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Notes
14

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS IN
MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Medieval period is considered as an age of great cultural synthesis in India.

During this period a new phase of cultural development was initiated. The Turks and
Mughals introduced fresh ideas and helped in giving rise to new features in the areas
of religion, philosophy and ideas, Language and Literature, Styles of architecture and
use of building material, Painting and Fine arts, Music and performing arts.
India already had a very rich cultural tradition in all spheres. The synthesis between
different cultures gave birth to new philosophical and religious traditions, ideas, forms
and styles in almost all spheres‘ of culture. In this lesson you would be introduced to
these new cultural developments in some important spheres. We will mainly focus on:
new religious movements like Sufism and Bhakti,
rise of Sikhism as a new religion,
growth of Urdu and Persian language and literature,
growth of literature in various Indian languages,
the architecture of the Sultanate and Mughals with regional variations,
new forms of music,
the Mughal painting and other new styles that emerged in India.
We hope that the study of this lesson will enhance your understanding about culture
during this period.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
know the philosophy and practices of various orders of Sufis in India;
discuss the philosophy, and practices of various orders of Bhakti saints in India;
trace the rise of Sikhism, its practices, institution of Gurus and Khalsa panth;
describe various styles and forms of painting in medieval India;
discuss the rise of new languages and the growth of literature in medieval India;
discuss various schools of music and dance styles in medieval India and
describe main styles, materials used and techniques adopted in medieval archi-
tecture.

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14.1 SUFISM
‘Sufism’ is a term used to refer to mystical religious ideas in Islam. It had evolved into
a well developed movement by the 11th century. Sufis, stress on the importance of
traversing the path of the Sufi pir enabling one to establish a direct communion with
the divine. Sufism or mysticism emerged in the 8th century and among the early known
Notes
Sufis were Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid and Bayazid Bastami. Fundamental to sufism
is God, Man and the relation between them that is Love. They believe that from man
emerged the theories of ruh (soul), qurbat (divine proximity) and hulul (infusion of
the divine spirit) and that from relation between God and Man ideas such as Ishq
(divine love) and Fana (self annihilation) come into being. The Sufis were regarded
as people who kept their heart pure; they sought to communicate with God though
their ascetic practices and doctrine of divine love and union with God. The murid
(disciple) passes through maqamat (various stages) in this process of experiencing
communication with the divine.
The khanqah (the hospice) was the center of activities of the various sufis orders.
The khanqah was led by shaikh, pir or murshid (teacher) who lived with his mu-
rids (disciples). In time the Khanqahs emerged as important centres of learning and
preaching. By the twelfth century the sufis were organized in silsilahs (orders). The
word silsila meant chain and it represented signifying an unbreakable chain between
the pir and the murid. With the death of the pir his tomb or shrine the dargah
became a centre for his disciples and followers.
In the 10th century Sufism spread across important regions of the Islamic empire.
Iran, Khurasan, Transoxiana, Egypt, Syria and Baghdad were important Sufi centers.
Al-Ghazali, (1059–1111 A.D.) is among the most venerated of Sufis. He reconciled
Islamic mysticism with Islamic orthodoxy, providing Sufi mysticism a secure place in
Islam. He stressed on the need for the disciple to follow the guidance of the spiritual
master. He also emphasised on the supreme authority of the holy Prophet and the
need to obey laws in both letter and spirit
The Sufi movement in India commenced in the 11th century A.D. Al Hujwiri, who
established himself in north India was buried in Lahore and regarded as the oldest
Sufi in the sub Continent. Among the important Sufi Orders in the history of Medieval
India were those of the Chishtitiya, Suhrawardiya, Qadiriya and Naqshbandiya.
Chisti and the Suhrawardi silsilahs were popular during the Sultanate period. The
Suhrawardis were active in Punjab and Sindh while the Chishti’s were active in Delhi,
Rajasthan and parts of the western gangetic plains. By the end of the sultanate period
they had spread to the eastern regions of the gangetic plain (Bihar and Bengal) and
into the Deccan. During the medieval period the Sufis played an important role in
interpreting and elaborating on Islamic theological concepts like Wahdat ul Wujud
(unity of being) and also encouraged the development of practices like Ziyarat (the
practice of visiting tombs).
The Sufi movement as it emerged in India had the following features:
The Sufis were organized in a number of different silsilahs (orders)
Most of these orders were led by some prominent sufi saint or pir. It was named
after them and was followed by his disciples.
The Sufis believed that for union with God one needs a spiritual guru or Pir.
The sufi pirs lived in Khanqahs with their disciples

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The Khanqah (the hospice) was the centre of sufi activities

The Khanqahs emerged as important centres of learning which were different
from madrasas the centres of theology
Many sufis enjoyed the musical congregation or sama in their Khanqahs. A mu-
Notes sical form called the qawwali developed during this period.
The ziyarat or pilgrimage to the tombs of the sufi saints soon emerged as an
important form of ritual pilgrimage.
Most of the Sufis believed in the performance of miracles. Almost all pirs were
associated with the miracles performed by them.
The different sufi orders had diverse approaches about the matters of polity and
state.
The Chishti Silsilah
The Chisti Order was established in India by Muinuddin Chishti. He seems to have
moved into India after the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori and subsequently
to Ajmer in 1206. The fame of Khwaja Muinuddin grew after his death in 1235, his
grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq after which the mosque and dome were
erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth century. The patronage of this
dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.

Fig. 14.1 Ajmer Durgah

The Chishtis believed in:

love as the bond between God and individual soul,
the tolerance between people of different faiths,
acceptance of disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs,
attitude of benevolence to all,
association with Hindu and Jain yogi’s, and
use of simple language

