`ath, see al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 11:326,
where he explained that the religious people gave the bay`ah to Ibn al-Ash`ath
over the Book of God and the Sunnah of His Prophet. See also al-Tabari,
Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1058 (Leiden ed.); Kennedy, Prophet, 101-2.
75. Hans Heinrich Schaeder, “Hasan al-Basri: Studien zur Frühgeschichte des
Islam,” Der Islam, no. 14 (1925): 1-75. According to al-Tabari, al-Hasan al-
Basri strongly criticized al-Hajjaj (al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk,
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 93
2:1058 [Leiden ed.]). For more details on al-Hasan al-Basri, see Ibn Khallikan,
Wafayat al-A`yan, 2:69-73. Ibn Khallikan provided al-Basri’s genealogy,
which is important for the understanding of his mawla condition, since his
father was a mawla of Ziyad ibn Thabit al-Ansari. See Ibn Qutaybah, Al-
Ma`arif, 440-41, who also provided al-Basri’s genealogy, which shows his
mawla condition, as a client of al-Ansari. Ibn Sa`d, Kitab al- Tabaqat al-
Kubra (Leiden: 1905-21), 7:156, quoted by Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj
ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 87; Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom, 286.
76. Ritter, “Studien,” 50-51. See also Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest,
479. Al-Hasan al-Basri’s reputation and knowledge of Muslim traditions is
reported in several matters, including taxation. In this respect, see Abu Yusuf,
Kitab al-Kharaj, passim, esp. 11, 13, 20, 53, etc.; Ibn Sa`d, Kitab al-Tabaqat
al-Kabir, 7:118-19, quoted by Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Asr al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-
Thaqafi, 87; Ibn Qutaybah, in his Al-Ma`arif (441), preserved some of the tra-
ditions praising al-Basri, his personality, knowledge, and works. Marín-
Guzmán, Kitab al-Bukhala’ [El Libro de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz, 166-67.
77. For more details, see Nadim, Kitab al-Fihrist, passim; The Fihrist of al-
Nadim, 1:308. See also Marín-Guzmán, Kitab al-Bukhala’ [El Libro de los
Avaros] de al-Jahiz, passim, esp. 166-67.
78. See: Nadim, Kitab al-Fihrist, 1:308. See also Marín-Guzmán, Kitab al-
Bukhala’ [El Libro de los Avaros] de al-Jahiz, passim, esp. 166-67.
79. See Ibn Qutaybah, `Uyun al-Akhbar, ed. Carl Brockelmann (Berlin: 1900-8),
vol. 2, passim; Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest, 482-83; Ruwayha,
Jabbar Thaqif: Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, 168. See Taha, Al-`Iraq fi `Ahd al-Hajjaj
ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, 87 and 94, where he mentioned, from the manuscript of
Ahmad ibn `Uthman Ibn A’tham’s Futuh (2:106 b), that `Abd al-Malik ibn
Marwan’s instruction to his brother Muhammad ibn Marwan and his son `Abd
Allah, whom he sent to stop this revolt, that they were to force the Iraqis to
submit by expelling the Syrians from the Iraqis’ houses. These instructions
were influential in stopping the rebellion, in hopes of ending the Syrian pres-
ence in those regions. Moreover, al-Hajjaj’s offer of a general pardon was also
vital. However, the presence of Syrian troops was very important. For more
details, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1060 ff. (Leiden ed.).
80. See Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 6:278-309; Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul
wa al-Muluk, 2:1360 ff., esp. 1361 (Leiden ed.); Francesco Gabrieli, “La riv-
olta dei Muhallabati nel Iraq e il nuovo Baladuri,” in Rendiconti delle Sedute
dell’Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, no. 14, Serie Sesta, Fascicoli 3-4,
(1938), 199-236; Shaban, The `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 93-96. For an
account of the mawali’s support of to Yazid ibn al-Muhallab’s revolt, see al-
Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 2:1381 and 2:1403 (Leiden ed.); Marín-
Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, 30-33.
81. See Schaeder, “Hasan al-Basri,” 70-71. Despite the fact that Yazid II’s behav-
ior offended religious people, al-Hasan al-Basri criticized Ibn al-Muhallab’s
94 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:4
rebellion and his calls to follow the Qur’an and the Sunnah in the resistance
against the Umayyads. See also 68-69. See al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-
Muluk, 2:1400 ff. (Leiden ed.); Ritter, “Studien zur,” 50-52 ff; Gabrieli, “La
rivolta,” 209 and 219-21; Marín-Guzmán, Popular Dimensions of the
`Abbasid Revolution, 30-33.
82. Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 6:278-309. Ibn Khallikan wrote: “Rama al-
khilafah li nafsihi” [He appropriated the caliphate for himself]. See also al-
Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 710 b from the Constantinople manuscript,
quoted by Francesco Gabrieli, “La rivolta,” 216. Gabrieli showed, after a
detailed study of the sources and all the traditions, that Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
claimed the caliphate, repudiated caliph Yazid II, declared himself caliph, and
rejected the entire Umayyad dynasty (“La rivolta,” 213-15). Shaban has a dif-
ferent opinion concerning these issues. After dealing with only a few tradi-
tions, he concluded in his The `Abbasid Revolution, 94: “There is no evidence
at all that Yazid tried to supplant Umayyad rule by any other, and it is
reported explicitly that he did not withdraw his alliance to Yazid II.” His opin-
ions should be read critically, since there is evidence in other Arabic sources
and in several traditions, as demonstrated by Gabrieli, that Yazid ibn al-
Muhallab declared himself caliph.
83. Marín-Guzmán, El Islam: Ideología e Historia, passim, esp. 78, and 158-71;
Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A`yan, 4:278-309; Kennedy, Prophet, 105.
84. Al-Mas`udi, Muruj al-Dhahab, 5:454-55. See also Francesco Gabrieli, “L’eroe
Omayyade Maslamah Ibn `Abd al-Malik,” Rendiconti Delle Sedute
Dell’Accademia Nazionale Dei Lincei, no. 5: Fascicoli 1-2 (1950): 23-39, esp.
30 and 35; Gabrieli, “La rivolta,” 227; Kennedy, Prophet, 108. Concerning
Maslamah Ibn `Abd al-Malik’s short governorship of Iraq, see Ibn Qutaybah,
Al-Ma`arif, 358. See also Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma`arif, 358, for a concise
description of Maslamah ibn `Abd al-Malik’s struggles and success against the
Byzantines. See also al-Ya`qubi, Ta’rikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:283.
85. Ibn Qutaybah, `Uyun al-Akhbar, 2:22 and 29-30; Marín-Guzmán, Popular
Dimensions of the `Abbasid Revolution, passim, esp. 32-33.
86. Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-Ashraf, 3:81. See also Akhbar al-Dawlah al-
`Abbasiyah, 205-7; Al-Muqaddasi, Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma`rifat al-Aqalim,
293-94. According to al-Tabari, when Abu al-`Abbas was proclaimed caliph
in the great mosque of Kufah, after the `Abbasids captured it from from the
Umayyads, he used his inaugural speech to appeal to and praise the people
of Kufah. See al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, 3:30 (Leiden ed.). I
quote John Alden Williams’ translation of this part (The `Abbasid
Revolution [New York: 1985], 154): “People of Kufa, you are the halting-
place of our love, the lodging of our affections. You it is who remained
steadfast, you who were not deflected from our love by the injustice of the
people of tyranny against you until you reached our epoch and God brought
you our revolution.” For further information, see also `Arafah, Al-
Marín-Guzmán: Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the `Abbasid Revolution 95