Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites

A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Excavation and Treatment of

Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings
in Archaeological Sites

A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Jacques Neguer and Yael Alef

Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

A Guide for the Archaeologist and Conservator

Israel Antiquities Authority Publications

Illustrations: Yael Alef and Haim Kapchich

Photography: Nicky Davidov

Editor in Chief: Yehudit Ben-Michael

Editor: Rachel Kudish-Vashdi
Translation from Hebrew: Debbie Manor
Typesetting, Layout and Production: Hagar Maimon

© 2014, The Israel Antiquities Authority

POB 586, Jerusalem 91004
ISBN 978–965–406–376–0

www.iaa-conservation.org.il

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Contents

Introduction 4

Archaeological Excavation of plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings 7

Decision Making during Excavation, Conservation and 9

Presentation of Wall Paintings

The Main Work Stages 11

The Excavation and Treatment of Wall Paintings in an 23

Archaeological Site

References 26

Appendix 1: Instructions for Taking Samples from 28

Archaeological Sites for Laboratory Analysis

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Introduction
Plaster, stucco and fresco painting from archaeological sites represent a rich
source of information for archaeologists and for those conducting research in
fields such as building materials and techniques, painting media, and the history
of art. For visitors, such remains have historic and artistic value in illustrating
the past. The archaeological dig exposes the remains to the elements after
they have been buried for decades in stable conditions. ‘Excavation shock’—
the rapid drying out, shrinking and expansion caused by fluctuations in humidity
and temperature, as well as UV radiation—results in immediate destruction and
deterioration processes. The exposure, conservation and study of such sensitive
elements present a complex challenge demanding full cooperation between
archaeologists, conservators and other specialists, in order to manage the site’s
excavation and treatment in keeping with the archaeological research goals
and conservation needs. These include collecting environmental data to plan
the appropriate preventive conservation: shelter, salt testing, microbiological
analysis and deterioration patterns, and researching wall-painting materials
and conservation techniques.
The guide to the excavation and treatment of plaster, stucco and wall
paintings is designed to help archaeologists and conservators plan the
appropriate treatment for such fragile components of the archaeological
excavation, from the moment they are identified and excavated. It aims
to provide a common language for archaeologists and conservators, to
prevent the loss and destruction of plaster, stucco and fresco elements,
whether due to incorrect excavation methods, insufficient documentation,
inappropriate collection and transfer from the site to the laboratory, or
insufficient protection for those elements remaining in situ.

Wall painting from Gethsemane.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Plaster. A soft, plastic material that can be spread on a wall, ceiling, or

other surface, where it subsequently hardens. In the context of art and
architecture, plaster is a mixture of water, lime and sand, often combined
with other materials, such as animal hair, to give the resulting material the
required strength, texture and porosity.

Stucco (molded plaster). A type of malleable plaster, made from slaked

lime mixed with powdered marble (stucco romano), or with gypsum and
stone powder. The stucco sets more slowly than “regular” plaster, and
therefore lends itself to sculpting and the decoration of external and
internal architectural elements.

Fresco. A painting technique in which dry pigments ground with water are
brushed onto a thin layer of wet plaster (intonaco). As the plaster dries,
there is a chemical reaction between the calcium hydroxide (CaOH) and
the air, and it stabilizes as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to become durable.
Fresco paintings are known to have survived from the Minoan period in
Crete (1700 BCE) and also from the Roman period at Pompeii (79 CE).
Fresco paintings were used to decorate interior walls in Italy, particularly
in churches, from the thirteenth century CE onward.