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The Chishti presence in Delhi was established by Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki who
settled in Delhi from his homeland in Transoxiana in 1221. This was at the time of the
Mongol invasions when there was a steady flow of people from central Asia fleeing
from the Mongols. His presence in Delhi was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought
to force him to leave by levelling charges against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Itutmish, Notes
dismissed these attempts eventually forcing the Suhrawardis to relent. The Chishti
pirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty, humility and selfless devo-
tion to God. The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by them as neces-
sary for the control of the senses that was necessary to maintain a spiritual life.
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti argued that highest form of devotion to God was to re-
dress the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the need of the helpless and to feed the
hungry. They refused to accept any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans.
The other important Chishti Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar, established himself at
Hansi (in Haryana) on the route between Multan and Lahore. Nizamuddin Auliya,
was the best known Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He lived in the fourteenth
century, during a period of political change and turmoil. During his lifetime he was
witness to the establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and subse-
quently the establishment of the Tughlaq’s. There are numerous stories surrounding
the life of Nizamuddin Auliya, famous among them were stories of his confrontations
with the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to have maintained a strict policy of not
involving himself with the various groups and factions of the Sultan’s court in Delhi
earning him the respect of many. Nasiruddin Chiragh Delhi was another of the Chishti
saints of Delhi. He played an active role in the political affairs of the period.
All these enabled Sufis to maintain a loyal and dedicated following.
In the 13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan by Shaikh
Burhanuddin Gharib. Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis mi-
grated to Gulbarga. This was accompanied with a change where some of the Chishtis
began accepting grants and patronage from the ruling establishment. Muhammad
Banda Nawaz is among the famous pirs in the region. The Deccan city of Bijapur
emerged as an important centre for Sufi activity.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah
This Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad. It was established
in India by Bahauddin Zakariya. He founded the Suhrawardi Order, based in Mutan,
which was under the control of Qubacha. He was critical of Qubacha and openly
favored Iltutmish over his rival. His ways were different from that of the Chishtis. The
Suhrawardis, unlike the Chishtis, accepted, maintenance grants from the Sultans. They
believed that a Sufi should possess the three attributes of property, knowledge and hal
or mystical enlightenment. Suhrawardi saints argued that this was necessary to ensure
that they served the poor better. He stressed on the observance or external forms of
religious belief and advocated a combination of ilm (scholarship) with mysticism. Prac-
tices like bowing before the sheikh, presenting water to visitors and tonsuring the head
at the time of initiation into the Order that the Chishtis had adopted were rejected. After
his death the silsilah continued to play an important role in Punjab and Sindh.
Naqshbandi Silsilah
In India this order was established by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi. From the
beginning the mystics of this Order stressed on the observance of the shariat and

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denounced all innovations or biddat. Sheikh Baqi Billah the successor to Khawaja
Bahauddin Naqshbandi settled near Delhi, and his successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
attempted to purge Islam from all liberal and what he believed were ‘un-Islamic’ prac-
tices. He opposed the listening of sama (religious music) and the practice of pilgrimage
Notes to the tombs of saints. He opposed interaction with Hindus and Shias. He criticised the
new status accorded by Akbar to many non-Muslims, the withdrawal of the Jizyah and
the ban on cow slaughter. He believed that he was the mujaddid (renewer) of the first
millennium of Islam. He maintained that the relationship between man and God was that
between the slave and the master and not the relation of a lover and beloved. He
emphasised the individual’s unique relation of faith and responsibility to God as creator.
He tried to harmonise the doctrines of mysticism and the teachings of orthodox Islam.
The Qadri Silsilah
The Quadiriyya silsilah was popular in Punjab. Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons
were supporters of the Mughals under Akbar. The pirs of this Order supported the
concept of Wahdat al Wajud. Among the famous Sufis of this order was Miyan Mir
who had enrolled the Mughal princess Jahanara and her brother Dara as disciples.
The influence of the sheikh’s teachings is evident in the works of the prince. Shah
Badakhshani another pir of this silsilah while dismissing orthodox elements, declared
that, the infidel who had perceived reality and recognised it was a believer and that a
believer who did not recognise reality was an infidel.
During medieval period there was constant tension between the liberal and orthodox
views in Islam. The sufis featured on both sides, while there were those like the
Chishtis who held a liberal view and argued in favour of assimilation of local traditions
there were others like sheikh Abdul Haqq of the Qadiriyya silsilah who held the view
that the purity of Islam was being diluted. This Orthodox view was represented by the
ulema that argued from the perspective of being upholders of the shariat. The liberal
opinion found its voice among many sufis who argued against the narrow definition of
Islamic laws by the ulema.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1

1. Who is a Pir?

2. Who was Al-Ghazali?

3. What do you understand by the term “Sama”?

4. Which famous chishti sufi saint lived during the time of the Khalji’s and Tughlaq’s?

5. Who was Shaikh Abdul Qadir?

14.2 THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Bhakti movement in Indian history represents a movement that popularized de-
votional surrender to a personally conceived supreme God. Its origins are traced to

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the Brahamanical and Buddhist traditions of ancient India. It was in south India that it
grew from a religious tradition into a popular movement based on religious equality
and broad based social participation. The movement led by popular saints reached its
climax in the 10th century A.D. In its attempt to embrace the concept of bhakti the
movement in different regions drew from diverse traditions and assumed different Notes
forms in different parts of the sub continent.
The bhakti movement attempted to break away from orthodox Brahmanism. The
movement gathered momentum in the early medieval period. Historians have attempted
to associate the origins of the bhakti movement in India with the advent of Islam and
the spread of Sufism. They argue that the Turkish conquest paved the way for a
reaction against the conformist Rajput-Brahman domination. The rise of bhakti move-
ment is considered by some scholars as a reaction against feudal oppression. The anti
feudal tone in the poetry of bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya and Tulsidas
are seen as illustrations of this point. There is no single opinion about the origins of the
bhakti movement that can be sustained. It is clear from the poetry and the philosophy
of the bhakti saints that they broke away from orthodox Brahmanism. They believed
in religious equality and identified themselves with the sufferings of the common people.
Some scholars feel that the socio economic changes in the early medieval period
provide the necessary backdrop to understand the emergence of the Bhakti move-
ment. During the 13th and 14th centuries the demand for manufactured goods, luxuries
and other artisanal goods increased leading to a movement of artisans into the cities.
The artisans were attracted to bhakti because of its ideas of equality. These groups
were dissatisfied with the low status accorded to them by Brahmanical system. The
movement gained support from these classes of society. There were also a few varia-
tions in places like Punjab where not only Khatris but Jat peasants as were also
attracted to this movement.
The bhakti movement in the early medieval period represents an important movement
of reform and change. After the rise of heterodox movements of the 6th century BC the
bhakti movement represents another phase of Indian history in which new ideas and
practices emerged influencing the country as a whole initiating reform movements.
The Bhakti movement in north India
The bhakti movement in the north included socio religious movements that were linked to
one of the acharyas from the south and is sometimes seen as a continuation of the move-
ment that originated in the south. Though there were similarities in the traditions of the two
regions, the notion of bhakti varied in the teachings of each of the saints. The Nirguna
Bhaktas like Kabir rejected the varnaashrama and all conventions based on caste distinc-
tion and championed new values, helping the emergence of new groups and new unortho-
dox/protestant sects. The Saguna Bhaktas like Tulsidas on the other hand upheld the caste
system and the supremacy of the Brahmins. They preached religion of surrender and
simple faith in a personal god and had a strong commitment to idol worship.
Monotheistic Bhakti
Kabir (c.1440–1518 A.D.) was the earliest and most influential Bhakti saint in north
India. He was a weaver. He spent a large part of his life in Banaras. His poems were
included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth. Among those who were influenced by
Kabir were Raidas, who was a tanner by caste from Banaras, Guru Nanak who was
a Khatri from Punjab and Dhanna who was a Jat peasant from Rajasthan.

