Chapter 3

Introduction to Programmable Logic Controller

3.1 Introduction

Automation and control techniques in industrial electronics play an

important role. These techniques are usually tailored to specific requirements to
achieve the most attractive and desired results. These are the custom designed
systems using personal computers in industrial process control or other control
systems. Study of automatic control has played a vital role in the field of
advance engineering and science.

The control systems before 1960’s were based on relay control. These
systems faced the problem of flexibility in the expansion of process, occupied
large space in the control room and taken longer duration of time during the
changes and troubleshooting of control process. To overcome these difficulties
Bedford Associates team Richard Morley, Mike Greenberg, Jonas Landau,
George Schwent and Tom Boissevain, introduced the first Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) in the year 1969 called as Modicon Modular Digital
Controller (Modicon 084). The initial machine had 125 words of memory,
occupied large space and there were no considerations for speed. Later this was
modified with some changes in the control design by the engineers of Allen-
Bradley, named as Odo Struger and Ernst Dummermuth. Current processors
have the ability to scan a 100,000 steps program in one millisecond, small and
light weight with a built-in Ethernet port [1-5].

Since 1970s, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) were used in the

industrial automation. They were often reprogrammed during the operation of
the plant to adapt them to new requirements. Introduction of distributed control
systems in 1980 revolutionized the use of PLCs in the control industry. In
1987, further improvements in the PLC technologies provided most responsive
and processing power for the building automation applications due to centrally

26
located controlling capability, millisecond or fast response time, simplified
wiring, cost saving, improved maintenance, increased reliability, more
flexibility, communication capabilities, easy of programming and trouble
shooting, lower cost, higher level of performance, expandability, modularity
and withstand against harsh environments [6-8].

The characteristics of a PLC include modular design, allowing easy

replacement or addition of units and large number of peripherals (20 to 100 I/O
s) in each PLC. Controlling both digital and analog signals, operated in the
extreme temperature range (-30 oC to 85 oC), Programming with hand-held
terminals or with a lap-top/computer, capable of communicating with other
PLCs, computers and intelligent devices, economical for cost to usage systems,
and easily understandable programming language.

Apart from the advantages mentioned above, PLCs have some

disadvantages. PLC manufactures provide closed architecture for their products
as compared to microcontroller systems which have open architecture.
Software programs of the PLCs differ among the manufactures. Therefore they
cannot be used from one manufacturer PLCs to the other manufacturer.
Interface I/O modules of the PLC to the interface devices is not that easy. For
any changes in the control design it requires skillful work and it is difficult to
find errors if the problems occur in the design stage and may take long time to
resolve. Sometimes it’s hazardous to use in the case of potentially explosive
chemical processes. Following sections discusses basic components,
architecture, classifications, programming languages, ladder diagram program,
data acquisition and data communication with regard to PLC.

3.2 Basic components of PLC

The basic components of a PLC include power supply, Central

Processing Unit (CPU), programming device, memory, input and output
module as shown in Fig. 3.1. The power supply voltage of 220V AC / 24V DC
is required for operating PLC. CPU has microprocessor to store the program

27
instructions in the memory and controls the output based on the input statuses
and program instructions. Therefore CPU is said to be a brain of a
programmable logic controller. Generally personal computer (PC) is used as a
Programming unit of a PLC and is removed after software testing or execution
of the program. Memories of a PLC are used to store the instructions and data.
These are organized as program memory and data memory to store the logic
program and variable data of the program respectively. The storage of
information in these memories is tracked by an addressing system, to indicate
the location of memory contents. The input module receives both digital and
analog signals from the field devices and the output module sends the control
signals to the devices to be controlled by the PLC based on the control
program. Thus the inputs are the switches and/or sensors (both digital and
analog) and the outputs are either discrete signals (ON/OFF signals) or analog
control signals which provide the analog voltage/current proportional to the
physical parameters to be controlled. A PLC can be used to send/receive the
information over a communication network via local area network (LAN) or
through Ethernet by using a communication interface ports [9, 10].

