Instrumentation & Measurements

Ruqia Ikram
 Lecture 5,6

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Generalized Performance characteristics of
Instruments
 Introduction
 Static characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics

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Introduction
 Performance characteristics of instrument generally divided into two
subcategories
 Static characteristics
Accuracy
Precision / repeatability / reproducibility
Range / Span
Linearity
Sensitivity of Measurement
Threshold
Resolution
Drift
Hysteresis effects
Dead Space
 Dynamic characteristics
Response time
Damping
Natural Frequency
Frequency response

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Static characteristics
Static Calibration
 It is refer to a situation in which all inputs except one are kept at some
constant value. Input under study varies over the constant range of
values cause variation in output.
 This procedure may be repeated for each input.
 In good instruments, interfering and modifying input effects on output
are relatively small.(applies where not high accuracy level requirement)
 For e.g. Pressure gage has temperature as interfering input.
 For desired input with calibration response of instruments has been
done by comparing with standard.
 Calibration Steps
1. Identification of all possible inputs outputs.
2. Define input for each instrument need s to be calibrated.
3. Procure apparatus that will allow to vary all inputs over the range.
4. By holding some inputs constant, varying other, record output,
develop required input-output relations

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Static characteristics
 Accuracy
 It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the
true value of the quantity to be measured.
 It depends on amount of error. E.g. 120,118.5 and 120,70.

 Precision
 Precision describes an instrument’s degree of random variations in its
output when measuring a quantity.
 250.0,251.0,249.0,251.5,249.7

 Repeatability
 It describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is
applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same
measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same
location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

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Static characteristics
 Reproducibility
 It describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.

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Static characteristics
 Scale Range and Scale Span
 The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and
maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.
e.g. A voltmeter can measure in range of 0-200V
 Linearity
 It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is
linearly proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Sensitivity
 The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount.
 A pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure
transducer, the sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/ bar

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Static characteristics
 Threshold
 If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input
will have to reach a certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable. This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the
instrument.
 Resolution
 If the input is increased slowly from some input value, again output
doesn't change at until a certain input increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution.
 As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static
instrument characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is
a measure of the magnitude of this change.
 Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways,
known as zero drift and sensitivity drift.
 Zero drift describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument
is modified by a change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant
error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument.

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Static characteristics

Sensitivity drift
 Sensitivity drift also known as (scale factor drift) defines the amount by
which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient
conditions change.
 It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much drift
there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter that the
instrument characteristics are sensitive to

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Static characteristics
 If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same
time,

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Static characteristics
Hysteresis
 The non-coincidence between these loading and unloading curves is known
as hysteresis.

Dead Space
 Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which
there is no change in output value.

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Static characteristics
Example # 1
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer
were measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement
sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/°C.
Resistance (Ω) Temperature (°C)
307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290
Solution: If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line
relationship between resistance change and temperature change is obvious.
For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 7Ω.
Hence the measurement sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.233 Ω/°C.

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 Static characteristics
Example # 2
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C
and has the following deflection/load characteristic.
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection (mm) 0 20 40 60
It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the
following deflection/ load characteristic is measured.
Load (kg): 0 1 2 3
Deflection (mm) 5 27 49 71
Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient
temperature.
Solution: At 20°C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight line.
Sensitivity = 20 mm/kg. At 30°C, deflection/load characteristic is still a straight
line. Sensitivity = 22 mm/kg. Bias (zero drift) = 5mm (the no-load deflection),
Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg. Therefore,
Zero drift/°C = 5/10 = 0.5 mm/°C,
Sensitivity drift/°C = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per kg)/°C

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 Dynamic characteristics

 The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its

behavior between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time
when the instrument output attains a steady value in response.
 In any measuring system, the following general relation can be written
between input and output for time (t) > 0:

(1)

 where qi is the measured quantity, q0 is the output reading and

a0 . . . an, b0 . . . bm are constants.

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 Dynamic characteristics

Zero order instrument

 If all the coefficients a1 . . . an other than a0 in equation (2) are assumed
zero, then

(3)

 where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity as defined

earlier. Any instrument that behaves according to equation (3) is said to
be of zero order type.

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 Dynamic characteristics

 Following a step change in the measured quantity at time t, the instrument

output moves immediately to a new value at the same time instant t
 A potentiometer, which measures motion
is an example of (a Zero Order)
Instrument as where the output voltage
changes instantaneously as slider is
displaced along the potentiometer track.

