Chapter 15.

1 Light and Color

Why is the sky blue? The sun gives off white light. White light is made up of many
colors. The different colors of light have different wavelengths. Red light has a
longer wavelength than blue light. As the sun’s light passes through our
atmosphere, gas molecules in the air scatter the sunlight. The blue wavelengths
get scattered the most, so the sky appears blue.

To understand why objects have different colors, you need to know how light can
interact with an object. When light strikes an object, the light can be reflected,
transmitted, or absorbed.

Classifying Materials – Most materials can be classified as transparent, translucent,

or opaque based on what happens to light that strikes the material.

A material that transmits most of the light

that strikes it is called transparent. Light
passes through a transparent material
without being scattered, so you can see
clearly what is on the other side. Water, air,
and clear glass are all transparent.

A translucent material scatters the light that passes through it. You can usually see
something behind a translucent object, but the details are blurred. Wax paper and
frosted glass are translucent materials.

A material that reflects or absorbs all of the light that strikes it is called opaque.
You cannot see though opaque materials because light cannot pass through them.
Wood, metals, and tightly woven fabric are examples of opaque materials.

Opaque Objects – the color of an opaque object depends on the wavelengths of

light that the object reflects. Every opaque object absorbs some wavelengths of
light and reflects others. The color of an opaque object is the color of the light it
reflects.

An apple appears red because it reflects red wavelengths of light. The apple
absorbs the other colors of light. A leaf looks green because it absorbs the other
colors of light.

Transparent and Translucent Objects – Materials that are transparent or

translucent allow only certain colors of light to pass through them. They reflect or
absorb the other colors. The color of a transparent or translucent object is the
color of the light it transmits. For example, when white light shines through
transparent blue glass, the glass appears blue because it transmits blue light.

Transparent or translucent materials are used to make color filters. The lenses in
sunglasses are often color filters. Lenses tinted yellow are yellow filters, so when
you put on those sunglasses, some objects appear to change colors.

How do colors combine? Three colors that can combine to make any other color
are called primary colors. Two primary colors combine in equal amounts to
produce a secondary color.

Mixing Light – the primary colors of light are red, green, and blue. When the three
primary colors of light are combined in equal amounts, they produce white light. If
they are combined in different amounts, the primary colors can produce other
colors. Red and green light form yellow light. Yellow is a secondary color of light
because two primary colors produce it. Green + Blue lights make cyan, and red +
blue lights make magenta. A primary and a secondary color can combine to make
white light. Any two colors that combine to form white light are called
complementary colors. Yellow and blue are complementary colors, as are cyan
and red, and magenta and green. A television produces many colors using only
the primary colors of light. The picture on a TV screen is made up of little bars of
red, green, and blue light. By varying the brightness of each colored bar, the
television can produce thousands of different colors.

Mixing Pigment – Inks, paints, and dyes contain pigments (colored substances)
that are used to color other materials. Pigments absorb some colors and reflect
others. The color you see is the result of the colors that a particular pigment
reflects.

Mixing colors of pigments is different from mixing colors of light. As pigments are
added together, fewer colors of light are reflected and more are absorbed. The
more pigments that are combined, the darker the mixture looks.

Cyan, yellow, and magenta are the primary colors of pigments. When the three
primary colors of pigments are combined in equal amounts, they produce black.

15.2 Reflection and Mirrors

Kinds of reflection – why can you see a reflection of yourself in a mirror, but not on
a page of your textbook? To answer this, you need to understand how a surface
reflects light. To show how light reflects, you can represent light waves as straight
lines called rays.
Light obeys the law of reflection: the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence. The two ways in which a surface can reflect light are regular reflection
and diffuse reflection.

Regular reflection – when parallel rays of light hit a smooth surface. All of the light
rays reflect at the same angle because of the smooth surface, so you see a clear
image. An image is a copy of the object formed by reflected or refracted rays of
light. Shiny surfaces such as metal, glass, and calm water produce regular
reflection.

Diffuse reflection occurs when parallel rays of light hit an uneven surface. Each
light ray obeys the law of reflection, but hits the surface at a different angle
because the surface is uneven. Therefore, each ray reflects at a different angle.
You either don’t see an image, or the image is not clear. Most objects reflect light
diffusely. This is because most surfaces are not smooth. Even surfaces that
appear to be smooth, such as a piece of paper, have small bumps that reflect light
at different angles.