POWER
SUPPLY

O M
M
I U O
O CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
N T D
D
P P U
U
U
L
(CPU) U L
T T E
E

PROGRAM AND COMMUNICATION

DATA MEMORY INTERFACE

PROGRAMMING
DEVICE

Fig. 3.1: Basic components of PLC

28
3.3 Architecture of PLC

Internal architecture of a PLC shown in Fig. 3.2 consists of CPU, buses,

memory, input/output units and programming unit. CPU controls the whole
operation of a PLC and is provided with the clock signal generator for the
timing and synchronization of the control operations. This has an arithmetic
and logic unit (ALU) to carry out the arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division etc. and logical operations of AND, OR,
NOT, NOR etc. The executed results are retrieved in the memory. The whole
operation is controlled by the control unit by providing the timing signals for
these operations.

The paths which connect different parts of PLC are called as buses.
These are tracks on Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) for controlling data flow
between the control elements. The data bus is used to send the data, address bus
is used to send the location of addresses and control bus is used to control these
data and address bus information within the PLC for the internal operation. The
data bus has 8 bit words and address bus has 8 address lines of 8 bit words.
Thus the possible addresses are 28 = 256 address lines. Similarly 65,536
addresses can be used for 16 address lines. The data between memory devices
and input/output is controlled by the control bus signals.

Inputs devices supply a signal/data to an input module to perform

control functions. Typical examples of inputs are push buttons, switches, and
physical parameter measurement devices such as humidity sensor, temperature
sensor, light sensor etc. The outputs execute the control operations based on
the control signals from the output module. Switches, relays, solenoids and
valves are the examples of output devices. Optoisolators or optocouplers made
up of light emitting diode and photo transistor are used to provide electrical
isolation.

29
 Fig. 3.2: Architecture of PLC

3.4 Classification of PLCs

The PLCs are classified, based on their size as single box and modular
types. Single box type is also known as brick and consists of integrated
components such as power supply, memory, input/output units and processor.
Modular types of PLCs are more than one such bricks and are plugged in a
common rack. These are of different sizes with special features of variable
power supply and computing capabilities.

Modular PLCs are further divided into small, medium and large based
on their memory size and the number of I/O. Small PLC is mini-sized and is
limited for one or two expansion modules. They use instruction list or relay
ladder diagram programming languages. Medium sized PLCs are used in
industrial applications. They have many modules for connecting I/O and
communication ports. Large sized PLCs are preferred for complex process
control applications which require higher capacities of work as compared to
medium PLCs.

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 Manufacturers of modular type PLCs are Rockwell Automation,
Siemens, Omron, Mitsubishi, Hitachi, Delta, ABB (Asea Brown Boveri),
General Electric (GE), Honeywell, Modicon, Schneider Electric and Bosch.
Brand name of Rockwell Automation of USA PLC is Allen-Bradley
(MicroLogix). Among various types of PLCs, MicroLogix programmable
controllers are widely used for implementing real time control of automation
applications. MicroLogix programmable logic controller is used for the
proposed work. Hence details of the same are discussed.

3.5 MicroLogix PLCs

The MicroLogix families of programmable logic controllers are the

compact controllers of Rockwell Automation with five levels of controller
versions as 1000, 1100, 1200, 1400, and 1500. MicroLogix 1000 controller are
of compact size with embedded analog input and Ethernet port for the online
editing. The MicroLogix 1200 controller is used for broad range of
applications. Newest family of MicroLogix controllers are MicroLogix 1100
and MicroLogix 1400. Both are designed to for use in the application areas
which require high speed counter and pulse train outputs. For higher end
applications MicroLogix 1500 controller are used [11].

Among five controller versions of the MicroLogix families, we have

chosen Allen-Bradley MicroLogix 1100 PLC of catalogue number 1763-
L16BBB and expansion I/O module 1762-IF20F2 for design and
implementation of the proposed systems.

3.6 Allen Bradley, MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

Allen-Bradley (AB) MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB uses RSLogix

500 software for its programming [12]. This has a built-in real time clock,
memory module, RS-232/RS-485 communication port, and LCD screen.
Fig. 3.3 shows the details of the catalog number. This has digital and
supporting analog input and output terminals. Fig.3.4a and b shows top and

31
side views of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC and The hardware
features of the controller are listed in Table 3.1. The detailed discussions of real
time clock and memory module, communication ports, input and output blocks,
and LCD Screen of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC and its expansion
I/O module 1762-IF20F2 are presented here.