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There are similarities in the teachings of the various monotheistic Bhakti saints in
North India.
Most of the monotheists belonged to the low castes and were aware that there
existed a unity in their ideas. They were also aware of each other’s teachings
Notes and influence. In their verses they mention each other and their predecessors in
a manner suggesting ideological affinity among them.
All of them were influenced by the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nathpanthi
movement and Sufism. Their ideas seem to be a synthesis of the three traditions.
The importance given to the personal experience of Bhakti saint with God was another
common feature among the monotheistic bhakti saints. Nirguna bhakti and not saguna
bhakti was what they believed in. They had adopted the notion of bhakti from vaishnavaism
but they gave it a nirguna orientation. Though they called God using different names and
titles their God was non-incarnate, formless, eternal and ineffable.
The Bhakti saints refused any formal association with the organized dominant
religions of the time (Hinduism and Islam) and criticized what they regarded to
be the negative aspects of these religions. They rejected the authority of the
Brahmans and attacked the caste system and practice of idolatry.
They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects spoken across
north India. This enabled them to transmit their ideas among the masses. It helped
their ideas to spread rapidly among the various lower classes.
Vaishnava Bhakti
In the 14th and early 15th centuries Ramananda emerged as a popular vaishnava bhakti
saint in north India. Though he was from the south he lived in Banaras because he
considered it to be the link between the South Indian bhakti and North Indian vaishnava
bhakti traditions. He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the object of bhakti. He
worshiped Ram and Sita and came to be identified as the founder of the Ram cult in
north India. He like the monotheist bhakti saints also rejected cast hierarchies and preached
in the local languages in his attempt to popularize the cult. His followers are called
Ramanandis. Tulsidas also championed the bhakti cause. In the early 16 century
Vallabacharya, a popular bhakti saint popularized the Krishna bhakti. Among those who
followed in his footsteps were Surdas (1483–1563) and Mira Bai (1503–1573).
The vaishnava bhakti movement in Bengal was very different form its counterparts in
north India and the south. It was influenced by the vaishnava bhakti tradition of the
Bhagavata purana and the Sahajiya Buddhist and Nathpanthi traditions. These tradi-
tions focused on esoteric and emotional aspects of devotion. In the 12th century,
Jayadeva was an important bhakti saint in this tradition. He highlighted the mystical
dimension of love with reference to Krishna and Radha. Chaitanya was a popular
bhakti saint from the region; he was looked upon as an avatara of Krishna. Though,
he did not question the authority of the Brahmans and the scriptures. He also popular-
ized the sankirtan (group devotional songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing). With
him the bhakti movement in Bengal began to develop into a reform movement with
the notions of caste divisions that came to be questioned.
In Maharashtra the bhakti movement drew its inspiration from the Bhagavata purana
and the Siva Nathpanthis. Jnaneswar was a pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. His
commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called Jnanesvari served as a foundation of the

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bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. Arguing against caste distinctions he believed that

the only way to attain God was through Bhakti. Vithoba was the God of this sect and its
followers performed a pilgrimage to the temple twice a year. The Vithoba of Pandarpur
became the mainstay of the movement in Maharashtra. Namdev (1270–1350) was
another important bhakti saint from Maharashtra. While he is remembered in the north Notes
Indian monotheistic tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be
part of the varkari tradition (the vaishnava devotional tradition). Some of the other
important bhakti saints of Maharashtra were the saints Choka, Sonara, Tukaram and
Eknath. Tukaram’s teachings are in the form of the Avangas (dohas), which constitute
the Gatha, while Eknath’s teachings that were in Marathi attempted to shift the empha-
sis of Marathi literature from spiritual to narrative compositions.

INTEXT QUESTION 14.2

1. The Bhakti movement attempted to break away from which system?

2. Name any three important Bhakti Saints?

3. Who was Chaitanya?

14.3 SIKHISM

Fig 14.2 Guru Nanak

The teachings and philosophy of Guru Nanak form an important part of Indian philo-
sophical thought. His philosophy consists of three basic elements: a leading charis-
matic personality (the Guru), ideology (Shabad) and Organization (Sangat). Nanak
evaluated and criticized the prevailing religious beliefs and attempted to establish a
true religion, which could lead to salvation. He repudiated idol worship and did not
favour pilgrimage nor accept the theory of incarnation. He condemned formalism and
ritualism. He laid emphasis on having a true Guru for revelation. He advised people to
follow the principles of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal (lawful earning),
khair (wishing well of others), niyat (right intention) and service to the lord. He

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denounced the caste system and the inequality it caused. He argued that the caste and
honour should be judged by the acts or the deeds of individuals. He laid stress on con-
cepts of justice, righteousness and liberty. His verses mainly consist of two basic con-
cepts, Sach (truth) and Nam (name). The bases of the divine expression for him were
Notes formed by, the Sabad (the word), Guru (the divine precept) and Hukam (the divine
order). He introduced the concept of Langar (a community kitchen). Guru Nanak iden-
tifies himself with the people or the ruled. Though the Sikh guru’s stressed on equality
the social differentiation among the followers continued. It was only towards the end of
the 17th century that Guru Gobind Singh reasserted the idea of equality. In 1699 Guru
Gobind Singh attempted to resolve the differences among the various Sikh groups and
created the Khalsa. This institution removed the masands as intermediaries. Thereafter
every Sikh was to have a direct link with the Guru. To create a sense of unity among the
Sikhs the Guru started some practices which were to be followed by Sikhs. These were
initiation through the baptism of the double edged sword, wearing uncut hair, carrying
arms, adopting the epithet Singh as part of the name.
The idea of Guru Panth was another institutional idea that emerged during this period.
It sanctified the collective authority of the Khalsa Panth, which equated the Panth
with the Guru. Guru Nanak in his last days had nominated a successor and paid
homage to him, this gave rise to the idea that the Guru and the Sikh were interchange-
able. This created a problem for the institution of the Sangat (that was a collective
body of the Sikhs) in which God was said to be present. When Guru Gobind Singh
created the Khalsa he chose the panj piyare (the five beloved) and requested them to
administer the pahul (amrit chakhha) to him. With this the difference between the
Guru and the Khalsa was symbolically removed. Guru Gobind Singh is believed to
have said that the Khalsa is his own roop (form).
Guru Nanak was from the Khatri mercantile caste whereas his followers were mostly
rural Jats. It was Guru Gobind Singh who inaugurated the Khalsa among the Sikhs.
Guru Arjan compiled the Guru Granth Sahib. After the death of Guru Gobind Singh
the tenth Guru the tradition of guru ended. It was believed that the spirit of the guru
did not pass onto any successor but instead remained within “Shri Gurugranth Sahib”.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3

1. What do you understand from the term Khalsa?

2. Who were Khatris?

14.4 LITERATURE AND LANGUAGES

Sanskrit literature
The medieval period witnessed the growth of a rich corpus of literature that accom-
panied the development of new languages. The conventional view among historians
was that the patronage of the Sanskrit language had declined because the establish-
ment of the Delhi Sultanate led to the patronage of Persian. But this period witnessed
the growth of a rich corpus of Sanskrit literature. This period is marked with compo-
sition of poetical works called the Kavya (poetical narrative) and the texts that codi-
fied laws called the Dhramashastras.