Secco. A technique in which aqueous slurry (pigment) is applied to dry

plaster. This technique requires a binding medium, such as egg (tempera),
glue or oil to attach the pigment to the plaster. Secco was often used over
the fresco painting to correct mistakes, and to add details in shades that
were impossible to achieve in fresco because of the alkaline nature of the
fresh plaster. Blue presented a particular problem; for example, blue robes
were usually added using the secco technique, since neither of the two
minerals commonly used to produce blue in ancient times, lapis lazuli and
azurite, are chemically compatible for working on wet plaster.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

)1( )2( )3( )4( )5(

Structure of a wall painting: (1) First layer of plaster (Trullisatio/Rinzafo)—foundation

layer leveling the stone wall surface; (2) Second plaster layer (Arriccio)—rough lime-based
plaster layer; (3) Plaster layer (Intonaco)—thin and fine finishing layer on which the painting
is drawn; (4) Sinopia—outline of the painting, usually drawn in a reddish color; (5) The wall
painting.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Archaeological Excavation of Plaster,

Stucco and Wall Paintings

Wall paintings excavated at archaeological

sites will usually be found in the following
conditions or combinations thereof:

A. Loose fragments that are no longer

in situ;
B. Fragments connected to collapsed
walls, including interconnected
plaster fragments;
C. In situ painting on plaster, still
attached to a standing wall.
These conditions are the outcome of the
way in which the building collapsed. In a
gradual process of collapse, the ceiling and
roof collapse first, followed by the upper
parts of the wall and then the lower parts of
the wall. During the excavation, the upper
sections of the painting are generally found
furthest from the wall, toward the middle
of the room, whereas the lower parts are
usually found closer to the wall. Therefore,
the order and location of the wall-painting Effect of degradation and
destruction on the preservation of
fragments may well indicate their original
wall paintings in a building; the
location in the structure. If the collapse location of loose plaster fragments
occurs over time, as a result of the building may indicate their original location
on the wall.
being abandoned and deteriorating, layers
of dust and debris may accumulate between fragments of the wall and the
destroyed wall painting. If destruction was sudden, due to an earthquake
for example, the plaster and collapse will be found on the floor covered by
accumulated layers of debris from later periods.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Accumulation of layers of dirt between parts of the building and the destroyed
wall painting.

Fragments of plaster and collapse on the floor, covered with an accumulation of later
fill layers, in cases when an earthquake has caused sudden destruction.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Decision Making during Excavation,

Conservation and Presentation of Wall
Paintings
The importance of wall paintings or artistic elements, and their particular
vulnerability to climatic conditions from the moment they have been
exposed, require careful and knowledgeable management of all aspects
of the excavation. The options for conserving and exhibiting the remains
are listed here, followed by a flowchart detailing the questions and guiding
principles for choosing the preferred option.

COVERING FOR
PROTECTION AND
MAINTENANCE

Leaving THE FIND BACKFILL/REBURIAL

IN SITU OF FIND

IN SITU CONSERVATION AND

PRESENTATION OF FIND
(INCLUDING PROTECTION
AND MAINTENANCE)

EXCAVATION AND
EXPOSURE:
FIRST AID TREATMENT LIFTING THE FIND STORAGE
OF FIND IN SITU

IN SITU
PRESENTATION OF
FIND ON MODERN
SUPPORT
LIFTING AND
RELAYING ON
NEW SUPPORT
EXHIBITION OR STORAGE
UNDER MUSEUM
CONDITIONS

Scenarios for conserving and exhibiting wall paintings.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

RESCUE EXCAVATION

ARE THE SITE OR IS THE WALL EXCAVATE, COLLECT

Yes No
CONTEXT ABOUT TO PAINTING A MAJOR FRAGMENTS
BE DESTROYED? WORK? FOR RESEARCH,
DOCUMENT,
Pubish
Yes
No
LIFT

IS THE WALL EXCAVATE (RESCUE),

WILL THE SITE Yes Yes DOCUMENT, PLAN,
PAINTING IN DANGER
BE OPEN TO THE LIFT, STORE IN
FROM THEFT OR
PUBLIC? MUSEUM
VANDALISM?

No No Yes

REBURIAL ARE THERE

SUFFICIENT
No RESOURCES TO Yes IS IT NECESSARY TO
DOCUMENT, EXCAVATE UNDER
PLAN, CARE FOR PRESENT AND
PROTECT THE WALL THE WALL PAINTING
TEMPORARY/
PERMANENT COVER, PAINTING?
MONITOR AND
MAINTAIN
No

EXHIBIT IN SITU

DOCUMENT, PLAN
CONSERVE AND
RESTORE, PROTECT
THE PAINTING IN
SITU, MONITOR AND
MAINTAIN

Wall-painting conservation and exhibition decision-making process

(after Gaël de Guichen’s diagram for mosaic treatment).