1763 – L 16 B B B

Power Supply
Bulletin Number
A = 120/240 V AC
Base Unit B = 24V DC
D = 12…24V DC
Number of digital I/O
Input Type:
Output Type:
A = 120 V AC
B = Relay/24V DC
B = 24V DC
W = Relay
C = 12…24V DC

Fig. 3.3: Catalog Number 1763-L16BBB details

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 Fig. 3.4a: Top View

Fig. 3.4b: Side View

Fig. 3.4: MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

Courtesy: Rockwell Automation, Inc.

33
Table 3.1: Hardware features of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

Top View

Feature Description

1 Output terminal block

2 Battery connector

3 Bus connector interface to expansion I/O

4 Battery

5 Input terminal block

6 LCD

7 LCD Keypad(ESC, OK, Up, Down, Left, Right)

8 Status LED indicators

9 Memory module

10 DIN Rail latches

Side View

Feature Description

11 RS-232/485 connection port

12 Ethernet port

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3.6.1 Real Time Clock and Memory Module

For time-based control applications an accessory memory module and

Real-Time Clock (RTC) are used. This includes date and time information.
Programming software of RTC Function File of RSLogix 500 shows Date &
Time screen to set the valid date or time data. The memory module used is
1763-MM1 with memory size 128kB which provides a backup for user
program and data.

3.6.2 Communication Ports

RS-232/485 (Channel 0) and an Ethernet (Channel 1) are the two

communication ports used by the controller. Channel 0 port is used to interface
computers for programming and to bar code readers and printers. Channel 1
port is used to interface other networks such as DH-485, DF1 Radio Modem
network, DF1 half-duplex, Modbus network, LAN and ASCII etc., Proper
communication cables are used for the electrical interface. For example,
MicroLogix 1761 is the communication cable used for interfacing RS-232
drivers [13].

3.6.3 Input and Output Blocks

MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC has 34 terminal points as shown

in Fig. 3.5. These terminals are grouped as input block (1-17) and output
block (18-34). The input block terminals from 1 to 15, are grouped as Group 0
(11-15), Group 1 (4-10) and Group 2 (1-3). The Group 0 has 5 terminals and is
labeled as DC COM (DC common), Input 0 (I/0), Input 1 (I/1), Input 2 (I/2)
and Input 3 (I/3). The Group 1 has 6 input terminals from I/4 to I/9 and one DC
COM. Group 2 has three terminals labeled as IA COM, V1 (+) and V2 (+).The
input terminal grouping is shown in Table 3.2a.

The output block from 18 to 34 are grouped as Group 0 (22 and 23),
Group 1 (24 and 25) and Group 2 (28-33). Group 0 has two terminals labeled
as output O/0 and VAC/VDC (24V DC Common). Group 1 has two terminals

35
labeled as output O/1 and VAC/VDC. Group 2 has six terminals. Four
terminals labeled from O/2 to O/5 are the outputs and two terminals +24V and -
24V are the power supply terminals. The output terminal grouping is shown
Table 3.2b. Terminal 20 is common ground. Terminals 18 and 19 are used to
connect external 24V DC power supply. Remaining terminals, that are 16 and
17 at input block and 21, 26, 27 and 34 at output block are not used. Table 3.3
shows I/O description along with the specifications [14].