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During the first half of the medieval period Sanskrit received patronage from the
numerous smaller political establishments in central and south India. In western India
Hemachandra Suri was an important Jain scholar who composed works in Sanskrit,
as was Chaitanya. There were also many dramas written during this period. A new
style of writing called the champu also emerged during this period. It was a form that Notes
mixed both prose and poetry. Among the Sanskrit works that were written with the
patronage of the Rajput kings were their family histories like the Prithvirajavijaya
and the Hammirmahakavya. Among the historical poems of the period was the
Rajavinoda that was a biography of Sultan Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat written by
his court poet, Udayaraja. Another important work was Kalhan’s Rajtarangini, which
presented a history of the kings of Kashmir. It was written in the 12th century A.D.
The second Rajtaranginni was written by Jonaraja who wrote the history of the
kings of Kashmir from Jayasimha to Sultan Zainul Abidin and the third was written by
Srivara who wrote the history of the region till 1486. Apart from these there were the
prabandhas which were semi historical texts written during the period.
After the 15th century the patronage of the Sanskrit language was maintained in the
southern courts of the rulers of Vijayanagar, Nayakas of Tanjor and the chiefs of
Travancore and Cochin. The various genres of Sanskrit literature like Mahakavyas,
Slesh Kavyas, Champu Kavyas, Natakas and the historical Kavyas continued. Among
the important writers of this period were Govinda Dikshita (Sahitya Sudha and
Sangitsudhanidhi being among his important works); Appaya Dikshita (in the court
of the Nayaka ruler of Vellore); Nilanatha Dikshit (who was a minister in the court of
the Nayaka of Madurai); Chakrakavi (who was patronized by the rulers of Kozhikode).
The historical Kavyas gave a glimpse not just of the exploits of the various rulers but
also a glimpse of the social perception of the writers. Some of the Mughals like Dara
Shukoh also came to be mentioned in these Kavyas. The Mughal prince is also cred-
ited with the composition of a prasasti in honour of Nrisimha Sarasvati of Benaras.
There were also a few works composed in the courts of the rulers of Bijapur and
Golconda, but Sanskrit literature during this period began to decline.
Persian literature
With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new language and literary style was
introduced into the sub continent.
The development of Persian literature in the sub continent entered a new era in the
writings of Amir Khusrau. He was a poet born in a family of Turkish immigrants and
began as a poet in the reign of Sultan Balban. He was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya
and was patronized in the courts of Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji and Ghiyasuddin
Tughluq. He is said to have composed ninety-nine works on different themes and
numerous verses of poetry. His poetry was written in the different forms of lyric, ode,
epic and elegy. His writing style represents the first instance of Persian styles being
composed in the Indian context. This came to be known as the Sabaq-i-Hindi (the
Indian style). Among the important works composed by him are, Mutla-ul-Anwar,
Shirin Khusrau, Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari, these works were dedi-
cated to Alauddin Khalji. Amorig his five Diwans (Ghazals) are Tuhfat-us-Sighar,
Baqiya Naqiya and Nihayat-ul-Kamal. He also wrote masnavis (narrative poems),
which have been of great historical and literary value. Among these are the Qiran-us
Sa’dain, Miftah-ul Futuh (dealing with the military success of Jalauddin Khalji),
Tughluq Nama (describing Ghiyasuddin Tughluq’s rise to power) and the

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Khazain-ul Futuh (giving an account of Alauddin Khalji’s conquest of the South). Among
the other important Persian poets was Shaikh Najmuddin Hasan who was also one of the
poets in the court of Alauddin Khalji. His ghazals earned him the title, S’aid of Hindustan.
The court chronicles were an important feature of the literature during the period of
Notes the Delhi Sultanate. Some important of these were, the Tabaqat-I-Nasiri by Minaj-us
Siraj, Futuh-us Salatin by Isami and the Futuhat-I Firozshahi by Feroz Shah Tughluq.
Ziauddin Barani made the most important contribution to Persian literature during this
period. The Tarikh-I Firozshahi and the Fatwa-I Jahandari are his important works.
The Sufi literature of the period developed a new form called the malfuzat that was in
the form of a dialogue of the Sufi saints. The most famous of these was the Fawaid-ul
Fu’ad written by Amir Hassan Sijzi containing the anecdotes of the Shaikh Nizamuddin
Auliya and Khair-ul-Majalis containing the anecdotes of Sheik Nasiruddin Mahmud.
During this period there were many works that were translated into Persian. The Tuti
Nama (book of the parrot) by Zia Nakshabi was the first Persian translation of Sanskrit
stories. The Mahabharatha and the Rajtarangini were also translated into Persian
during this period. The number of translations of Sanskrit works into Persian grew
during the reigns of Feroz Tughluq and Sikandar Lodi.
Like that of the sultanate, Persian also continued as the official language of the Mughal
court. The Mughal rulers and princes also maintained a tradition of writing. The first
Mughal emperor Babur, himself a literary figure, wrote his memoirs in Turkish which was
subsequently translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. Humayun composed
a Persian diwan. Prince Dara Shukoh wrote a biographical account of the Sufi saint Miya
Mir and his disciples in the Sakinatul Auliya. He also wrote the Majm’aul Bahrain
(Mingling of two Oceans). There was a new genre of Persian literature known as the
Sabaq-i-Hindi (the Indian style) created during this period by the Persian poets visiting
and living in the sub continent. Writers like Faizi, Urfi, Talib, Ghani Kashmiri and Bedil
were among those who benefited from the patronage they received from the Mughals.
Among the important works of Faizi was Tabashir al Sabh. He also authored many
translations of Hindu religious books. Abdur Rahim Khan Khana a talented scholar
and poet lived during the reign of Akbar and Jahangir. Akbar patronized great scholar
historian Abul Fazl. He is said to have maintained a library of more than four thousand
books. He is known for the patronage he extended to many writers of the period. The
poets Ali Quli Salem and Abu Talib Kalim were important poets during the reign of
Shah Jahan. The latter is said to have authored the Padshahnama. Persian literature
in the south received patronage from the Adil Shahi rulers of Bijapur, here Malik
Qummi and Mulla Zuhuri were regarded as important Persian poets. The Qutab Shahis
of Golconda patronized poets like Muhammad Hussain Tabrezi. The development of
Persian literature in the Mughal court played an important role and influenced the
development and growth of regional literature. Languages like Punjabi, Pushtu, Sindhi
and Kashmiri were strongly influenced by Persian.
Growth and Development of Regional Languages
The growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati
during the medieval period was an important development. These languages can be traced
to the 7th and 8th centuries when they seem to have broken away from their Prakrit base.
In the south Malayalam emerged as an independent language in the 14th century. The
growth of these regional languages coincided with a growing regional sentiment and the
emergence of regional polities. This resulted in the decline of Sanskrit that was being
replaced by Persian and some of these regional languages as a medium through which the