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

The Main Work Stages

The main stages of excavation and conservation of plaster, stucco and wall
paintings are described below, according to three states of preservation
and means of intervention:

1. Exposure and treatment of detached fragments;

2. Exposure of the wall painting, removal and treatment in the laboratory;
3. Exposure and treatment of plaster, stucco and wall paintings in situ.

In many cases, different conservation methods will be combined: treatment

of fragments, lifting of mural panels and in situ conservation of the rest of
the wall painting. Recording and excavation will be conducted as a first
step in all cases, as a basis for decision making regarding the continuation
of treatment. Documentation of the intervention will also be conducted in
all cases, according to standard procedures. The other work stages depend
upon the condition of preservation.

Treating a wall painting in a laboratory.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

1. Recording
Recording provides information about the position and stratigraphy of the
wall painting, enabling an understanding of the archaeological context and
assisting in the artistic reconstruction of wall paintings. Recording is the
basis of the conservation process, and is mandatory before any intervention.
The archaeologist is responsible for the excavation.

1.1. Recording in relation to the structure on a scale between 1:25 and

1:50, and surveying the location of the painting in the site.
1.2. Measuring, detailed recording and photographing all the collapsed
fragments to document their precise location relative to each other
(including detached fragments or fragments connected to walls which
have collapsed), on a 1:1 scale.
1.3. General photography of the site and its finds from every direction
according to standard practice, with the scale-bar parallel to the plane
of the photo. Careful attention must be paid to ensure that the camera
is held perpendicular to the find, and to observe a balanced contrast
between light and shade.

2. Excavation
The aim of the excavation in this instance is to expose the wall painting in
a controlled manner, and as far as possible to preserve the original material
in the best possible condition, in order to extract the maximum data from
it. The archaeologist is responsible for the excavation.

2.1. Excavating the soil to within 1 cm of the wall painting.

2.2. Waiting for the layer of soil covering the painting to dry out at a
controlled rate.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

A fine layer of soil has been left during excavation to cover the painting
and ensure its controlled drying out.

3. Preliminary Cleaning
The purpose of preliminary cleaning of
the painting at this stage is to allow a
rudimentary understanding of its physical
condition and to assess its significance,
as a basis for decision making as regards
the continued excavation and method of
treatment. The rest of the cleaning will
take place at a later stage in the laboratory,
or on site prior to exhibiting the wall
painting. Preliminary in situ cleaning will
be the responsibility of the conservator,
following these stages:
3.1. Mechanical cleaning of dry soil residue
with brushes and a scalpel.
3.2. Chemical cleaning of carbonates and Cleaning remains of dry soil from
the panel with a chisel to allow
other deposits. gauze material to be applied to
3.3. Extraction of salts. stabilize the panel before lifting it.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

4. Initial On-Site Consolidation

In many cases, the physical condition of fragments in debris or of panels

to be lifted is fragile and crumbling. Therefore, pre-consolidation with
reversible materials and methods is needed to stabilize them before
collection and transportation to the laboratory. Pre-consolidation of the
painting in situ will usually be combined with treatment (Stage 7, below).
The conservator is responsible for in situ pre-consolidation:

4.1. Pre-consolidation of the paint layers with reversible materials will

be carried out in exceptional cases before treating the foundation of the
painting or before removing the wall paintings.
4.2. Applying support using “facing” with gauze and reversible
consolidates, such as Paraloid B72 diluted in an organic-based agent,
enabling future treatment. In certain
cases, non-reversible materials may be
used, such as lime water or lime-based
mortar or nano-lime, which will not
interfere with future treatment.