Fig. 3.5: Terminal Points of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

36
Table 3.2: I/O terminal groupings of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

3.2a: Input terminal grouping

Inputs

Input Group Common Terminal Input Terminal

Group 0 DC COM I/0 through I/3

Group 1 DC COM I/4 through I/9

Group 2 IA COM V1+ and V2+

3.2b: Output terminal grouping

Outputs

Output Group Common Terminal Output Terminal

Group 0 VAC/VDC O/0

Group 1 VAC/VDC O/1

Group 2 DC +24V, DC -24V O/2 through O/5

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 Table 3.3: I/Os of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

Description Specification

Input power 24V DC

(4) high-speed 24V DC

Digital inputs
(6) 24V DC

Analog inputs (2) 0...10V DC voltage inputs

Digital outputs (2)relay

(2)24V DC FET

(2) high-speed 24V DC FET

3.6.4 LCD Screen

The MicroLogix 1100 controller has Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and
keypad as shows in Fig.3.6a. The startup screen of the controller display the
controller name “MicroLogix 1100” for 3 seconds and is followed by the I/O
status screen shown in Fig. 3.6b. First row of LCD screen indicates modes of a
controller. Second row indicates input (I) states, third row indicates number of
input and output variables (ten digits from 0 to 9) and fourth row indicates
output (O) states of a PLC. The darkened squares show the ON status and
empty squares show the OFF status of the control variables. The main menu
objects of LCD screen are shown in Table 3.4.

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 Fig. 3.6a: LCD Screen and Key pad Fig. 3.6b: I/O status Screen

Fig. 3.6: LCD and default I/O status screen of MicroLogix 1100, 1763-L16BBB PLC

Table 3.4: Main menu – objects of LCD screen

Menu Item Description

I/O Status Displays the I/O status of the digital I/O.

Monitoring Allows to view and change data value of a bit and an integer file.

Mode Switch Allows changing the mode switch selection.

User Display Displays the user defined LCD screen

Allows to configure or view the following:

 Use the communications toggle functionality.

 View the Ethernet port configuration.
Advance set  Change the data value of trim pots.
 Change the key in mode for value entry for a trim pot.
 View system information, such as OS series and firmware
version.

39
3.6.5 Expansion I/O module 1762-IF20F2

Control applications of PLCs can be expanded by connecting the

external input/output (I/O) terminal device called expansion I/O module 1762-
IF20F2. MicroLogix 1100 supports maximum of four analog expansion I/O
modules. Bulletin1762 with catalog number IF20F2 expansion I/O module is
shown in Fig. 3.7 which has 2 channels for anlog signal measurement and
control. Fig. 3.7a shows the front view of the expansion I/O module and Fig.
3.7b shows terminal block layout with 10 terminal points. The terminals 10
and 9 are the two input sensing terminals or channels labled as IN 0(+) and IN
1(+) respectively. The terminals 1 and 2 are the corresponding negative or
ground terminals labeled as IN 0(-) and IN 1(-) respectively. Terminals 8 and
7 are the two voltage outputs labeled as Vout 0 and Vout 1 respectively.
Terminals 5 and 6 are common[15, 16].

Fig. 3.7a: Front view Fig. 3.7b: Terminal block layout

Fig. 3.7: MicroLogix 1100 Analog Expansion I/O module 1762-IF20F2

40
3.7 Programming languages

PLC has its own design methods and programming languages and has
been standardized by the International Electro technical Commission (IEC) as
IEC standard 61131. These standards are instruction list (IL), function block
diagram (FBD), structured text (ST), sequential function chart (SFC) and
ladder diagram (LD) program.

IL is a European counterpart language, uses textual low-level assembler

for programming PLC which is similar to programming a microprocessor in
assembly level method. That is, it uses machine codes in mathematical form in
instructions and is executed one after the other. The programs so written in this
language can be moved easily between hardware platforms. Some limitations
of this are i) It is difficult to find the errors in the complex mathematical
operations. ii) It is not suitable for implementing large programs. iii) Also
processing speed of operation and compactness are less as compared to other
languages used in PLCs.

FBD is a very common to the process industry and uses the graphical
blocks during the programming. These blocks are used to execute functional
operations and require large screen space for programming. For large scale
control applications, it is difficult to trace the error in the program because the
program becomes clumsy to make any corrections.

ST and SFC are the graphical languages used for the control system and
control process respectively. ST is the high level textual language and uses the
instructions as similar to the instructions used in BASIC, PASCAL or C
languages. SFC uses flowcharts to control the process in its program which
simplifies the control logic programming and organizes functional
specifications of a system. It is easier to read and add notes to clarify steps or
capture important information for later use. The language utilizes reduced time
to design and debug the program with faster and repeated execution of
individual pieces of logic with simple screen display.