What types of images do mirrors produce? If you have ever looked at yourself in
the curved mirrors of a fun house, you know that your image looks different than it
does in a flat mirror. To understand why your image changes, you need to learn
about the types of mirrors.

Plane mirror – a flat sheet of glass that has a smooth, silver-colored coating on one
side. When light strikes a mirror, the coating reflect the light. Because the coating
is smooth, regular reflection occurs and a clear image forms. The image you see is
a virtual image – an image that forms where light seems to come from – but does
not really exist.

A plane mirror produces a virtual image that is upright and the same size as the
object, but the left and right of the image are reversed.

Concave mirrors – a mirror with a surface that curves inward like the inside of a
bowl. A concave mirror can reflect parallel rays of light so that they meet at a
point.

The optical axis is an imaginary line that divides a mirror in half. The point at
which rays parallel to the optical axis reflect and meet is called the focal point.

Concave mirrors can produce real or virtual images. The type of image that is
formed by a concave mirror depends on the location of the object. A real image
forms when light rays actually meet. If the object is farther away from the mirror
than the focal point, the reflected rays form a real image. Real images are upside
down, and may be smaller, larger, or the same size as the object.

Convex Mirrors – a mirror with a surface that curves outward. The reflected rays
spread out, but appear to come from a focal point behind the mirror. The focal
point of a convex mirror is the point from which the rays appear to come. A convex
mirror produces a virtual image that is always smaller than the object. So, perhaps
you have seen this warning on a car mirror: “Objects in mirror are closer than they
appear,” because convex mirrors are used in cars. The advantage of a convex
mirror is that it allows you to see a larger area than you can with a plane mirror.
The disadvantage is a reduced size.

15.3 Refraction and Lenses: What causes light rays to bend?

A fish tank can play tricks on your eyes. If you look through the side, a fish seems
closer than if you look at it from the top. If you look through the corner of the
tank, you may see the same fish twice.

Refraction can cause you to see something that may not actually be there. As you
look at the fish, the light coming from the fish to your eye bends as it passes
through three different mediums: water, glass tank, and air. As the light passes
from one medium to the next, it is refracted. When light rays enter a new medium
at an angle, the change in speed causes the rays to bend.

Refraction in Different Mediums – some mediums cause light to bend more than
others. When light passes from air into water, the light slows down. Light slows
down again and bends even more when it passes from water into glass. When
light passes from glass back in to air, the light speeds up. Light travels fastest in
air, a little slower in water, and slower still in glass.

Glass has a higher index of refraction than either water or air, that is why light
bends more in glass. The index of refraction of a medium is a measure of how
much a light ray bends when it enters that medium. The higher the index of
refraction of a medium, the more it bends light. The index of refraction of water is
1.33. The index of refraction of glass is about 1.5, so light is bend more by glass
than by water.
Prisms and Rainbows – When white light enters a prism, each wavelength is
refracted by a different amount. The longer the wavelength, the less the wave is
bent by a prism. Red, with the longest wavelength, is refracted the least. Violet,
with the shortest wavelength is refracted the most. This difference causes white
light to spread out. The same process occurs in water droplets suspended in the
air. When white light from the sun shines through the droplets, a rainbow may
appear. The water droplets act like tiny prisms.

Mirages – You are traveling in a car on a hot day, and you notice that the road
ahead looks wet. Yet when you get there, the road is dry. You saw a mirage – an
image of a distant object caused by refraction of light.

The “puddles” on the road are light rays from the sky that are refracted to your
eyes. The air just above the road is hotter than the air higher up. Light travels
faster in hot air, so light rays that travel toward the road are bent upward by the
hot air.

What determines the type of image formed by a lens? Any time you look through
binoculars, a camera, or eyeglasses, you are using lenses to bend light. A lens is a
curved piece of glass or other transparent material that refracts light.

The type of image formed by a lens depends on the shape of the lens and the
position of the object.

A concave lens is thinner in the center than at the edges. When light rays traveling
parallel to the optical axis pass through a concave lens, they bend away from the
optical axis and never meet.

A concave lens can produce only virtual images that are upright and smaller than
the object.
Convex lenses – thicker at the center than at the edges. As light rays parallel to
the optical axis pass through a convex lens, they are bent toward the center of the
lens. The rays meet at the focal point of the lens and continue to travel beyond.
The more curved the lens, the more it refracts light. An object’s position relative
to the focal point determines whether a convex lens forms a real or virtual image.
The real image can be smaller, larger, or the same size as the object.