4.3. Protection of the painting before

removal from the site and transportation, Applying gauze impregnated with
Paraloid to strengthen the edges
by building wooden or plastic-
of the painting before lifting and
mesh supports and boxes filled with removing it from the wall.
polyurethane foam or gypsum, matching
the size of the panel or fragments.
4.4. When a wall painting is exposed in
situ, preventive conservation measures
must be provided, including temporary
drainage, shelter and cover, as well as
pre-consolidation of the walls and plaster
(strengthening edges, consolidating Fixing wooden supports to lift the
lacunae, and micro-grouting). panel from the site.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

5. Collecting Wall-Painting Fragments and Lifting Panels

Collection of fragments or removal of the painting are required in order
to transfer them to the laboratory for continued conservation and
research, or in order to reassemble them with the in situ wall painting.
In principle, it is important to collect all
the loose fragments on the site even if
initially there seems to be no relationship
between them. These fragments could be
part of an in situ wall painting, and will
assist in the architectural understanding
and restoration of the painting. The aim is
to collect the fragments according to their
exact location in relation to the structure
and the layers of debris in the destroyed
building.

• Collection of all the fragments, without

selection, will take place when the
fragmented finds are out of context and
are not part of the building’s stratigraphy,
for example if they have been moved
from their position in ancient times, or
deposited as waste.
• The fragments are laid in boxes with
paper shreds between the fragments,
while maintaining the proper humidity
during transportation and storage.
• The archaeologist may be responsible
for collecting the fragments, while the The panel is separated
conservator will remove the panels from the wall using metal
rulers, and then fixed to
or fragments of painting found in the an additional support with
collapse. gauze.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

5.1. Loose fragments: collecting all the fragments separately, without

sorting, and storing in labeled boxes lined with paper or soil. Cleaning
of the back and consolidation will sometimes be required before
transportation.
5.2. Fragments connected to collapsed walls: collecting the connected
fragments and storing in boxes.
5.3. Removing the wall painting from the site: detaching the painting
from the wall after constructing a suitable support, and transporting to
the laboratory.

Cleaning the back of the fresco before it can be transported to the laboratory.

6. Reassembly in the Laboratory

The object of reassembling the loose fragments is to permit an understanding
of the artistic design, and its relation to the architectural structure and the
context of the site. The reassembly is usually undertaken by the conservator
in the laboratory.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

6.1. Sorting the fragments in each box by color, designs and the different
types of mortar used.
6.2. Assembling the fragments according to the documentation and
physical evidence: the shape of the fragments, pigments, designs and
mortar. In the mortar from ceiling fragments, for example, there may
be traces of wooden beams, and it is different from the mortar used in
walls.

Reconstruction of the fresco from the rescue excavation at Nahf: the fragments were
joined together based on the documentation and physical evidence: the form of the edges,
pigments, decorative elements and the different types of mortar.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

7. Treatment
The intervention is based on an assessment of the condition of the find
after a physical survey and mapping of the effects of destruction and
deterioration, and after the value of the finds has been understood and they
have been interpreted. The conservator is responsible for the treatment.

7.1. Conservation of loose fragments aligned in preparation for assembly

to the wall painting in situ or on a panel, or prior to storage.
• The main aim of conserving the loose fragments is to assist in
archaeological research. In the case of fragments extracted from collapse,
conservation may also aim to enable a restoration of the designs and
their reassembly to the wall painting in situ, or their exhibition on a
panel in a museum.
7.1.1. Dry and wet cleaning, and
consolidation of pigments and mortars.
7.1.2. Reassembling the fitting
fragments to the wall painting that has
been left in situ, or to a panel of the
painting that has been removed from its
site.
7.1.3. Storing the remaining fragments
that have been aligned together
(without being glued) in suitable boxes.
7.1.4. Monitoring.

7.2. Conservation of a wall painting that

Cleaning mortar from the back
has been lifted from its site of the painting in the laboratory,
• The conservation aims to enable and applying a lime-based
dividing layer with a permanent
research, restoration and exhibition, support of “aluminum
either in a museum or on-site. honeycomb.”

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

7.2.1. Consolidating the mortar of the

back of the painting and placing it in a
permanent support.
7.2.2. Cleaning and consolidating the
layers of paint, integrating lacunae and
the surface of the painting, and applying
protective layers. Filling in lacunae.
7.2.3. Returning the painting for exhibition
in situ or in a museum, or transferring for
storage.
7.2.4. Monitoring.