41
 LD a graphical language has its roots in USA and is the most widely
used programming language. It is based on the relay control logic. One can
understand and troubleshoot a program with some basic ideas of Boolean logic
operations [17, 18]. Following discusses the LD programme in detail since this
one is used in our proposed systems.

3.8 Ladder Diagram Program

The ladder diagram or ladder logic program developed for a controller

operation consists of graphical symbolic instructions. These instructions are
stored in a user memory as program files. Status of the program files such as
input status, output status, bits and integer’s data status etc., are stored in a
memory location called data files. During the execution of the program, the
ladder diagram accesses the information from these files.

Basic symbols used in the ladder diagram are Examine If Closed (XIC),
Examine If Open (XIO) and Output Energize (OTE). These are shown in Fig.
3.8. XIC and XIO represent input instructions of the control logic and OTE is
the output instruction of the control logic. The XIC instruction is said to be
TRUE when the input is closed (1) and is FALSE when the input is open (0).
Reverse is the case in case of XIO instruction. The status of the OTE
instruction depends upon the input statuses of the instructions. Thus the
symbols XIC, XIO and OTE resemble the normally open, normally closed and
the output coils of the relay logic circuit respectively.

The symbols are labeled with bit addresses. The notations of addressing
vary with the manufacturers accordingly as suggested in Mitsubishi, Siemens,
Allen-Bradley, Telemecanique etc. The switching actions of the elements are
similar to the action of ON and OFF of electrical switches. The output action is
equivalent to the status of the output coil based on the control logic program. In
the ladder diagrams, these symbols are connected in horizontal lines and are
placed between two vertical lines. Each horizontal line is called as ‘rung’. Thus
the term ‘Ladder’ is used because the program looks the shape of a ladder with

42
horizontal rungs between two vertical lines. During the program scan, ladder
diagrams are read from left to right and from top to bottom. In each scan, the
contents of a program are updated as per the control logic. Time period of
10ms to 50ms is taken by the controller for the program scan. During the
execution of a cycle, all the rungs are scanned and the error is noticed if any at
end of last rung, called end rung [19, 20].

Fig. 3.8a: Examine If (the contact is) Closed

Fig. 3.8b: Examine If (the contact is) Open

Fig. 3.8c: Output Energize

Fig. 3.8: Basic symbols of ladder diagram

The ladder diagram program is written based on the design of a control

process. Some of the steps in planning a program includes - i) Define the
process to be controlled, ii) Draw a sketch of the process including all sensors
and manual controls needed to carry out the control sequence, iii) List the
sequence of operational steps as much detail as possible, iv) Write the ladder
diagram program to be used as a basis for the PLC program, v) Consider
different scenarios where the process sequence may go and make adjustments
as needed, and vi) Consider the safety of operating personnel and make
adjustments as needed.

LD program uses 96 instructions and 12 controller function files. RS

Logix 500 software is used to develop LD program and is supported by Allen-
Bradley MicroLogix 1100 PLC. The program is developed and executed on

43
windows operating system. RSLinx Classic is the software used to configure
RS Logix 500 software and PLC for control operations. The basic techniques
used in switching control operations of the ladder diagram programming are
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and Exclusive OR (XOR) which are discussed
one by one. Apart from these basic programming techniques special logical
operations, latching and multiple outputs are explained at the end.

3.8.1 AND

An AND gate using a ladder diagram is shown in Fig. 3.9. This

resembles the electrical circuit energized with two switches in series
connection. XIC symbol ‘| |’ in this diagram represents normally open contact.
Input A symbol represent switch A, and is in series with another normally open
contact symbol ‘| |’, labeled as input B, to represent switch B. The output
symbol is represented as ‘( )’. For the output to be OFF (0), either input A or
input B have to be 0, that is, input A and input B contacts have to be open. This
means the power flow is to be break from the left-hand vertical or rail to the
right-hand vertical across a rung. In this rung the contacts are normally open.
This means if both input A and input B is on, then power will flow from left
vertical through the inputs A and Input B and output and reach to the right
vertical rail to activate the device connected at the Output. Thus for the output
to be ON (1), both input A and input B have to be 1, that is, input A and input
B contacts have to be closed for the power flow is to be taken from the left-
hand vertical to the right-hand vertical across a rung. Other possible conditions
of AND operation are tabulated in Truth Table 3.5. In general, series contacts
in a rung, represent the logical AND operation.