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administrative machinery functioned. The rise of the Bhakti movement and its propagation
using these languages also enabled the growth and development of these languages.
Hindi and Urdu
Regional dialects like Braj bhasa, Haryanvi and other dialects spoken in regions around
Notes
Delhi and Punjab influenced the development of Urdu during its formative stage. The
basic structure of the language consisted of Khari Boli (a mixture of various dialects
spoken in the region mentioned above). The language adopted the Persian script and
literary tradition. The word Urdu is of Turkish origin referring to an army or camp. It
seems to have been a language that emerged from the dialect spoken in the Turkish
camp between officials and the soldiers. Hindivi is said to be the language out of which
Urdu and Hindi eventually developed. The works of Amir Khusrau are regarded to
have laid the foundations of this language. The use of this language in the Deccan from
the 14th century onwards led to a literary speech called the Dakhni. The major centres
of this language were Gujarat, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar and Aurangabad. The oldest
writer of this tradition was Sayyid Banda Nawaz Gesudaraz who was an important Sufi
in the Bahmani kingdom. The sultan of Bijapur, Ibrahim Adil Shah II himself was a great
patron and author of a book on music in the Dakhni language.
Hindi evolved during the Apabhransa stage between the 7th – 8th centuries and the
14th century. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala (age of heroic poetry) or the
Adi Kala (early Period). The various Rajput rulers patronized these poems written in
the rajasthani dialect of Hindi and that glorified chivalry and bravery. Among the
famous works are the Prithviraja Raso of Chand Bardai, and other poems like the
Visaldeva Raso and Hammir Raso. The authenticity of many of these works is
doubted because of the various interpolations made to the original draft. There are
other works of Buddhists and Jains that can be ascribed to this period.
The development of the Hindi language underwent another transformation during the 14th
and the 15 centuries with the increasing use of the language in expressing Bhakti traditions
and ideas. Kabir adopted a style called the ultabasi, which consisted of paradoxes and
enigmas. While bhakti saints like Tulsidas used the Awadhi dialect of Hindi others like Mira
Bai used the Marwari dialect of Rajasthan and Surdas used Braj bhasha. The Sufi saints
also used the development of the new dialects as a medium to reach out to a larger audience.
While the Chishti saints used Hindi while composing and singing their devotional music.
Bengali
The folksongs called Charyapads composed between the 10 and 12th centuries are
the earliest specimen of the Bengali language. The works of Kavindra and Srikaranandi
are regarded to be among the important early works in Bengali. The growth of the
Bhakti movement and the composition of various hymns associated with Chaitanya
further provided a stimulus to the development of this language. Brindabandas’s
Chaitanya Bhagavata or Chaitanya Mangal was one such contribution to Bengali
literature that not only gave a valuable account of the saint’s death a decade later but
is also regarded as being reflective of the social condition prevailing at that time. The
Chaitanya-Charitamrita by Krishnadas Kaviraj was another important account.
Lochandas is associated with the introduction of a new style of folk songs called
Dhamali. Narrative poems called the Mangal Kavyas also grew popular during this
period. They propagated the importance of local deities like Chandi and transformed
Puranic gods like Siva and Vishnu into household deities. The narrative form of the
Mangal Kavyas was derived from the Puranas.

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Asamese and Oriya

The 13th century works of Hema Sarasvati Prahladacharita and Hara Gauri Samyada
are regarded as the first works in Assamese. The literature in Assam also developed
in response to the bhakti movement. Shankaradeva who introduced Vaisnavism in
Notes Assam also helped stimulate the growth of Assamese poetry. His disciple, Madhavadas
wrote the Bhakti-ratnvali dealing with aspects of bhakti and the Baragitas that
depicted the life of Krishna in Vrindavan. There were also translations of the Puranas
into Assamese. In Orissa the works of Saraladasa are regarded as the first works of
Oriya literature. There were numerous kavyas composed on Puranic themes by
Madhusudana, Bhima and Sasasiva. The Rasa Kallol written during this period also
deals on the theme of the love between Radha and Krishna. Other important works
are the Ushabhilasa of Sisu Sankara Dasa and the Rukminibibha of Kartik Dasa. The
works of Upendra Bhanja (1670–1720) were important as they ushered a new era of
Oriya literature in the succeeding period.
Literature in South India
In the south Villiputturar was an important literary figure of the period. The tradition
of using Sanskrit words and literary expressions is ascribed to him. Other important
works in Tamil are commentaries written by Vaishnava scholars and also commen-
taries on works of the sangam age like the Tolkappiyam and the Kural. There were
also a number of philosophical works and commentaries that were written on the
Puranas. Many of the works in Tamil literature were related to Shaivism and
Vaishnavism. Among the important works of the medieval period was the Irusamaya-
vilakkam written by Haridasa, the Sivadarumottaram and the Saiva Samayaneri
both written by Marainanarbandar. In the realm of philosophy the notable works were
the Cidambarapuranam (1508) by Purana Tirumalainathan and the
Palanittalapuranam by Balasubramanya Kavirayar.
During this period the most famous Telugu poet was Errapragada who popularized
the Champu genre of literary writing (mixed form of verse and prose). He also trans-
lated the Bhagavata Purana into Telugu. The Vijayanagar ruler Krishnadeva Raya
wrote the Amuktamalyada in Telugu. The most celebrated poet in his court was
Allarrani Peddana and Nandi Timmaha who wrote the Parijatapaharana. Bhattumurti
or Rama Raja Bhushan is known for the Vasucaritra and the Hariscandra
Nalopakhyanam (that narrates the story of Nala and Raja Harishchandra). In the
Kannada speaking regions Jain writers dominated the literary compositions of the
period. The works of Basava and his followers who popularized the Virasaiva move-
ment in the region also form an important aspect of Kannada literature. The patron-
age of the Hoysala rulers further helped the development of the language. The Vadi
Vidyananda of Geroppa is an anthology of Kannada poets. The Jain scholar Salva
wrote works like the Trilokararara (on cosmology), Aparajiyasataka (on Philoso-
phy) and the Bharataesvaracarita (the story of the famous king Bharata). Malayalam
emerged as an independent language during this period. The language was in oral
form and the earliest work composed in the 14th century was the Rama Charitam.
The works of Rama Panikkar who wrote Bharata Gatha, Savitri Mahatmyam and
the Bhagavatam are considered important in malayalam.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.4

1. Name any two important texts written in Sanskrit?

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2. What is a ‘Kavya’?

3. Who was Amir Khusrau?

Notes
4. Name the two important works of Ziauddin Barani?