Wet cleaning. Integration of lacunae.

7.3. Treating a wall painting in situ

• The conservation aims to enable research and exhibition within the
broad context of the archaeological site. Thus, treatment will include:
7.3.1. Consolidation of the wall and mortars to support and preserve
the wall paintings.
7.3.2. Final cleaning, salt extraction and consolidation of the paint
layers.
7.3.3. Filling in lacunae, integration of painting and application of
protective layers.
7.3.4. Arranging for drainage and temporary protection (roofing or
covering) until permanent protective measures are installed.
7.3.5. Monitoring and maintenance.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

4
‫טיח‬
‫טיח‬
8
1

6
2

7
3

‫טיח‬

Cross-section showing typical conservation problems encountered with wall paintings

exposed in an archaeological excavation: Cracks in the plaster (1); lacunae (gaps) on the
surface (2) and on the foundation layer (3); broken plaster edges (4); detachment (5);
holes (6); swelling (7); and disintegration of the plaster (8).

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Treating plaster to stabilize it, including cleaning and injecting mortar.

Wall
Sand fill
Protection wall
Soil
Fresco

Stone support
Drainage channel

Temporary covering and protection of a wall painting from ‘En Qobi

(for permanent covering, a layer of soil must be added above the stone support).

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

8. Sampling
Analysis of materials may yield information that will assist in archaeological
and artistic research, and also help plan conservation treatment and
research (see Appendix 1). The samples may provide data on building
techniques, components and characteristics of mortars, pigments and
binders in buildings and wall paintings in ancient times, and even contribute
to research on the plant environment using tests to identify pollen
trapped in plaster. Tests are also used to determine suitable intervention
methods: Collection of environmental data, salt testing, erosion patterns
and microbiology. Most of the samples will be taken in the laboratory,
according to the demands of the experts and research questions posed by
the archaeologist or the conservator.

8.1. Sampling the mortars from all the foundation layers of the wall
painting.
8.2. Sampling the pigments and binders from all the paint layers.
8.3. Sampling to identify deterioration processes and micro-organisms.
8.4. Collecting climatic data from the environs of the in situ wall painting.

9. Documenting and Preparing the Final Report

The documentation report provides information on the materials and
ancient painting techniques, a graphic report of the physical condition
before conservation, and information about the interventions for research,
exhibition and further conservation in the future. The conservator is
responsible for the documentation.

9.1. Photographic records of wall-painting fragments.

9.2. Interpretation and graphic reconstruction of the wall painting.
9.3. Physical survey report.
9.4. Documenting the interventions carried out and the information
collected during the conservation work, and mapping them.

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 The Excavation and Treatment of Wall Paintings in an Archaeological Site
Stage Description of Tasks Where Who Equipment
1. Measurement 1.1 Measuring and mapping the location of the painting in relation to the structure and the site on Site Archaeologist • Writing
a 1:25–1:50 scale. or conservator implements,
1.2 Measuring and recording all the sections (including detached fragments or sections attached to Surveyor transparent paper,
collapsed walls) on a 1:1 scale. Photographer site plan
1.3 General photography of the site and the find. • Cameras
• Measuring tools
such as GPS,
theodolite, in rare
cases laser scanning
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

or photogrammetry
2. Exposure 2.1 Excavating the soil to within 1 cm of the wall painting and leaving the painting covered with a Site Archaeologist • Spatulas, brushes,
layer of soil. scalpel
2.2 Waiting for controlled drying out of the layer of soil. • Boxes, shredded
2.3 Arranging for preventive treatment as first aid: drainage, temporary roofing or covering. paper (for packing),
labels
• Sand bags,
geotextiles, sand,
sieved soil from the
excavation
3. Primary 3.1 Mechanical cleaning of dry soil residue with brushes and a scalpel. Site Conservator • Brush and scalpel
cleaning 3.2 Chemical cleaning of carbonates and other deposits. • Cleaning deposits:
3.3 Extraction of salts. Paper pulp with
NH4HCO3 EDTA
Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites

