6.

11 Stator Voltage Control of Induction Motor

By reducing Stator Voltage Control of

Induction Motor, can be reduced speed of a
high-slip induction motor by an amount
which is sufficient for the speed control of
some fan and pump drives (Fig. 6.31).

While torque is proportional to voltage

squared (Eq. (6.10)), current is proportional
to voltage (Eq. (6.4)).

Therefore, as voltage is reduced to reduce speed, for the same current motor develops
lower torque. Consequently, method is suitable for applications where torque demand
reduces with speed, which points towards its suitability for fan and pump drives. If stator
copper loss, core loss, and friction and windage loss are ignored, then from eqns (6.5) and
(6.7), motor efficiency η is given by
The equation shows that the efficiency falls with decrease in speed. The speed control is
essentially obtained by dissipating a portion of rotor input power in rotor resistance.
Thus, not only the efficiency is low, the power dissipation occurs in the rotor itself, which
may overheat the rotor. Because of these reasons, this drive is employed in fan and pump
drives of low power rating and for narrow speed range. Variable voltage for speed control
is obtained using ac voltage controllers.

6.11.1 Control by AC Voltage Controllers and Soft Start:

Domestic fan motors, which are always single-phase, are controlled by a single-phase
triac voltage controller (Fig. 6.32(a)). Speed control is obtained by varying firing angle of
the triac. These controllers, commonly known as solid state fan regulators, are now
preferred over conventional variable resistance regulators because of higher efficiency.
Industrial fans and pumps are usually driven by three-phase motors.

Fig. 7.32(b) shows a commonly used thyristor voltage controller for speed control of 3-
phase motors. Motor may be connected in star or delta. In delta connection, third
harmonic voltage produced by motor back emf causes circulating current through the
windings which increases losses and thermal loading of motor. Speed control is obtained
by varying conduction period of thyristors. For low power ratings, anti-paralleled
thyristor pair in each phase can be replaced by a triac. Since Stator Voltage Control of
Induction Motor, both single- and three-phase, allow a stepless control of voltage from its
zero value, they are also used for soft start of motors. The power factor of an ac regulator
is defined by eqn. (5.109). With increase in firing angle, both distortion factor and
displacement factor reduce, giving a low power factor. In fan and pump drives, the fluid
flow has to be maintained constant against variations in pressure head and nature of
pumped fluid. Therefore, it is always operated with closed-loop speed control. For
closed-loop control, scheme of Fig. 3.5, consisting of inner current loop and outer speed
loop is used. Braking is not used because fluid pressure provides adequate braking
torque.

6.12 Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive

Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive – Synchronous speed, therefore,
the motor speed can be controlled by varying supply frequency. Voltage induced in stator
is proportional to the product of supply frequency and air-gap flux.

If stator drop is neglected, terminal voltage can be considered proportional to the product
of frequency and flux.

V α f * Øg

Any reduction in the supply frequency, without a change in the terminal voltage, causes
an increase in the air-gap flux.

f↓ ---→ Øg ↑

Induction motors are designed to operate at the knee point of the magnetization
characteristic to make full use of the magnetic material. Therefore, the increase in flux
will saturate the motor. This will increase the magnetizing current, distort the line current
and voltage, increase the core loss and the stator copper loss, and produce a high-pitch
acoustic noise.
While an increase in flux beyond the rated value is undesirable from the consideration of
saturation effects, a decrease in flux is also avoided to retain the torque capability of the
motor.

Therefore, the Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive below the rated
frequency is generally carried out at rated air-gap flux by varying terminal voltage with
frequency so as to maintain (V/f) ratio constant at the rated value. From Eq. (6.13)

where K is a constant, and Ls and L′r are, respectively, the stator and stator referred rotor
inductances. Positive sign is for motoring operation and negative sign is for braking
operation. When frequency is not low, (Rs/f) ≪ 2π(Ls + L′r) and therefore, from (6.69)

Equation (6.70) suggests that with a constant (V/f) ratio, motor develops a constant
maximum torque, except at low speeds (or frequencies). Motor therefore operates in
constant torque mode.

According to Eq. (6.69), for low frequencies (or low speeds) due to stator resistance drop
[i.e. when (Rs/f) is not negligible compared to 2π(Ls + L′r)] the maximum torque will
have lower value in motoring operation (+ve sign) and larger value in braking operation
(-ve sign). This behavior is due to reduction in flux during motoring operation and
increase in flux during braking operation. When it is required that the same maximum
torque is retained at low speeds also in motoring operation, (V/f) ratio is increased at low
frequencies. This causes further increase in maximum braking torque and considerable
saturation of the machine in braking operation. When either V saturates or reaches rated
value at base speed, it cannot be increased with frequency. Therefore, above base speed,
frequency is changed with V maintained constant. According to Eq. (6.70), with V
maintained constant, maximum torque decreases with increase in frequency (or speed).

Variation in terminal voltage with frequency is therefore as shown in Fig. 6.33(a). V is

kept constant above the base speed. Below the base speed (V/f) ratio is maintained
constant, except at low frequencies where (V/f) ratio is increased to keep maximum
torque constant. Corresponding speed torque curves are shown in Fig. 6.33(b) both for
motoring and braking operations. The curves suggest that speed control and braking
operation are available from nearly zero speed to above synchronous speed.