5. What do you understand by the term Sabaq-i- Hindi?

6. Name any four regional languages that developed during the Medieval Period?

14.5 MUSIC
Information on music of the sultanate period is limited. The important phase in the
development of music during this period belongs to the time of Amir Khusrau. It is
during this period that the qawwali style is said to have developed. He is also credited
for the development of many modern ragas like aiman, gora and sanam. He is
credited with the creation of a new musical instrument, the sitar that was a combina-
tion of the Indian vina and the Iranian tambura. The Turks are credited with bringing
musical instruments like rabab and sarangi into South Asia. In Vrindavan Swami
Haridas promoted music and is considered to have taught Tansen who was at the
court of the Mughal emperor Akbar. Tansen is regarded as an important exponent of
the Hindustani classical music and is credited with introducing ragas as the Miyan ki
Malhar, Miyan ki Todi and Darbari. Raja Mansingh is said to have played an impor-
tant role in the perfection of the Dhrupad style of North Indian Music. In the south a
system of ragas known as the Janaka and Janya ragas existed during this period. The
Swaramela Kalanidhi by Ramamatya of Kondavidu written in 1550 describes 20
Janan and 64 Janya ragas. By the 18th century several new forms of music like
Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal had come into existence.
14.6 PAINTINGS
The developments in painting during the sultanate period have not been studied be-
cause of the limited samples. The closest view that one has of murals in the sultanate
is to the numerous literary references. The earliest reference to murals is in a qasida
in praise of Iltutmish, which describes the figures depicted upon the sqandrels of the
main arch that was raised to welcome the envoy of the Caliph. In another reference
in the Tarikh-I Ferozshai there is a reference to the Sultan seeking to ban the tradi-
tion of figural paintings on the walls of the palaces of Delhi. Quaranic calligraphy also
became popular across South Asia during this period. The earliest copy of the Quran
(dated 1399) was written in Gwalior. The manuscript was decorated with a variety of
ornamental motifs. By the 15th century the kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur
emerged as important centres of art.
Paintings in medieval India entered a new phase under the Mughals. They altered the
character of painting across north India. The Mughal paintings are defined by the
styles and subjects popular at the imperial court. The early origins of the Mughal
School of painting can be traced to Kabul. During the reign of Humayun two Persian
artists, Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad were patronized.

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Akbar deputed them to illustrate manuscript of Hamzanama. This manuscript of

1,400 pages was compiled by artists drawn from Gwalior, Gujarat, Lahore and Kash-
mir. It is during this period that many features of Mughal painting developed. Many
paintings of this period are collaborative efforts with two or even four painters work-
Notes ing on one painting. Among the important features of the paintings of this period are
restricted movement of the figures, fineness of lines of drawings and flat depiction of
architectural columns. The Mughal paintings are also marked with a naturalism and
rhythm, the clothing of the objects assumed Indian forms and the use of subsidiary
scenes in the background. The two most common themes in Mughal paintings of this
period are specific events in the court and the portraits of leading personalities.

Fig. 14.3 Mughal Painting

During the reign of Jahangir there were other changes in the style of Mughal paintings.
The paintings of the Jahangir period accentuate a formalist style and have broad mar-
gins which are well decorated with the depiction of flora and faces of human figures,
the naturalistic representations matured during the reign of Jahangir. The use of trees,
birds, streams and rivers in the backdrop of the paintings became very popular.

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There are interesting scenes of love and portraits of women members attached to the
royal court in Mughal paintings of the Shah Jahan period, while the paintings of the Aurangzeb
period provide glimpses of the Mughal emperor during his campaigns. As in architecture
the Mughal paintings also gave way to the growth and development of regional styles that
tried to replicate the same features and characteristic decorative designs. Notes
Rajput paintings that are also of the same period consist of various different court
styles, corresponding to the various Rajput kingdoms. The Rajput paintings during the
16th and 17th centuries used many representations of mythology and of court scenes.

Fig. 14.4 Rajput Painting

The Rajput paintings are spread over a larger geographical region, with each region
forming a separate sub topic in the artistic scheme. The other styles that were popular
were the regional styles of the Deccan and the regions of Bengal, Gujarat and Orissa.
The Rajput paintings further flourished in the eighteenth century when many of the
artists shifted to the courts of their new patrons. This also coincided with the emer-
gence of many smaller regional styles of paintings. These paintings are known for the
intensity of the colours that they use and depict hunting scenes, portraits of individuals
and of musical sessions. The main styles of this painting were the Mewar, Bundi and
the Kishangarh schools.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.5

1. Name the Musical instrument created by Amir Khusrau?
Notes
2. Who played an important role in the development of the dhrupad style?

3. What were the stylistic changes in Mughal Paintings seen during the reign of
Jahangir?

4. Mention a few popular themes in Mughal Miniatures?

14.7 ARCHITECTURE
Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate
New architectural forms and styles were introduced in India during the medieval period.
The arch and dome were new architectural additions of the period. The use of lime-mortar
in the construction of buildings and houses altered the building techniques. The develop-
ment of the true arch was important feature of the architectural style of the period. The
true arch required stones and bricks to be laid as voussoirs in the shape of a curve and
bound together firmly by a good binding material. The arches were made in different
shapes but the dominant one was the pointed form. In the 14th century a variant of the
arch, called the four-centred arch was introduced by the Tughluqs in their buildings.
There are only a few instances of early Turkish buildings in the sub continent where
newly quarried material has been employed. In most of the buildings of the period the
richly carved capitals, columns and shafts of older buildings are reused. Stone has
been used abundantly in the masonry work of this period. The material commonly
used for plastering buildings was gypsum. Apparently lime-plaster was reserved for
places that needed to be secured against water leakage as in roofs, canals and drains.
In the later period gypsum mortar became popular in buildings.
Here we will provide you a brief account of medieval architecture during the Sultan-
ate Mughal and the regional styles which developed in India during medieval period.