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 Dynamic characteristics

First order instrument

 If all the coefficients a2 . . . an except for a0 and a1 are assumed zero in
equation (1) then

(4)

 Any instrument that behaves according to equation (4) is known as a first

order instrument. If d/dt is replaced by the D operator in equation (4), we
get

(5)

 Defining K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and τ = a1/a0 as the time

constant of the system

(6)

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 Dynamic characteristics

 The time constant τ of the step response is the time taken for the output
quantity q0 to reach 63% of its final value.

 The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a good example of a first order

instrument. It is well known that, if a thermometer at room temperature is
plunged into boiling water, the output signal does not rise instantaneously to
a level indicating 100°C, but instead approaches a reading indicating 100°C
in a manner similar to that shown in above figure.
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 Dynamic characteristics

Second order instrument

(7)

(8)
 It is convenient to re-express the variables a0, a1, a2 and b0 in equation (8)
in terms of three parameters K (static sensitivity), ω (undamped natural
frequency) and ξ (damping ratio), where:
 K = b0/a0 ; ω = a0/a2 ; ξ = a1/2 a0a2 Re-expressing equation (8) in terms
of K, ω and ξ we get

(9)

 This is the standard equation for a second order system and any instrument
whose response can be described by it is known as a second order
instrument.
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 Dynamic characteristics

 The output responses of a second order instrument for various values of ξ

following a step change in the value of the measured quantity at time t.
Output A ξ = 0.0
Output B ξ = 0.2
Output C ξ = 0.707
Output D ξ = 1.0
Output E ξ = 1.5

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 Dynamic characteristics

Example #3
A balloon is equipped with temperature and altitude measuring
instruments and has radio equipment that can transmit the output readings of
these instruments back to ground. The balloon is initially anchored to the
ground with the instrument output readings in steady state. The altitude-
measuring instrument is approximately zero order and the temperature
transducer first order with a time constant of 15 seconds. The temperature on
the ground, T0, is 10°C and the temperature Tx at an altitude of x metres is
given by the relation:
Tx = T0 - 0.01x
(a) If the balloon is released at time zero, and thereafter rises upwards at
a velocity of 5 metres/second, draw a table showing the temperature and
altitude measurements reported at intervals of 10 seconds over the first 50
seconds of travel. Show also in the table the error in each temperature
reading.
(b) What temperature does the balloon report at an altitude of 5000
metres?

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 Dynamic characteristics

Solution
 Let the temperature reported by the balloon at some general time t be Tr.
Then Tx is related to Tr by the relation:

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 Dynamic characteristics

In Using the above expression to calculate Tr for various values of t, the

following table can be constructed:
Time Altitude Temperature reading Temperature
error
0 0 10 0
10 50 9.86 0.36
20 100 9.55 0.55
30 150 9.15 0.65
40 200 8.70 0.70
50 250 8.22 0.72

At 5000 m, t = 1000 seconds. Calculating Tr from the above expression:

Tr = 10 - 0.75e-1000/15 - 0.05(1000 – 15)
The exponential term approximates to zero and so Tr can be written as:
Tr ≈ 10 - 0.05(985)= -39.25°C
This result might have been inferred from the table above where it can be
seen that the error is converging towards a value of 0.75.

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Assignment #1

Question#1
A load cell is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 21°C and has
the
following deflection/load characteristic:
Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200
Deflection (mm) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
When used in an environment at 35°C, its characteristic changes to the
following:
Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200
Deflection (mm) 0.2 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.6
(a) Determine the sensitivity at 21°C and 35°C.
(b) Calculate the total zero drift and sensitivity drift at 35°C.
Question #2
An unmanned submarine is equipped with temperature and depth measuring
instruments and has radio equipment that can transmit the output readings of
these instruments back to the surface. The submarine is initially floating on the
surface of the sea with the instrument output readings in steady state. The
depth measuring instrument is approximately zero order and the temperature
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Assignment #1

transducer first order with a time constant of 50 seconds.

The water temperature on the sea surface, T0, is 20°C and 𝑇𝑥 the temperature
at a depth of x metres is given by
the relation:
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇0 − 0.01𝑥
(a) If the submarine starts diving at time zero, and thereafter goes down at a
velocity of 0.5 metres/second, draw a table showing the temperature and
depth measurements reported at intervals of 100 seconds over the first 500
seconds of travel. Show also in the table the error in each temperature
reading.
(b) What temperature does the submarine report at a depth of 1000 metres?

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Reference Book

Chapter 2 “Measurements and Instrumentation Principles

by Alan S Morris”

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