A given torque is obtained with a lower current when the operation at any frequency is
restricted between the synchronous speed and the maximum torque point, both for
motoring and braking operations. Therefore, the motor operation for each frequency is
restricted between the synchronous speed and maximum torque point as shown by solid
lines in Fig. 6.33(b).

The Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive provides good running and
transient performance because of the following features:
1. Speed control and braking operation are available from zero speed to above base
speed.
2. During transients (starting, braking and speed reversal) the operation can be
carried out at the maximum torque with reduced current giving good dynamic
response.
3. Copper losses are low, and efficiency and power factor are high as the operation is
restricted between synchronous speed and maximum torque point at all
frequencies.
4. Voltage drop in speed from no load to full load is small.
The most important advantage of Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive
is that it allows a variable speed drive with above-mentioned good running and transient
performance to be obtained from a squirrel cage induction motor. The squirrel cage motor
has a number of advantages over a dc motor. It is cheap, rugged, reliable and longer
lasting. Because of the absence of commutator and brushes, it requires practically no
maintenance, it can be operated in an explosive and contaminated environment,

It can be designed for higher speeds, voltage and power ratings. It also has lower inertia,
volume and weight. Though the cost of a squirrel cage motor is much lower compared to
that of a dc motor of the same rating, the overall cost of variable frequency induction
motor drives, in general are higher. But because of the advantages listed above, variable
frequency induction motor drives are preferred over dc motor drives for most
applications. In special applications requiring maintenance free operation, such as
underground and underwater installations, and also in applications involving explosive
and contaminated environments, such as in mines and chemical industry, variable
frequency induction motor drives are a natural choice.

They have several other applications such as traction, mill run out tables, steel mills,
pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, spindle drives, conveyers, machine tools, and so on.
 • V* and f* are voltage and frequency
commands for VFVS.

• Reference frequency f* is changed to

control speed.

• Reference frequency f* is changed to

control speed.

• Delay circuit restrict motor operation for

each frequency between synchronous
speed and the maximum torque point

Block diagram of Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive scheme is shown
in Fig. 6.34. The motor is fed from a variable frequency variable voltage source (VFVS).
V* and f* are voltage and frequency commands for VFVS.

Flux control block produces a voltage command V* for VFVS in order to maintain the
relationship of Fig. 6.33(a) between V* and f*. Reference frequency f* is changed to
control speed. A delay circuit is introduced between f* and fr, so that even when fr is
changed by a large amount, f* will change only slowly so that motor speed can track
changes in fr, thus restricting the motor operation for each frequency between
synchronous speed and the maximum torque point. VFVS can be a voltage source
inverter or a cyclo-converter.

6.12.1 Slip speed control

Let V and f are the rated voltage and frequency of the machine.

Motor is operated below the base speed with constant (V/f) control for the frequency Kf
and voltage KV

Where K is the factor such that K = (0 to 1)

Hence
frequency changing from the value 0 to f

K changing from the value 0 to 1

voltage changing from the value 0 to V

Neglecting the stator resistance drop.

𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ = − − − − − (1)
′ 2
√(𝑅𝑟 ) + (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟′ )2
𝑠

𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ = − − − − − (2)
′ 2
√(𝑅𝑟 ) + (2𝜋𝐾𝑓)2 (𝐿𝑠 + 𝐿′𝑟 )2
𝑠

𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ = − − − − − (3)
′ 2
√(𝑅𝑟 ) + 𝐾 2 (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟′ )2
𝑠

Where Xs = 2πfLs
Xr = 2πfLr
Assume 2πf = K
K = Per unit frequency

𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ = − − − − − (4)
′ 2
√( 𝑅𝑟 ) + (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟′ )2
𝐾𝑠

𝑅′
Where ( 𝑟 ) ≫ (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟′ ) (𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟′ )
𝐾𝑠

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ = ′ = ′ 𝐾𝑠 − − − − − (5)
𝑅 𝑅𝑟
( 𝑟)
𝐾𝑠
 𝐼𝑟′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐾𝑠

Torque equation is given by

3 ′2
𝑅𝑟′
𝑇= 𝐼 ( ) − − − − − (6)
𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠 𝑟 𝑠

Sub 𝐼𝑟′ from equation (5) to equation (6)

3 𝑉2 𝑅𝑟′
𝑇= ( ) − − − − − (7)
𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝑟′ 2 𝑠
( )
𝐾𝑠

3 𝑉2
𝑇= 𝐾𝑠 − − − − − (8)
𝑤𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝑟′

𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐾𝑠

𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠 − 𝑤𝑚 𝑤𝑠𝑙
𝑠= = − − − − − (9)
𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠 𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠

Where 𝑤𝑠𝑙 = 𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠 − 𝑤𝑚

If frequency is below than the rated value Torque (T) and 𝐼𝑟′ are constant

When frequency increases beyond the rated value i.e., K > 1,

V = constant,

𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ =
′ 2
√(𝑅𝑟 ) + (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟′ )2
𝑠
Where
𝑅′
( 𝑟 ) ≫ (𝑋𝑠 + 𝑋𝑟′ ) (𝐼𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 = 𝐼𝑟′ )
𝐾𝑠

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼𝑟′ = ′ = ′ 𝑠
𝑅 𝑅𝑟
( 𝑟)
𝑠

𝑉 𝑤𝑠𝑙
𝐼𝑟′ =
𝑅𝑟′ 𝐾𝑤𝑚𝑠

𝑅𝑟′
𝑤𝑠𝑙 = (𝐾𝐼𝑟′ ) 𝑤𝑚𝑠
𝑉

Thus, for speed above base speed given 𝐼𝑟′ and hence approximately equal to 𝐼𝑠 slip speed
𝑤𝑠𝑙 linearly increase with K or frequency.