Input A Input B Output

Fig. 3.9: An AND gate using a ladder diagram

44
 Table 3.5: Truth Table for AND operation

Inputs
Output
A B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

3.8.2 OR

Fig. 3.10 shows an OR ladder diagram, resembling the electrical circuit

energized with two normally open switches A and B in parallel combination.
These are connected in parallel and are terminated at the output. The contacts
either input A or input B must be closed for the output to be energized. OR
logic gate describes that for the output to be 1, either switches A or switch B or
both A and B must be 1 as shown in the Truth Table 3.6.

Input A Output

Input B

Fig. 3.10: An OR gate using a ladder diagram

45
 Table 3.6: Truth Table for OR operation

Inputs
Output
A B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3.8.3 NOT

Fig. 3.11 shows a ladder diagram for NOT or inverter logic ladder
symbol. The input contact A is shown by XIO symbol ‘|/|’ and is terminated
with the output. If the input A is 0, which resembles normally closed switch,
then the output is 1 due to flow of power from the left-hand vertical to the
right-hand vertical of a rung. When the input A is 1, which resembles closed
switch becomes open, then the output is 0, because the power flow from left-
hand vertical to right-hand vertical of a rung disconnects. This resembles NOT
gate. The logical operations are given in Truth Table 3.7.

Input A Output

Fig. 3.11: A NOT gate using a ladder diagram

46
 Table 3.7: Truth Table for NOT operation

Input
Output
A

0 1

1 0

3.8.4 NAND

Fig. 3.12 shows NAND logic ladder diagram. Here two normally closed
inputs A and B (NOT ladder logic), are connected in parallel. When either of
the upper branch and lower branch inputs A or B are 0 or both are 0, the output
is 1 due to power flow from left-hand vertical to the right-hand vertical by the
inputs in 0 states. When both input A and input B are 1, the output is 0, because
the inputs normally closed becomes open on both the arms to break the flow of
power from left-hand vertical to right-hand vertical. Truth Table 3.8 shows the
NAND logic.

Input A Output

Input B

Fig. 3.12: A NAND gate using a ladder diagram

47
 Table 3.8: Truth Table for NAND operation

Inputs
Output
A B

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

3.8.5 NOR

Fig. 3.13, shows a ladder diagram of NOR logic. Here two NOT gate
ladder inputs A and B are used. These are connected in series to produce
logical NOR operation. If both the inputs A and B are 0, then power flow from
left-hand to right-hand side of the rung to get output 1. When either of the
inputs and both of the inputs are 1, power flow disconnects and the output
becomes 0. The result is shown in Truth Table 3.9.

Input A Input B Output

Fig. 3.13: A NOR gate using a ladder diagram

48
 Table 3.9: Truth Table for NOR operation

Inputs
Output
A B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

3.8.6 XOR

Ladder diagram for XOR logic is obtained using ladder diagrams of

NOT, AND, and OR gates as shown in Fig. 3.14. In this diagram, upper and
lower branches forms AND ladder logic (series) and parallel of this forms OR
ladder logic. If inputs A and B are 0, then upper branch inputs A and B will be
0 and 1 respectively. At the same time, lower branch inputs A and B of will be
1 and 0 respectively. Thus, the output of XOR will be 0. If inputs A and B are
0 and 1 respectively, then both inputs A and B of upper branch will be 0. At the
same time, both inputs A and B of lower branch will be 1. Hence the output
will be 1. If inputs A and B are 1 and 0 respectively, then both inputs A and B
of upper branch will be 1. At the same time, both inputs A and input B of lower
branch will be 0. So here, the output will be 1 again. If both inputs A and B are
1, then inputs A and input B of upper branch will be 1 and 0 respectively. At
the same time, inputs A and B of lower branch will be 0 and 1 respectively.
Thus the output will be 0. This is shown in the Truth Table 3.10.

