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Quantum Field Theory Notes On The Delta Function and Related Issues

The document discusses the Dirac delta function δ(x) and the Heaviside step function θ(x), which are useful in quantum field theory. The δ-function is defined as an infinite spike at x=0, and the θ-function is 0 for x<0 and 1 for x>0. Their key properties include: (1) the Fourier transform of the δ-function is 1, (2) differentiating the θ-function yields the δ-function. An example differential equation is given that has a solution involving the θ-function, illustrating the use of these functions.

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78 views3 pages

Quantum Field Theory Notes On The Delta Function and Related Issues

The document discusses the Dirac delta function δ(x) and the Heaviside step function θ(x), which are useful in quantum field theory. The δ-function is defined as an infinite spike at x=0, and the θ-function is 0 for x<0 and 1 for x>0. Their key properties include: (1) the Fourier transform of the δ-function is 1, (2) differentiating the θ-function yields the δ-function. An example differential equation is given that has a solution involving the θ-function, illustrating the use of these functions.

Uploaded by

yb
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Quantum Field Theory

Notes on the Delta Function and Related Issues


In quantum field theory we often make use of the Dirac δ-function δ(x) and the θ-function θ(x)
(also known as the Heaviside function, or step function). These are defined as follows.

The Delta Function

The δ-function, δ(x), is zero for all values of x except at x = 0, where it becomes infinite in
such a way that Z ∞
dx δ(x) = 1
−∞

It is therefore a single infinite spike at x = 0. We also have the important result,


Z ∞
dx δ(x − x0 )f (x) = f (x0 )
−∞

for any function f (x).


One way of defining it more precisely is to consider the series of Gaussians
 2
1 x
fa (x) = √ exp − 2
a π a

which clearly satisfy Z ∞


dx fa (x) = 1
−∞

for all values of a. The functions fa (x) are peaked at x = 0 dropping off very rapidly as |x|
becomes large. If we let a become small, the Gaussian becomes progressively more peaked at
x = 0, but in such a way that the total area underneath it remains 1. The δ-function is then
defined by
δ(x) = lim fa (x)
a→0

We are also interested in the Fourier transform of the δ-function. The Fourier transform
f˜(k) of a function f (x) is defined by
Z ∞
f˜(k) = dx e−ikx f (x)
−∞

and its inverse is defined by Z ∞


1
f (x) = dk eikx f˜(k)
2π −∞

(We can equally use eikx in the definition of the Fourier transform as long as we use e−ikx in
the definition of the inverse. Similarly the factor of 2π may be moved around. Also, often the
tilde is dropped.)
The Fourier transform of the δ-function therefore is
Z ∞
δ̃(k) = dx e−ikx δ(x) = 1
−∞

1
so the inverse relation is the important relation
Z ∞
1
δ(x) = dk eikx
2π −∞

This relation also allows us to prove the simple property


1
δ(cx) = δ(x)
|c|

by simply scaling k in the Fourier transform. In particular δ(−x) = δ(x).


All of this easily generalizes to higher dimensions. We have, for example, in three dimensions
Z
1
δ (3) (x) = d3 k eik·x
(2π)3

The δ-function strictly speaking only has meaning when it is sitting inside an integral. It is
practically useful to remember this when interpreting combinations like xδ(x). This is obviously
only non-zero at x = 0 but then it has the form 0 × ∞. To see how to interpret this, we consider
the quantity Z
dx xδ(x) f (x)

This is clearly zero for arbitrary f (x). So we interpret xδ(x) as zero.


One can also prove that
1
δ(x2 − a2 ) = [δ(x + a) + δ(x − a)]
2|a|

or more generally
δ(x − xj )
δ(g(x)) = Σj
|g 0 (xj )|
where xj are the roots of g(x) and we have assumed that they are all single roots.

The Theta Function (a.k.a. the Heaviside or step function)

The θ-function is a discontinuous fucntion defined by



1 if x > 0
θ(x) =
0 if x < 0

Its value at x = 0 may be taken to be 1/2 but it doesn’t really affect much and it can also be
taken to be defined as other values.
The θ-function has zero slope everywhere except at x = 0 where it appears to be infinitely
steep. This suggests that the derivative of θ(x) is in fact δ(x). We can prove this more precisely
as follows. Consider the integral Z x
dy δ(y)
−∞
From the properties of the δ-function, this is clearly 0 if x < 0 and 1 if x > 0. That is,
Z x
dy δ(y) = θ(x)
−∞

2
So if we differentiate with respect to x we get

δ(x) = θ0 (x)

Notice also that


d
(θ(−x)) = −δ(x)
dx

An Example

These properties are illustrated in the following example. Consider the differential equation

g̈ + ω 2 g = −iδ(t)

This is the equation of a harmonic oscillator that receives a kick at t = 0. Clearly for t > 0
or t < 0, the solutions are linear combinations of e±iωt . Then one possible solution with the
δ-function source is
g(t) = N θ(t)e−iωt + θ(−t)eiωt
 

where N is a normalization factor, to be fixed. To see that this is a solution, we differentiate,


using the known properties of θ(t). We have

ġ = −iωN θ(t)e−iωt − θ(−t)eiωt + N δ(t) e−iωt − eiωt


   

The second term in brackets is δ(t) times a function which vanishes at t = 0, so

ġ = −iωN θ(t)e−iωt − θ(−t)eiωt


 

Differentiating a second time we get

g̈ = −ω 2 N θ(t)e−iωt + θ(−t)eiωt − iωN δ(t) e−iωt + eiωt


   

In the second bracket, the δ(t) forces us to set t = 0 in the exponentials, and we get

g̈ = −ω 2 g − 2iωN δ(t)

We thus obtain a solution to the differential equation as long as we choose


1
N=
2ω
Later in the course, you can consider this example as a simplified and alternative proof that
the Feynman propagator DF obeys the equation

(∂ 2 + m2 )DF (x) = −iδ (4) (x)

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