This behavior is utilized in the closed loop speed control drive for limiting the current
with in permissible value above the base speed.
Since slip s is small 𝐼𝑟′ is in phase with V, machine copper loss is neglected. Then the
mechanical power Pm is given by

𝑃𝑚 = 3𝑉𝐼𝑟′

Pm is constant with 𝐼𝑟′ , therefore the given 𝐼𝑠 the drive operates in constant power mode.

6.12.2 Torque and Power Limitations, and Modes of Operation:

The torque and power variations for a given stator current and for frequencies below and
above the rated frequency are shown by dots in Fig. 6.35. When the stator current has the
maximum permissible value, these will represent the maximum torque and power
capabilities of the motor in Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive.
Variation of maximum torque and power capabilities with frequency are shown in Fig.
6.36. Variation of slip speed ωsl with frequency is also shown in this figure.

As seen in Figs. 6.35 and 6.36, the motor has a constant maximum torque from zero to
base speed ωmb,

hence the drive operates in constant torque mode. In this frequency range, V is changed
with frequency as shown in Fig. 6.33(a) and the slip speed at the maximum permissible
value, current remains constant.

From base speed to speed ωmc, the maximum power has a constant value, hence the motor
operates in constant power mode. At speed ωmc (Fig. 6.35), the breakdown torque is
reached. Any attempt to operate the motor at the maximum permissible current beyond
this speed will stall the motor. Hence, beyond the speed ωmc, the machine is operated at a
constant slip speed and the maximum permissible current and maximum power are
allowed to decrease (Fig. 6.36). Now the motor current reduces inversely with speed and
torque decreases inversely as the speed squared. The operation in this region is required
in drives requiring wide speed range but low torque at high speeds. For example in
traction applications the drive operates in this region when running at full speed because
the torque required in steady state at high speeds is very small compared to its value
during acceleration.

6.13 Voltage Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor:

Variable frequency and variable voltage supply for induction motor control can be
obtained either from a voltage sourve inverter (VSI) or a cycloconverter. Voltage Source
Inverter Control of Induction Motor are described here and cycloconverter fed drives.

6.13.1 VSI Induction Motor Drives:

Voltage Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor allows a variable frequency supply
to be obtained from a dc supply. Fig. 6.37(a) shows a VSI employing transistors. Any
other self-commutated device can be used instead of a transistor. Generally MOSFET is
used in low voltage and low power inverters, IGET (insulated gate bipolar transistor) and
power transistors are used up to medium power levels and GTO (gate turn off thyristor)
and IGCT (insulated gate commutated thyristor) are used for high power levels.

Voltage Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor can be operated as a stepped wave
inverter or a pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter. When operated as a stepped wave
inverter, transistors are switched in the sequence of their numbers with a time difference
of T/6 and each transistor is kept on for the duration T/2, where T is the time period for
one cycle. Resultant line voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 6.37(b). Frequency of
inverter operation is varied by varying T and the output voltage of the inverter is varied
by varying dc input voltage. When supply is dc, variable dc input voltage is obtained by
connecting a chopper between dc supply and inverter (Fig. 6.38(a)). When supply is ac,
variable dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a controlled rectifier between ac
supply and inverter (Fig. 6.38(b)). A large electrolytic filter capacitor C is connected in
dc link to make inverter operation independent of rectifier or chopper and to filter out
harmonics in dc link voltage.

Inverter output line and phase voltages are given by the following Fourier series:
 The rms value of the fundamental phase voltage

The torque for a given speed can be calculated by considering only fundamental
component. The main drawback of stepped wave inverter is the large harmonics of low
frequency in the output voltage. Consequently, an induction motor drive fed from a
stepped wave inverter suffers from the following drawbacks:

• Because of low frequency harmonics, the motor losses are increased at all speeds
causing derating of the motor.
• Motor develops pulsating torques due to fifth, seventh, eleventh and thirteenth
harmonics which cause jerky motion of the rotor at low speeds.
• Harmonic content in motor current increases at low speeds. The machine
saturates at light loads at low speeds due to high (Vlf ) ratio. These two effects
overheat the machine at low speeds, thus limiting lowest speed to around 40% of
base speed.
Harmonics are reduced, low frequency harmonics are eliminated, associated losses are
reduced and smooth motion is obtained at low speeds also when inverter is operated as a
pulse-width modulated inverter. Fig. 6.37(c) shows output voltage waveform for
sinusoidal pulse-width modulation. Since output voltage can now be controlled by pulse-
width modulation, no arrangement is required for the variation of input dc voltage, hence
inverter can be directly connected when the supply is dc [Fig. 6.38(c)] and through a
diode rectifier when supply is ac. [Fig. 6.38(d)].

The fundamental component in the output phase voltage of a PWM inverter operating
with sinusoidal PWM is given by
where in is the modulation index.