49
 Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B

Fig. 3.14: An XOR gate using a ladder diagram

Table 3.10: Truth Table for XOR operation

Inputs
Output
A B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

3.8.7 Latching logical operation

Latch gate ladder diagram is shown in Fig. 3.15. Here, output is

energized when input A is closed. The same state of output is associated with
the branch lower to the input A. Again when the input A is open, then there is
no change at the output. The circuit maintains the output energized as a result
of branch output. The only way to release the output is by opening the normally
closed contact B. As the contact B open, output goes off.

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 Input A Input B Output

Output

Fig. 3.15: A Latch gate using a ladder diagram

3.8.8 Multiple outputs logical operations

Ladder diagrams can be designed for more than one output called as
multiple outputs as shown in Fig. 3.16. Ladder diagram having two outputs is
shown in Fig. 3.16a. Here, both outputs A and B are energized when the input
A is closed. Fig. 3.16b shows the sequence of operations with two inputs and
two outputs. In this diagram, output A is energized when input A is closed. For
output B to be energizing both input A and input B must close. That is such an
arrangement enables a sequence of outputs to be produced, based on the input
contact actions. Fig. 3.16c illustrates this idea for multiple inputs and outputs.
Outputs A, B, and C are switched on by sequential closing of contacts input A,
input B, and input C [21, 22].

Input Output A

Output B

Fig. 3.16a: Ladder diagram with one input and two outputs

51
 Input A Output A

Output B

Input B

Fig. 3.16b: Ladder diagram with two inputs and two outputs

Input A Output A

Input B Output B

Input C Output C

Fig. 3.16c: Ladder diagram with three inputs and three outputs

Fig. 3.16: Ladder diagrams with multiple inputs and outputs

3.9 Data acquisition and Data communication

Data acquisition (DAQ) is the collection, analysis, and storage of

information by a computer-based system. PLCs are more widely used
instruments for DAQ. They collect the information about the temperature,
pressure, humidity, light etc., using sensors. Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) is one of the versatile data acquisition systems used in
PLCs. The advantage of data acquisition is that, the systems collect the

52
information at any instant of time and can be retrieved for analysis and
controlling devices interfaced to the PLCs. The software displays the data in
tables, pie charts or line plots for the analysis [23-26].

Data communication is a communication between programmable

controllers and computers to provide a communication by using local area
network (LAN). There are three types of network connections. They are star
network, bus network and ring network. In star network connection, a central
control device or hub is connected to several nodes or points for
communication between the central control device and each node. The network
controller can be a computer, a PLC or another intelligent host. In a bus
network, each node is connected to a central bus. When a node sends a message
on the network, the message is aimed at a particular station or node number. As
the message moves along the total bus, each node is listening for its own node
identification number and accepts only information sent to that number. In a
ring network, each node is connected in series with each other to form a loop.
Transmitted messages travel from node to node in the loop.

Message transmission take place between two or more devices in data

communication by using protocols and is predetermined by the set of
convention methods or rules. In these conventions LAN is used to establish
communication of the devices on its data highway. For computer-integrated
systems, all the devices are tied together using a common protocol. For
different protocols, additional hardware and programming is required. Allen
Bradley offers open network protocols in network-access schemes which
include Device Net, Control Net, Ether Net/IP and interface devices along with
software. If network-access is the only function of communication interface
then it is known as bridge. If the interface performs data transmission control
then it is called as gateway.

It has been noticed in data acquisition and data communication, that

access to real-time data is an important element in optimal manufacturing

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performance, and is more appropriately called as comprehensive database. In
such a database various types of networks are used to communicate between
the programmable controllers and from PLC to computers. Communication of
data is communicated through Data Highway (DH), RS-232, DH+, Control
Net, Device Net, Ethernet, MODBUS, Field bus and PROFI BUS. Features of
these networks are given below.