extraction of salts:
paper pulp or
Japanese paper with
distillated water

23
24
The Excavation and Treatment of Wall Paintings in an Archaeological Site (cont.)
Stage Description of Tasks Where Who Equipment
Loose fragments Extracting a Panel or Conserving the Find In Situ
Fragments from a Collapse
4. Primary 4.1 Pre-consolidating 4.2 Pre-consolidating the 4.4 Preventive conservation measures, Site Conservator • Use of reversible
stabilization with reversible paint layers with reversible including temporary drainage, shelter and consolidants, such
materials (in rare materials (in rare instances). temporary cover. as Paraloid B72
cases). 4.3 Applying gauze “facing” 4.5 Pre-consolidating the paint layers diluted with an
andstructural consolidation with reversible materials, to be carried organic base or
to support the wall painting out in rare cases prior to injection and Cyclododocane
prior to lifting. consolidation.
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

4.6 Primary consolidation of the walls

and plaster (strengthening edges,
consolidating lacunae and micro-grouting).
5.1 Loose fragments: 5.3 Protection prior to Not relevant Site Conservator • Materials for
Collecting all the lifting and transportation, detachment after
fragments separately, by building wooden boxes pre-consolidation:
without sorting, and or a plastic mesh with covering the surface
storing in padded polyurethane or gypsum of the painting with
boxes. filling tailored to the panel or gauze “facing”
5.2 Fragments collapse. impregnated with
connected to 5.4 Detaching the painting Paraloid B72 diluted
collapsed walls: from the wall or collapse with an organic
collecting the loose and transferring it to the base.
fragments and storing laboratory. • Materials for
Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites

in boxes. transfer: supports or

wooden boxes filled
with polyurethane
or gypsum
 The Excavation and Treatment of Wall Paintings in an Archaeological Site (cont.)
Stage Description of Tasks Where Who Equipment
Loose fragments Extracting a Panel or Conserving the Find In Situ
Fragments from a Collapse
6.1 Cleaning each box It may be possible to combine It may be possible to combine pieces Laboratory Conservator • Reversible
and sorting by colors, pieces detached from the detached from the wall painting in adhesives
designs and different wall painting in ancient times ancient times or during the excavation in • Materials to build
types of mortar. or during the excavation in the conservation of the painting in situ. a new support or
6.2 Assembling the the conserved panel. boxes suited to
fragments according storage
to the documentation
and physical
evidence: fragment
shape, colors, designs
and mortar.
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

7.1 Final cleaning and 7.4 Stabilizing the mortar of 7.7 Consolidation of the wall and Site/ Conservator • Cleaning materials
consolidation of paint the back of the painting and mortars to support and preserve the wall laboratory and poultices
layers and mortar. transferring it to a permanent paintings. • Consolidants for
7.2 Reassembling the support. 7.8 Cleaning the layers of paint and mortars and paint
matching fragments 7.5 Cleaning the layers mortar and stabilizing them, filling in layers
to the wall painting of paint and mortars lacunae, integration and application of • Lime- or acrylic-
remaining in situ, or and consolidating them, protective layers. based mortars
to the painting panel integrating lacunae and the 7.9 Arranging for drainage and temporary • Pigments
removed from the surface of the painting and protection (roofing or covering) until • Protective
site. applying protective layers. permanent protective measures are in materials, such as
7.3 Storing the 7.6 Returning the painting for place. Paraloid and acrylic
remaining pieced- presentation in situ or in a 7.10 Monitoring and maintenance. resin emulsion
together fragments museum, or depositing it in
(without gluing) in storage.
suitable boxes.
Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites

8.1 Sampling the mortars from all the layers making up the wall painting. Site/ Archaeologist,
8.2 Sampling the pigments and binders from all the layers of the painting. laboratory conservator or
8.3 Sampling to identify deterioration processes and micro-organisms that may exist in the wall painting. specialists
8.4 Collecting climatic data from the environs of the in situ wall painting.
9.1 Recording wall-painting fragments in photographs. Office Archaeologist • Materials and
9.2 Interpretation and graphic reconstruction of the wall painting. or conservator equipment for

25
9.3 Documentation of the interventions carried out and the information collected during the conservation work and producing digital
mapping them. and hard-copy
reports
Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

References
Burch R. 1997. Reburial: An Assessment of Its Efficacy as a Conservation
Measure for Wall Paintings. M.A. thesis. Courtauld Institute of Art,
University of London. London.