The harmonics in the motor current produce torque pulsation and derate the motor. For a
given harmonic content in motor terminal voltage, the current harmonics are reduced
when the motor has higher leakage inductance, this reduces derating and torque
pulsations. Therefore, when fed from Voltage Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor
with large (compared to when fed from sinusoidal supply) leakage inductance are used.

6.13.2 Braking and Multiquadrant Operation of VSI Induction Motor Drives:

The power input into the.motor is given by

where

V = fundamental component of the motor phase voltage

Is = fundamental component of the motor phase current

Φ = phase angle between V and Is.

In motoring operation Φ < 90°, therefore Pin is positive i.e. power flows from the inverter
to the machine. A reduction in frequency makes the synchronous speed less than the rotor
speed and the relative speed between the rotor conductors and air-gap rotating field
reverses. This reverses the rotor induced emf, rotor current and component of stator
current which balances the rotor ampere turns. Consequently, angle Φ becomes greater
than 90° and power flow reverses. The machine works as a generator feeding power into
the inverter, which in turn feeds power into dc link by reversing the dc link current Id.
Regenerative braking is obtained when the power flowing from the inverter to the dc link
is usefully employed and dynamic braking is obtained when it is wasted in a resistance.
Dynamic Braking:
Let us first consider the dynamic braking of pulse-width modulated inverter drive of Fig.
6.38(d). With dynamic braking the drive will be as shown in Fig. 6.39. For dynamic
braking, switch SW and a self-commutated switch (here transistor) in series with braking
resistance RB connected across the dc link are added to the drive of Fig. 6.38(d). When
operation of the motor is shifted from motoring to braking switch SW is opened.
Generated energy flowing into the dc link charges the capacitor and its voltages rises.
When it crosses a set value, switch S is closed, connecting the resistance across the link.
The generated power and a part of energy stored in the capacitor flow into the resistance,
and dc link voltage reduces. When it falls to its nominal value, S is opened. Thus by
closing and opening switch S based on the value of dc link voltage, generated energy is
dissipated in the resistance, giving dynamic braking. The dynamic braking operation of
the drives of Figs. 6.38(a) to (c) can be obtained similarly.

Regenerative Braking :
Let us first consider the regenerative braking of pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter
drives of Figs. 6.38(c) and (d). In the drive of Fig. 6.38(c) when machine operation shifts
from motoring to braking, Id reverses and flows into the dc supply feeding the energy to
the source. Thus, the drive of Fig. 6.38(c) already has regenerative braking capability. In
the case of the drive of Fig. 6.38(d), for regenerative braking, the power supplied to the
dc link must be transferred to the ac supply. When the operation shifts from motoring to
braking Id reverses but Vd remains in the same direction. Thus for regenerative braking
capability, a converter capable of dealing with dc voltage of one polarity and dc current
of either direction is required. A dual converter has this capability and was employed in
the past. The recent drives use synchronous link converter (SLC) because it takes
sinusoidal current at unity power factor from the ac source, both during motoring and
braking operations. Thus while its performance is superior, it requires less devices than a
dual converter. Principle of its operation is explained here.

A regenerative drive with a SLC and PWM inverter is shown in Fig. 6.40. The inductors
Ls and PWM inverter I constitute a SLC. PWM inverter I is operated to produce voltage
VI of required magnitude and phase and with a low harmonic content, so that source
current Is is nearly sinusoidal and in phase with Vs for motoring and 180° out of phase for
braking, thus giving unity power factor. The phasor diagrams are shown in Figs. 6.41(a)
and (b). For each value of Is, V1 of given phase and magnitude is required. This can be
easily realized in sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (PWM). In sinusoidal PWM
magnitude and phase of V1 depends on the magnitude and phase of modulation signal [1].
Therefore, V1 of given phase and magnitude can be produced by producing modulating
signal of required magnitude and phase. Since VI is produced by PWM inverter, it does
not contain low frequency harmonics. The inductor Ls filters out high frequency
harmonics to produce a nearly sinusoidal source current Is. The phasor diagrams of Fig.
6.41 are similar to that of a synchronous machine. ThuS behavior of synchronous link
converter is similar to that of a synchronous machine, hence it is called synchronous link
converter.
When the drive of Fig. 6.40 is operating in steady state, power supplied (taken) by SLC
must be equal to power taken (supplied) by PWM inverter II. Since the two work
independent of each other, this is achieved by providing closed loop control of the dc link
voltage. When the power supplied by SLC to the dc link equals the power taken by PWM
inverter II, no energy will be supplied or taken from the capacitor C and its voltage will
be constant and equal to the reference value Vd*. If now the load on IM is increased,
power taken by PWM inverter II from the dc link will be higher than the power supplied
by the SLC. Hence, the capacitor voltage Vd will fall below its reference value Vd*. The
closed loop voltage control will increase the value of Is and therefore power supplied to
the dc link. Hence, the dc link voltage will be brought back to the reference value.

Since SLC works as a boost converter, the closed loop control of dc link voltage provides
the drive with ride through capability against a voltage sag and under voltage. When ac
source voltage falls, the closed loop voltage control maintains the dc link voltage constant
by increasing Is, and thus, the motor continues to be provided constant voltage, and
therefore, produces same maximum power and torque.