Fig 14.5 Qutab Minar & Alai Darwaja

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The Sultanate Period

Monuments like the Quwwatul Islam mosque (1198), Qutab Minar (1199–1235),
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (1200) and Iltutmish’s tomb represent the early forms of Indo-
Islamic architecture. The early buildings show signs of being worked upon by local crafts-
men while the later buildings show the development or the maturing of the Indo-Islamic
Notes
style. In these monuments one can see the gradual development of dome and the true
arch. The best examples of this are the tombs of Iltutmish (1233–34) and Balban (1287–
88). The Alai Darwaza in the Qutub complex (1305) and the Jamat Khana Masjid at
Nizamuddin (1325) are examples of Khalji period. Here one notices changes marked by
the distinct influence of the Seljuq architectural tradition. The employment of the true arch
shaped like a pointed horse shoe; the emergence of true dome; use of red sand stone and
decorative marble reliefs; the emergence of the lotus bud fringe on the underside of the
arch and the new masonry were the important features of this new style. The new
architectural style of the Tughluq period is represented with the use of stone rubble as the
principle building material, the battering of walls and bastions, a new type of arch called
the four centred arch, the emergence of the pointed dome and the introduction of an
octagonal plan of tomb building. Another important feature of Tughlaq architecture was
the “batter” or sloping walls. This gave the structures an effcct of strength. During the
subsequent period numerous tombs were built using the octagonal plan while others were
built using the square plan. The Architectural monuments of the Sur’s can be divided into
two periods, the first with buildings at Sasaram (1530–40) like the tombs of Sher Shah’s
father and Sher Shah himself. The second phase from (1540–45) is represented by build-
ings like the Purana Qila in Delhi and the Qilai Kuhna Masjid inside the Qila. The slight
flatness in the curve towards the crown is indicative of the last stage before the develop-
ment of the four-centred arch developed during the Mughal phase.
Regional Variations
During this period there was a development of various regional architectural forms. In
eastern India there was the development of two distinctive schools in Bengal and in
Jaunpur. The most prominent buildings of the Bengal school belong to the Malda district in
the remains of the two cities, Gaur and Pandua. Here there is an introduction of two
important features. The first was the ‘drop arch’, which had a span greater than its radius
and centres at the import level. The second was the method of raising the roof in a system
of arched bays where small domes supported by diagonally arranged brick pendentives
that helped transition from a square to a circular base. Another development in this period
was the transition from constructing bamboo houses to brick structures, during which a
special form of a curved roof developed. The best illustrations of the architecture styles
from Jaunpur are the mosques. The styles here bear close resemblance to the Tughlaq
style. The use of the arch and beam are notable features of this style.
In western India the development of regional architectural forms is notable in 14th century
Gujarat. Here there is a distinctive change in the art form from the 14th into the 15thcentury.
In the former there was a large scale use of building material from demolished temples and
in the latter there is a development of a new style in which the layout of the mosques copied
the architectural imprint of temples. In central India the development of new art forms is
noticeable in the Malwa region; the cities of Dhar and Mandu are illustrations of this style.
Another important region that developed its distinctive style was the Deccan where
the Bahmani kingdom created a very different architectural style as compared to the
northern architectural forms. The Deccan style developed with the fusion of the
Tughlaq style from the north and the Iranian style. The development of the

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architectural style here coincides with the shifting of the kingdom’s capital from
Gulbarga (1347) to Bidar (1425) and eventually to Golconda (1512). In the first phase
in Gulbarga the architectural style is representative of a distinctive Islamic architec-
ture that followed the Tughlaq style. In the second phase there is an adaptation of
Notes Iranian architectural styles, this is accompanied with the use of coloured tiles, mural
paintings and a change in the shape of the domes.
Another important regional development in the Deccan was Vijayanagara art. The
distinctive style is best illustrated using the architectural forms in the city of Hampi.
Besides palaces and temples the city also had an extensive network of waterworks and
public buildings such as the elephant stables and the Lotus Mahal. The unique features
of this style were the use of pillars for architectural and decorative purposes. The
climax of temple architecture at Vijayanagara occurred under the Tuluva rulers. The
architectural tradition was accompanied by a vibrant sculptural tradition that used many
mythological figures and narratives. The shrines on Hemakuta hill, Virupaksha temple
and the Hazara Rama temple are examples of Vijayanagara temple architecture.
The Architecture of the Mughal Empire
This period witnessed large scale architectural activities that represented the peak of
Islamic art in India. It was also a period where there was a great exchange of ideas
and styles that led to the creation of a style that was very different from the Sultanate
period and that had many features of local or regional styles. The Mughal Emperor
Akbar initiated the grand projects that symbolize this period.
Among the early structures of this period are the two mosques built by Babur at
Sambhal and Panipat in 1526. Babur is also credited with the laying out of gardens at
Dholpur and at Ram Bagh and Zahra Bagh at Agra. Two mosques one at Agra and
the other at Hissar belong to the reign of the second Mughal emperor Humayun. The
grandness of Mughal architecture began with the construction of Humayun’s tomb
and its design by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas from Persia. He brought with him Persian
craftsmen to work on the tomb. This tomb is the earliest specimen of a garden enclo-
sure and is raised on an arcaded sandstone platform. The tomb is octagonal and

14.6 Humayun’s Tomb

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crowned by a high dome. The dome is a double dome, which is built in two layers one
which provides the ceiling to the interior of the building and the other, which provides
the outer layer that crowns, the building.
During the reign of Akbar many indigenous styles were encouraged leading to the
common use of sandstone, the use of arches (mainly in a decorative form) and the Notes
decoration that comprised mainly of boldly carved or inlaid patterns complemented by
brightly coloured patterns on the interiors. Among the important monumental projects
undertaken was the building of Agra fort, within the fort were many structures that
were built in the Gujarat and Bengal styles, which were subsequently demolished by
Shah Jahan who remodelled the fort and its interiors. The Janangir Mahal conceived as
a robust building in red sandstone, is a fusion of Hindu and Islamic building designs. The
combination of beam and bracket form the principal structural system, the same styles
are seen in the palace fortresses of Lahore and Allahabad. Mughal architecture under
Akbar entered a new phase with the construction of Fatehpur Sikri. This city-palace
was built entirely of red sandstone between 1571–1585. The buildings could be studied
under two categories, religious and secular. Among the religious buildings are, the Jami
Masjid, the Buland Darwaza and the tombs of Shaikh Salim Chishti. The secular struc-
tures are the palaces, administrative buildings and other structures. The Jama Masjid
uses a typical plan of a mosque with a central courtyard, arcades on three sides and a
domed skyline. In its courtyard lies the tomb of Salim Chishti. Among the palaces are
buildings known as the Jodh Bai palace, the Panch Mahal (the size of this five storey
structure that diminishes as one goes higher), the Diwan-i-Khas (is in the form of a
rectangle and is two stories from outside) and the Diwan-i- Am. Among the other
buildings here are the Hathi Pol and the Karkhana buildings.
The important buildings of the reigns of Jahangir include the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandara,
and the tomb of Itmad ud Daula. The tomb at Sikandara is designed as a tomb

Fig. 14.7 Jama Masjid Delhi

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enclosure enclosed by a garden, the tomb itself is three stories high the first being an arcaded
platform making the basement the middle portion is in three tiers of red sandstone while the
highest one is made of white marble which is open on top with a screen surrounding it. The
tomb of Itmad ud Daula built in 1622–28 marks a change in architectural style from the
Notes Akbari period. This enclosed tomb with a dome roof is enclosed with a beautiful marble
tracery. Jahangir is also known to have laid the famous Mughal gardens in Kashmir.
Among the important monuments of the reign of Shah Jahan are the Lal Qila (in Delhi),
the Moti Masjid (at Agra), the Jami Masjid in Delhi and the Taj Mahal. The Lal Qila is
designed as a rectangle along the banks of the river Yamuna. There are two gates, the
Delhi and Lahore gates. There is a moat that runs all along the fort except on the
riverside. The important buildings inside the fort are the Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas
and the Rang Mahal. The Moti Masjid in Agra was an experiment with an alternative
scheme of an open prayer hall that had also dispensed with the minarets and replaced
them with chhatris on the four coners of the prayer hall. The Jammi Masjid is a larger
version of the Jammi Masjid in Fathepur Sikri. It is built on a large platform; within the
mosque there are colonnades on three sides with the sanctuary along the fourth. There
are three marble domes rising above the sanctuary. The Taj Mahal represents the grandest
project of Shahjahan. The construction of the Taj began in 1632 and was completed by
1643. The plan of the complex is rectangle with a high enclosure wall and a lofty gate-
way in the middle. The main building of the Taj stands on a high marble platform at the
northern end of the enclosure. There is a huge dome that covers the top of this struc-
ture, with an inverted lotus finial. The decorative features of the building consist mainly
of calligraphy and inlay work in the exterior and pietra dura in the interior.
The Moti Masjid at Lal Qila in Delhi, the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore and the mausoleum built
for his wife Rabia ud Dauran at Aurangabad are the main examples of Mughal architecture
under Aurangzeb. The mausoleum at Aurangabad was modeled on the Taj Mahal. Of archi-
tectural monuments after Aurangzeb the tomb of Safdar Jang in Delhi is representative of
the continuation of the tradition of the Mughals by the regional governors.