Cather S. ed. 1991. The Conservation of Wall Paintings: Proceedings of

a Symposium Organized by the Courtauld Institute of Art and The Getty
Conservation Institute. Los Angeles. http://www.getty.edu/conservation/
publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/wall_paintings.pdf

Heritage A. and Gowing R. 2002a. The Production of Wall Painting

Conservation Documents: Practical Information Leaflet 1. London.
http://www.helm.org.uk/guidance-library/production-of-wall-painting-
conservation-documents

Heritage A. and Gowing R. 2002b. Temporary Protection of Wall Paintings

during Building Works: Practical Information Leaflet 2. London. http://
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Heritage A. and Gowing R. 2005. Anticipating and Responding to the

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to-the-discovery-of-wall-paintingspractical-information-leaflet-3-1/
wallpaintdiscovery.pdf

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wall_eng.htm

Mora P., Mora L. and Philippot P. 1984. Conservation of Wall Paintings.

Butterworths.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Schmid W. ed. 2000. GraDoc (Graphic Documentation Systems in Mural

Painting Conservation). Research Seminar, Rome, 16–20 November 1999.
Rome.

Society for Historical Archaeology Preparing for Conservation on

Archaeological Excavations visited 19.03.2013. http://www.sha.org/
research/conservation_facts/conservation_prepare.cfm

The Getty Conservation Institute 2003. “GCI Lime Mortars and Plasters
Bibliography: Sorted by General Category.” Los Angeles. http://www.getty.
edu/conservation/our_projects/science/mortars/mortars_publications.
html

Westlake P. 2007. Lifting Fallen Plaster from Archaeological Excavations:

An Investigation of the Intervention Criteria and Assessment of Available
Materials and Methods. M.A. thesis. Courtauld Institute of Art, University
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Woolley E.R. 2010. Covering and Concealing Wall Paintings: An Investigation

into Rationales and Methods. M.A. thesis. Courtauld Institute of Art,
University of London. London.

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Appendix 1: Instructions for Taking Samples from Archaeological Sites

for Laboratory Analysis

The sample is tested in the laboratory to provide information about the

majority of the material from which the sample was taken. It is therefore
important to ensure that all information regarding records of the sample
is documented and reaches the laboratory together with the sample.
The detailed instructions for the kinds of samples that may be taken
will be provided by the laboratory where the analysis will be conducted:
The amount or size of material required for the analysis; the method of
sample collection; the means of packaging and storing the sample; as well
as environmental data, such as relative humidity and temperature. The
following information is usually required with the sample:

1. Date;
2. Name of the person responsible for collecting the samples;
3. A description of the research goal; for example, a comparison between
the characteristics of mortars from different periods at the site, or
analysis of wall-painting materials and methods at the site;
4. Name of the site or area sampled at the site, e.g., Caesarea—Aqueduct,
or Caesarea—Hippodrome;
5. An indication of the general area sampled on a map of the site;
6. Photograph with an overview of the sampling area;
7. The precise location where the sample was taken marked on a site
plan (or rectified Photograph), with a number matching the number of
the sample packaging;
8. Photograph of each sample with its number;
9. A description of the data in a table, in the following manner (example):

Sample Typology Number Description Location Period Remarks Type of Test

number of sample
photograph
Wall plaster, Strong white Caesarea— First Mineralogical
mortar from plaster, or gray port vaults century composition
foundations disintegrating CE or strength
mortar

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Excavation and Treatment of Plaster, Stucco and Wall Paintings in Archaeological Sites
A Guide for Archaeologists and Conservators

Wall painting, Ashqelon.

29