The drive of Fig. 6.38(b) can have regenerative braking Capability by replacing
controlled rectifier by a dual converter. The SLC cannot be used because it requires
operation at a constant dc link voltage, whereas with six step inverter dc link voltage
must be varied. The drive of Fig. 6.38(a) will have regenerative braking capability if a
two quadrant chopper of Fig. 5.44 (capable of providing voltage of one polarity and
current in either direction) is used.
Four Quadrant Operation :
Four quadrant operation can be obtained by any drive with braking (regenerative or
dynamic) capability. A reduction of the inverter frequency, to make synchronous speed
less than the motor speed, transfers the operation from quadrant I (forward motoring) to
II (forward braking). The inverter frequency and voltage are progressively reduced as
speed falls to brake the machine up to zero speed. Now phase sequence of the inverter
output voltage is reversed by interchanging the tiring pulses between the switches of any
two legs of the inverter, for example, between the pairs (Trl, Tr4) and (Tr3 and Tr6) in Fig.
6.37(a). This transfers the operation to quadrant HI (reverse motoring). The inverter
frequency and voltage are increased to get the required speed in the reverse direction.

6.14 Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor:

Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor allows variable frequency and variable
voltage supply to be obtained from a fixed voltage and frequency ac supply.

A half-wave Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor is shown in Fig. 6.42 along with
the nature of its output voltage waveform. Because of low harmonic content when
operating at low frequencies, smooth motion is obtained at low speeds.

Harmonic content increases with frequency, making it necessary to limit the maximum
output frequency to 40% of the source frequency. Thus, maximum speed is restricted to
40% of synchronous speed at the mains frequency.

A motor with large leakage inductance is used in order to minimize derating and torque
pulsations due to harmonics in motor current.

The drives has regenerative braking capability. Full four-quadrant operation is obtained
by reversing the phase sequence of motor terminal voltage. Since cycloconverter employs
large number of thyristors, it becomes economically acceptable only in large power
drives.
Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor drive has applications in high power drives
requiring good dynamic response but only low speed operation e.g. in ball mill in a
cement plant.

The low speed operation is obtained by feeding a motor with large pole numbers from a
Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor operating at low frequencies. These drives
are called gearless drives because, unlike conventional drives, the low speed operation of
load is obtained without a reduction gear, thus eliminating the associated cost, space and
maintenance.

6.15 Closed Loop Speed Control of Induction Motor Drives:

A Closed Loop Speed Control of Induction Motor Drives is shown in Fig. 6.43. It
employs inner slip-speed loop with a slip limiter and outer speed loop. Since for a given
current, slip speed has a fixed value, the slip speed loop also functions as an inner current
loop. Further it also ensures that the motor operation always occurs on the portion of
speed-torque curve between synchronous speed and the speed at the maximum torque for
all frequencies, thus ensuring high torque to current ratio. The drive uses a PWM inverter
fed from a dc source, which has capability for regenerative braking and four-quadrant
operation. The drive scheme is however applicable to any VSI or cycloconverter drive
having regenerative or dynamic braking capability. The drive operation is explained
below.

The speed error is processed through a PI controller and a slip regulator. PI controller is
used to get good steady-state accuracy, and to attenuate noise. The slip regulator sets the
slip speed command ω*sl, whose maximum value is limited to limit the inverter current to
a permissible value. The synchronous speed, obtained by adding actual speed ωm and slip
speed ω*sl, determines the inverter frequency. The reference signal for the Closed Loop
Speed Control of Induction Motor Drives of the machine terminal voltage V* is
generated from frequency f using a function generator. It ensures nearly a constant flux
operation up to base speed and the operation at a constant terminal voltage above base
speed.
A step increase in speed command ω*m produces a positive speed error. The slip speed
command ω*sl is set at the maximum value. The drive accelerates at the maximum
permissible inverter current, producing the maximum available torque, until the speed
error is reduced to a small value. The drive finally settles at a slip speed for which the
motor torque balances the load torque.

A step decrease in speed command produces a negative speed error. The slip speed
command is set at the maximum negative value. The drive decelerates under regenerative
braking, at the maximum permissible current and the maximum available braking torque,
until the speed error is reduced to a small value. Now the operation shifts to motoring and
the drive settles at the slip speed for which the motor torque equals the load torque.

The drive has fast response because the speed error is corrected at the maximum available
torque. Direct control of slip assures stable operation under all operating conditions.

For operation beyond the base speed, the slip speed limit of the slip regulator must be
increased linearly with the frequency until the breakdown value is reached. This is
achieved by adding to the slip regulator output an additional slip speed signal,
proportional to frequency and of appropriate sign. For frequencies higher than the
frequency for which the breakdown torque is reached, the slip speed limit is kept fixed
near the breakdown value.

When fast response is required the maximum slip can be allowed to be equal to sin,
because induction motors can be allowed to carry several times the rated current during
transient operations of short duration. The inverter and its front end converter are built
using semiconductor devices whose transient and steady-state current ratings are the
same. Then the ratings of inverter and front end converter will have to be chosen several
time the motor current rating. This will substantially increase the drive cost. When fast
transient response is not required, current ratings of inverter and front end converter can
be chosen to be marginally higher than that of motor.