Fig. 14.8 Safdarjung Tomb

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Decorative Styles
Another feature of the art of this period was the decorative art in Islamic buildings
that was introduced in the sub continent for the first time. These decorative styles
were usually in the form of calligraphy, geometrical figures and foliation. In calligra-
phy quranic sayings were inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and monumental Notes
script called kufi. The calligraphy was found on different parts of the buildings as on
doorframes, ceilings, wall panels, etc. The geometric shapes on the other hand were
used in different variety of combinations. The generating source of these designs was
the circle, which was then developed into a square, triangle or polygon. These forms
were then elaborated by, multiplication and sub division, by rotating and by symmetri-
cal arrangements. Of the flotations, the dominant form of decoration employed in the
sultanate buildings was the arabesque. It was characterized by a continuous stem
that split regularly, producing a series of leafy secondary stems which split again to
reintegrate into the main stem.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.6

1. Name two important changes in architectural forms made during the Medieval
period?

2. What is a true arch?

3. Name a few monuments associated with early forms of Indo Islamic architec-
ture?

4. Which type of stone was used in the construction of Fatehpur Sikri?

5. Name some of the decorative styles used in medieval architecture?

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

The medieval Indian culture represents the synthesis of Indian and Persian philoso-
phy, literature art and architecture. In religious sphere Sufism and Bhakti tradition
influenced each other. They provided an opportunity for understanding religious tradi-
tions of Hindus and Muslims at people’s level.
The emergence of Urdu as a new language is a best example of interaction and
synthesis. The same is visible in the area of Music and Painting. In the field of archi-
tecture, the form, style and decoration take a lot from each other.
The medieval period thus represents an important era of dramatic change in the
world of religion and art in South Asia. The growing popularity of Sufism played an
important role in the popular acceptability of Islam and in the course establishing
unique Islamic tradition in the sub continent. The Bhakti movement played a similar
role in the development of Hinduism. On one hand it challenged existing religious and

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social hierarchies and on the other it revived concepts like monotheism in mainstream
Hindu tradition. Both the Sufi and Bhakti movements questioned the authority of the
established clergy and the relevance of established religious rituals. Importantly while
both emerged questioning established religious traditions they eventually found them-
Notes selves being integrated into established religious systems.
Another important development during the medieval period was the growth in vernacular
literature. Growing regional identities helped create new literary and art forms. The growth
in regional languages like Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi and Telugu was a very significant
development. The popularity of translations further widened readership and helped in the
exchange of ideas. The exchange of ideas also ushered new development in music. The
use of the Sitar and new styles of music further enriched the medieval period.
In the realm of art one witnesses the development of new styles of painting associ-
ated with the patronage of the Mughal and the Rajput style There was a change in the
character and stylistic representation seen in earlier periods. The synthesis of the
medieval period is best seen in the development of new architectural styles. The large
number of forts, palaces, temples and Mosques that can be dated to this period are
examples of the new styles. The use of decorative motifs and the adaptation of the
dome are examples of the architectural traditions of this period.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss some of the important aspects of Sufi teachings?
2. Name the Sufi Order founded by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi – What were
the important teachings of their Silsilah?
3. What were the similarities in the teachings of various Bhakti Saints?
4. What were the important developments in the Bhakti Movement in Bengal/
Maharashtra?
5. Highlight the important aspects of the teachings of Guru Nanak?
6. Highlight the development of new trends in Sanskrit literature during the medi-
eval Period?
7. Who was Amir Khusrau? Highlight his contribution to the development of Per-
sian literature?
8. What were the important features in the new painting styles that emerged under
the Mughals?
9. Examine the important Architectural features and style of the Sultanate period?
10. Discuss the emergence of new styles in Mughal architecture during the reigns of
Akbar and Jahangir?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

14.1
1. A pir is a Sufi teacher.
2. An important Sufi who reconciled Islamic Mysticism with Islamic orthodoxy.

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3. It is a term used to refer to devotional Music.

4. Nizammudin Auliya.
5. He was the leader of Quadiriyya Silsilah in Punjab and a supporter of Akbar.
14.2 Notes
1. Orthodox Brahmanism
2. Kabir, Tukaram, Chaitanya
3. He was an Important Bhakti Saint from Bengal.
14.3
1. A Sikh having a direct link with the Guru.
2. An important mercantile caste in Punjab.
14.4
1. Rajtaranginni, Prithvirajavijaya.
2. It is a poetical narrative.
3. He was a Persian poet patronized during the Sultanate period disciple of
Nizamuddin Anlyla
4. Fatwa – i- Jahandari / Tarikh -i- firozshahi.
5. A new form of Persian literature in India.
6. Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati Oriya.
14.5
1. Sitar.
2. Raja Mansingh
3. The emergence of a formalist style and use of naturalistic representations.
4. Specific events in the court and portraits of leading personalities.
14.6
1. The arch and the dome.
2. A style of arch making that emerged in the medieval period. The centre stone
was important in this.
3. Quwwat ul Islam Mosque, Qutab Minar, Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra
4. Red Sand Stone
5. Calligraphy/Geometric Shapes.
HINTS TO TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Refer Section 14.1 paragraph 1,3,6
2. Refer 14.1 Naqshbandi Silsilah
3. Refer 14.2 Para 1 to 4

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4. Refer 14.2 under Vaishnava Bhakti

5. Refer Section 14.3 paragraph 1 & 2.
6. Refer Section 14.4 paragraph under Sanskrit Literature
Notes 7. Refer 14.4 under Persian Literature
8. Refer 14.6
9. Refer 14.7 under Delhi Sultanate
10. Refer 14.7 under Mughal Empire
GLOSSARY
Khanqah – Centre of activities of Sufi orders
Silsilas – Orders of Sufi
Mono Theist – Those who believe in One God
Peitra Dura – Iranian decorative style in which colourful stone is em-
bedded on white/another colour stone/marble in such a
way it looks one piece.
Ruh – Soul, spirit
Hulul – Infusion of the divine spirit
Ziyarat – Practice of visiting tombs, kind of pilgrimage
Sama – Musical congregation of Sufis

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