3.9.1 Data Highway: Data High way (DH) - 485 is a communication network
used with the Allen-Bradley SLC-500 processor. This supports interconnection
of maximum 32 devices and has a maximum network length of 4000 feet.
Different PLC families from the same manufacturer may not be able to
communicate with other processor or devices, because they have different
protocols. For instance, Allen-Bradley PLC-5 processor requires a bridge, in
order to communicate with Allen-Bradley SLC-500 processor.

3.9.2 RS-232: The RS-232 is a communication port recommended by

Electronic Industries Association (EIA) for serial binary communications.
Using this port we can make a direct connection between controller and
computer, with no special hardware other than the proper cable. The maximum
distance allowed between the computer and controller is 50 feet.

3.9.3 Data Highway Plus: DH + is a local information network designed for

remote programming, accessing and transferring data. It is the primary
communication network of Allen Bradley PLC-5 controllers and supports the
interconnection of a maximum of 64 devices with a maximum network length
of 10,000 feet.

3.9.4 Control Net: Control Net is an open and high-speed network that
transfers I/O updates, controller-to-controller data interlocking, and data
monitoring of the network. The data delivered will be predicted for their
consistency and reliability. The network specifications and protocol are open,
which means that users are not required to purchase hardware, software, or
licensing rights to connect devices to a system.

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3.9.5 Device Net: Sometimes it may not be practical to separately wire each
sensor and actuator directly into I/O modules. A Device Net is a network which
allows connecting devices directly to a plant-floor controller without the need
to hardwire each device into I/O modules. This direct connectivity reduces the
cost and saves time in wiring. As PLCs have become more powerful, they are
being used to control production in increasingly larger areas.

3.9.6 Ethernet: Ethernet is a popular information network designed for the

high-speed exchange of data between computers and other devices. Ethernet
follows a set of rules that governs its basic operation. In Ethernet, any
computer can send its information on the network. The advantage of Ethernet is
that a wide variety of products supplied by various manufacturers are available
to use for communicating over long distances. Ethernet Industrial Protocol is an
open industrial networking standard that supports both real-time I/O messaging
and message exchange. This is emerged because of the high demand for using
the Ethernet network for control applications. Collisions happen if two
computers try to send simultaneously, but both computers sense the collision
and avoid collision by stopping the operation.

3.9.7 MODBUS: MODBUS or Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocols (TCP/IP) is a communication protocol intended for supervision and
control of automation equipment. Specifically, this protocol covers the
messaging in an intranet or Internet environment that uses the TCP/IP. The
most common use of the MODBUS protocols is for Ethernet attachment of
PLCs, I/O modules, gateways to other I/O networks.

3.9.8 Field Bus: Field Bus network interconnects measurements and control
equipments such as sensors, actuators, and controllers. At the base level in the
hierarchy of plant networks, it serves as a LAN for instruments used in process
control and manufacturing automation applications and has a built-in capability
to distribute the control application across the network. Thus field bus is an

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open, nonproprietary protocol available to any company that wishes to
implement it.

3.9.9 PROFIBUS: Process Field Bus (PROFIBUS) is a standard of

communication for a wide range of applications in manufacturing and
automation. It works at the level of field devices such as power meters, motor
protectors, circuit breakers and lighting controls. It allows the features of PLCs
to be used for their full extent and within a distributive system [27-30].

3.10 Conclusion

This chapter gives detailed discussion on programmable logic controller

which includes its basic components, architecture and classifications. A
MicroLogix programmable controller is discussed due to its wide usage and
implementation in real time automation control. Allen-Bradley MicroLogix
1100 PLC with catalog number 1763-L16BBB is selected for the design and
implementation of systems in BAS applications. Hence, its hardware details
such as Real Time Clock and Memory Module, Communication ports, Input
and Output blocks, LCD Screen and Expansion I/O module 1762-IF20F2
details are discussed. Among five programming languages instruction list (IL),
function block diagram (FBD), structured text (ST), sequential function chart
(SFC) and ladder diagram (LD) program as specified by electro technical
committee 61131, widely used ladder diagram (LD) programming language is
selected and its features are given in detail. Finally various methods of data
acquisition and communication details have been covered.

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