6.16 Variable Frequency Control From Current Source:

Control of induction motor employing variable frequency voltage sources was considered
in previous section. This section considers motor control by Variable Frequency Control
From Current Source (VFCS). An equivalent circuit for motor fed from a current source
is obtained when voltage source V is replaced by a current source Is in Fig. 6.1(a). Now

Motor speed-torque curves for various values of Is and natural speed-torque curve, which
corresponds to the operation at rated constant flux, are shown in Fig. 6.44(a). For a given
Is, operation of motor above the natural characteristic takes place for a flux higher than
rated and below it at lower than rated. Since rated flux operation is preferred due to
reasons explained already, the natural characteristic is locus of preferred, operating
points. From Eq. (6.83), one can obtain a relationship between Is and rotor frequency (sf)
for rated Im (or rated flux). This relationship, which is independent of frequency, is shown
in Fig. 6.44(b). Drive is operated such that relationship of Fig. 6.44(b) is maintained
between stator current Is and rotor frequency (sf), when frequency is changed to control
the speed.

When operating at a constant flux, the operating points are located mostly on the part of
speed torque curve, which gives unstable operation with most loads (Fig. 6.44(a)). Hence,
closed loop control is mandatory. Since motor is constraint to operate at constant flux, its
steady-state behavior is identical to that with VFVS. Thus at a given slip speed (or rotor
frequency), the motor draws a constant current and develops a constant torque at all
frequency, as explained already.

The motor, therefore, operates in constant torque mode from zero to base speed. At base
speed, either rated machine voltage is reached or VFCS voltage saturates. In either case
machine operates at a constant terminal voltage above base speed, providing constant
power mode. Variable frequency current supply is provided by a Variable Frequency
Control From Current Source inverter.

6.17 Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor:

A thyristor Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor (CSI) is shown in Fig.
6.45. Diodes D1-D6 and capacitors C1-C6 provide commutation of thyristors T1-T6, which
are fired with a phase difference of 60° in sequence of their numbers. It also shows the
nature of output current waveforms. Inverter behaves as a current source due to the
presence of large inductance Ld in dc link.

The fundamental component of motor phase current from Fig. 6.45(b) is

For a given speed, torque is controlled by varying dc link current Id by changing the value
of Vd. Therefore, when supply is ac, a controlled rectifier is connected between the
supply and inverter and when supply is dc, a chopper is interposed between the supply
and inverter (Fig. 6.46). The maximum value of dc output voltage of fully-controlled
rectifier and chopper are chosen so that the motor terminal voltage saturates at rated
value.

The major advantage of Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor is its
reliability. In case of VSI (Fig. 6.37(a)), a commutation failure will cause two devices in
the same leg (e.g. Tr1 and Tr4) to conduct. This connects conducting devices directly
across the source. Consequently, current through devices suddenly rises to dangerous
values. Expensive high speed semiconductor fuses are required to protect the devices. In
case of Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor, conduction of two devices in
the same leg does not lead to sudden rise of current through them due to the presence of a
large inductance Ld. This allows time for commutation to take place and normal operation
to get restored in subsequent cycles. Further, less expensive HRC fuses are good enough
for protection of thyristors.

As seen in Fig. 6.45, motor current rise and fall are very fast. Such a fast rise and fall of
current through the leakage inductance of the motor produces large voltage spikes.
Therefore, a motor with low leakage inductance is used. Even then voltage spikes have
large value. The commutation capacitors C1-C6 reduce the voltage spikes by reducing the
rate of rise and fall of current. Large value of capacitors is required to sufficiently reduce
the voltage spikes. Large commutation capacitors have the advantages that cheap
converter grade thyristors can be used but then they reduce the frequency range of the
inverter, and therefore, speed range of the drive. Further, due to large values of inductor
Ld and capacitors, the Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor drive is
expensive and has more weight and volume.

6.17.1 Regenerative Braking and Multiquadrant Operation:

When inverter frequency is reduced to make synchronous speed less than motor speed,
machine works as a generator. Power flows from machine to dc link and dc link voltage
Vd (Fig. 6.46) reverses. If fully-controlled converter of Fig. 6.46(a) is made to work as an
inverter, the power supplied to dc link will be transferred to ac supply and regenerative
braking will take place, Thus, no additional equipment is required for regenerative
braking of CSI drive of Fig. 6.46(a). Change of phase sequence of Current Source
Inverter Control of Induction Motor will provide motoring and braking operations in the
reverse direction.

The drive of Fig. 6.46(b) can have regenerative braking capability and four-quadrant
operation if a two quadrant chopper providing current in one direction but voltage in
either direction is used.
6.17.2 Closed Loop Speed Control of CSI Drives:
A closed loop Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor drive’is shown in Fig.
6.47. Actual speed ωm is compared with the reference speed ω*m. The speed error is
processed through a PI controller and slip regulator. The slip regulator sets the slip speed
command ω*s1. The synchronous speed obtained by adding ωm ω*s1, determines the
inverter frequency. Constant flux operation is obtained when slip speed ωs1 (or rotor
frequency) and Is have relationship of Fig. 6.44(b).

Since Id is proportional to Is, according to Eqn. (6.84), a relation similar to Fig. 6.44(b)
exists between ωs1 and Id for constant flux operation. Based on the value of ω*s1, the flux
control block produces a referent current I*d, which through a closed-loop current control
adjusts the dc link current Id to maintain a constant flux. The limit imposed on the output
of the slip regulator, limits Id at the inverter rating. Therefore, any correction in speed
 error is carried out at the maximum permissible inverter curent and maximum available
torque, giving fast transient response and current protection.

Beyond base speed, machine terminal voltage saturates as explained already. Flux control
and closed-loop control of Id are made ineffective. To operate the drive up to rated
inverter current, the slip speed limit of the slip regulator must increase linearly with
frequency. This is realized by adding to the slip regulator output a signal proportional to
frequency.

VSI CSI
VSI is fed from a DC voltage source having CSI is fed with adjustable current from a
small or negligible impedance. DC voltage source of high impedance.
The input current is constant but
Input voltage is maintained constant
adjustable.
Output voltage does not dependent on the The amplitude of output current is
load independent of the load.
The waveform of the load current as well as The magnitude of output voltage and its
its magnitude depends upon the nature of waveform depends upon the nature of
load impedance. the load impedance.
The CSI does not require any feedback
VSI requires feedback diodes
diodes.
Commutation circuit is simple as it
The commutation circuit is complicated
contains only capacitors.
Power BJT, Power MOSFET, IGBT, GTO with They cannot be used as these devices
self-commutation can be used in the circuit. have to withstand reverse voltage.

6.20 Rotor Resistance Control of Induction Motor:

Speed-torque curves for Rotor Resistance Control of Induction Motor are given in Fig.
6.50. While maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance, speed at which the
maximum torque is produced changes with rotor resistance. For the same torque, speed
falls with an increase in Rotor Resistance Control of Induction Motor.
Advantage of Rotor Resistance Control of Induction Motor is that motor torque capability
remains unaltered even at low speeds. Only other method which has this advantage is
variable frequency control. However, cost of Rotor Resistance Control of Induction
Motor is very low compared to variable frequency control. Because of low cost and high
torque capability at low speeds, rotor resistance control is employed in cranes, Ward
Leonard Ilgener Drives, and other intermittent load applications.

Major disadvantage is low efficiency due to additional losses in resistor connected in the
rotor circuit. As the losses mainly take place in the external resistor they do not-heat the
motor.

6.20.1 Conventional Methods:

A number of methods are used for obtaining variable resistance. In drum controllers,
resistance is varied by using rotary switches and a resistance divided in few steps.
Variable resistance can also be obtained by using contactors and resistors in series. High
power applications use a slip-regulator, which consists of three electrodes submerged in
an electrolyte, consisting of saline water. Resistance is varied by changing the distance
between electrodes and earth electrode. When the power is high, electrodes are driven by
a small motor. Advantage of this method is that resistance can be changed steplessly.
6.20.2 Static Rotor Resistance Control:
Rotor resistance can also be varied steplessly using circuit of Fig. 6.51. The ac output
voltage of rotor is rectified by a diode bridge and fed to a parallel combination of a fixed
resistance R and a semiconductor switch realized by a transistor Tr (Fig. 6.51).

Effective value of resistance across terminals A and B, RAB, is varied by varying duty
ratio of transistor Tr, which in turn varies rotor circuit resistance. Inductance Ld is added
to reduce ripple and discontinuity in the dc link current Id. Rotor current waveform will
be as shown. in Fig. 6.5104 when the ripple is neglected. Thus rms rotor current will be

Resistance between terminals A and B will be zero when transistor is on and it will be R
when it is off. Therefore, average value of resistance between the terminals is given by

where δ is the duty ratio of the transistor and is given by Eq. (5.112).

Power consumed by RAB is

From Eqs. (6.88) and (6.89), power consumed by RAB per phase is

Equation (6.90) suggests that rotor circuit resistance per phase is increased by 0.5R(1 –
δ). Thus, total rotor circuit resistance per phase will now be

RrT can be varied from Rr to (Rr + 0.5R) as δ is changed from 1 to 0.

A closed-loop speed control scheme with inner current control loop is shown in Fig. 6.52.
Rotor current Ir and therefore, Id has a constant value at the maximum torque point, both
during motoring and plugging. If the current limiter is made to saturate at this current, the
drive will accelerate and decelerate at the maximum torque, giving very fast transient
response. For plugging to occur, arrangement will have to be made for reversal of phase
sequence.
Compared to conventional Rotor Resistance Control of Induction Motor, static rotor
resistance control has several advantages such as smooth and stepless control, fast
response, less maintenance, compact size, simple closed-loop control and rotor resistance
remains balanced between the three phases for all operating points.

6.21 Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in Induction Motor:

Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in Induction Motor – Figure 6.53 shows an equivalent
circuit of a wound-rotor induction motor with voltage Vr injected into its rotor, assuming
stator-to-rotor turns ratio unity. When rotor copper loss is neglected

where Pr is the power absorbed by the source Vr. The magnitude and sign of Pr can be
controlled by controlling the magnitude and phase of Vr. When Pr is zero, motor runs on
its natural speed torque characteristic. A positive Pr will reduce Pm, and therefore, motor
will run at a lower speed for the same torque. When Pr is made equal to Pg, then Pm and
consequently speed will be zero. Thus, variation of Pr from 0 to Pg will allow speed
control from synchronous to zero speed. Polarity of Vr for this operation is shown in Fig.
6.53 by a continuous line.

When Pr is negative, i.e. Vr acts as a source of power, Pm will be larger than Pg and motor
will run at a speed higher than synchronous speed. Polarity of Vr for speed control above
synchronous speed is shown by a dotted line in Fig. 6.53.

When rotor copper loss is neglected, Pr is equal to Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in
Induction Motor, sPg. Speed control below synchronous speed is obtained by controlling
the slip-power. the same approach was adopted in rotor resistance control. However,
instead of wasting power in external resistors, it is usefully employed here. Therefore,
these methods of speed control are classified as Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in
Induction Motor recovery schemes. Two such schemes, Static Sherbius and Static
Kramer Drives, are described here.

6.21.1 Static Scherbius Drive (Fig. 6.54(a)):

It provides the speed control of a wound rotor motor below synchronous speed. A portion
of rotor ac power is converted into dc by a diode bridge. The controlled rectifier working
as an inverter converts it back to ac and feeds it back to the ac source. Power fed back
(i.e. Pr) can be controlled by controlling inverter counter emf Vd2, which in turn is
controller by controlling the inverter firing angle. The dc link inductor is provided to
reduce ripple in dc link current Id.

Since Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in Induction Motor is fed back to the source,
unlike rotor resistance control where it is wasted in resistors, drive has a high efficiency.
The drive has higher efficiency than stator voltage control by ac voltage controllers
because of the same reasons.
Drive input power is the difference between motor input power and the power fed back.
Reactive input power is the sum of motor and inverter reactive powers. Therefore, drive
has a poor power factor throughout the range of its operation.

From Fig. 6.54(a), neglecting stator and rotor drops

where α is the inverter firing angle and, n and m are, respectively, the stator to rotor turns
ratio of motor and source side to converter side turns ratio of the transformer. Neglecting
drop across inductor

Substituting from Eqs. (6.93) and (6.94) yields

where a = n/m.

Maximum value of α is restricted to 165° for safe commutation of inverter thyristors. Slip
can be controlled from 0 to 0.966a when α is changed from 90 to 165°. By appropriate
choice of a, required speed range can be obtained.

Transformer is used to match the voltages Vd1 and Vd2. At the lowest speed required from
the drive, Vd1 will have the maximum value Vd1m given by

where smax, is the value of slip at the lowest speed. If α is restricted to 165°, m is chosen
such that the inverter voltage has a value Vd1m when α is 165° i.e.
Such a choice of m ensures inverter operation at the highest firing angle at the lowest
motor speed, giving highest power factor (Eqn. (5.109)) and lowest reactive power at the
lowest speed. This improves the drive power factor and reduces reactive power at all
speeds in the speed range of the drive.

Figure 6.55(a) shows equivalent circuit of motor referred to the rotor, neglecting
magnetizing branch. Derivation of Eq. (6.90) shows that when referred to dc link,
resistance (sR′s + Rr) will be 2(sR′s + Rr). This gives approximate dc equivalent circuit of
the drive (Fig. 6.55(b)), where Vd1 and Vd2 are given in Eqs. (6.93) and (6.94). Rd is the
resistance of dc link inductor. Equivalent circuit ignores the commutation overlap in the
diode bridge. Now

If rotor copper loss is neglected

The nature of speed torque curves is shown in Fig. 6.54(6).

The drive has applications in fan and pump drives which require speed control in a
narrow range only. If maximum slip is denoted by smax, then power ratings of diode
bridge, inverter and transformer can be just smax times the motor power rating (Eq. 6.97).
For example, when speed is to be reduced below synchronous speed by only 20%, power
ratings of diode bridge, inverter and transformer will be just 20% of motor power rating.
Consequently, drive has a low cost.

Drive is started by resistance control with S1 closed and S2 open (Fig. 6.54). When speed
reaches within control range of the drive, S2 is closed to connect diode bridge and
inverter is activated. Now S1 is opened to remove the resistances.
In fan and pump drives braking is not required, because the fluid pressure provides
adequate braking torque. To maintain constant fluid flow with variations in pressure head
and the nature of pumped fluid, the drive is operated with a closed loop speed control. A
close loop speed control scheme with inner current control is shown in Fig. 6.56. It
operates in the same way as the scheme of Fig. 3.5. This drive is widely used in medium
and high power (up to around 10 MW) fan and pump drives, because of high efficiency
and low cost. This drive provides a constant torque control (Eqn. (6.98)). Constant power
control is obtained by static Kramer drive described below.

6.21.2 Static Kramer Drive:

Rotor slip power is converted into dc by a diode bridge (Fig. 6.57(a)). The dc power is
now fed to dc motor mechanically coupled to induction motor. Torque supplied to load is
sum of torque produced by induction and dc motors. Speed control is obtained by
controlling field current of dc motor.

Figure 6.57(b) shows variations of Vd1 and Vd2 with speed for two values of dc motor
field current. The steady state operation is obtained when Vd1 = Vd2, i.e. at A and B for
field currents If1 and If2. Speed control is possible from synchronous speed to around half
of synchronous speed. When larger speed range is required, diode bridge is replaced by a
thyristor bridge. Now relationship between Vd1 and speed can be altered by controlling
firing angle of thyristor rectifier (see Fig. 6.57(c)). Speed can now be controlled up to
standstill.