Classification of Isolated Singularities

Pradeep Boggarapu

Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani K K Birla Goa Campus

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 1 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 2 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 3 / 24

Classification by principal part

An isolated singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is given a

classification depending on whether the principal part of the Laurent
series contains zero, a finite number or an infinite number of terms.
Principal part has no terms =⇒ z = z0 is a removable singularity.
Principal part contains finitely many nonzero terms =⇒ z = z0 is a
pole.
In this case, if the last nonzero coefficient is a−n , n ≥ 1, then we say
that z = z0 is a pole of order n. A pole of order 1 is called a simple
pole
If the principal part contains infinitely many nonzero terms, then
z = z0 is called an essential singularity.

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 4 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 5 / 24

Tabular interpretation- Type vs. corresponding Laurent
series

z = z0 Laurent series for 0 < |z − z0 | < R

Removable
singularity a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + · · ·
a−n a−(n−1)
Pole of order n (z−z0 )n + (z−z )(n−1) + · · · + a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + · · ·
0
a−1
Simple pole (z−z0 ) + a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + · · ·
Essential
a−1
singularity ··· + (z−z0 ) + a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + · · ·

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 6 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 7 / 24

Removable singularity

Consider f (z) = sinz z . Here z = 0 is an isolated singular point. The

corresponding Laurent series is

sin z z2 z4
=1− + − ···
z 3! 5!
Observe that principal part is zero. Hence z = 0 is a removable
singularity.
Consider f (z) = coshz 2z−1 . Here also z = 0 is an isolated singular
point. The corresponding Laurent series is

cos hz − 1 (1 + z 2 /2! + z 4 /4! + · · · ) − 1 1 z2

= = + + ··· .
z2 z2 2 2!
Here also principal part is absent and hence z = 0 is a removable
singularity.

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 8 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 9 / 24

Pole

Let f (z) = sin

z2
z
. Here z = 0 is an isolated singular point. The
corresponding Laurent series is

sin z 1 z z3
= − + − ···
z2 z 3! 5!
Observe that principal part has only one term a−1 . Hence z = 0 is a
simple pole.
Consider f (z) = (z−1)12 (z−3) . Here z = 1 is an isolated singular point.
The corresponding Laurent series is
1 −1 1 1 z −1
2
= 2
− − − − ···
(z − 1) (z − 3) 2(z − 1) 4(z − 1) 8 16

Since a−2 = −1 2 6= 0, we conclude that z = 1 is a pole of order 2.

In the first example if you take f (z) = sin
z4
z
, then z = 0 is a pole of
order 3.
Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 10 / 24
Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 11 / 24

Essential singularity

Let f (z) = e 1/z . Here z = 0 is an isolated singular point. The

corresponding Laurent series is
1 1
e 1/z = 1 + + 2 + · · · , |z| > 0.
z z 2!
Since principal part contains infinite number of nonzero terms, z = 0
is an essential singularity.
Let us take f (z) = sin(1 − z1 ). The only singularity is z = 0. The
corresponding Laurent series is
1 1 1
sin(1 − ) = sin 1 cos( ) − cos 1 sin( )
z z z
1 1 1
= sin 1(1 − + · · · ) − cos 1( − 3 + · · · ), |z| > 0.
z 2 2! z z 3!
Principal part has infinitely many nonzero terms and hence z = 0 is
an essential singularity.
Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 12 / 24
Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 13 / 24

Iff conditions for a function to have a pole of order n

Theorem 1.
A function f (z) analytic in a punctured disc 0 < |z − z0 | < R has a pole of
order n at z = z0 if and only if f (z) can be expressed as

φ(z)
f (z) = ,
(z − z0 )n

where φ(z) is analytic at z = z0 and φ(z0 ) 6= 0.

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 14 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 15 / 24

Proof

Proof. ’If’ part of the theorem is straight forward. We will establish the
’only if’ part.
Suppose f (z) is assumed to have a pole of order n at z0 it can be
expressed as a Laurent series;
a−n a−1
f (z) = + ··· + + a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + · · ·
(z − z0 )n (z − z0 )

valid in the disc 0 < |z − z0 | < R.

Now taking the common denominator, we get

a−n + · · · + a−1 (z − z0 )n−1 + a0 (z − z0 )n + a1 (z − z0 )n+1 + · · ·

f (z) = .
(z − z0 )n

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 16 / 24

Proof-continued

Here we can identify the

φ(z) = a−n + · · · + a−1 (z − z0 )n−1 + a0 (z − z0 )n + a1 (z − z0 )n+1 + · · ·

as a power series analytic in the open disc |z − z0 | < R. Further by

assumption z = z0 is a pole of order n of f (z), and so we must have
a−n = φ(z0 ) 6= 0. Hence the proof.

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 17 / 24

Residue at pole

Form the above theorem we can get the formula for finding residues at
poles (with the same notations used in theorem).
If f (z) has a pole of order 1 at z0 , then

Resz=z0 f (z) = φ(z0 ).

If f (z) has a pole of order m > 1 at z0 , then

φ(m−1) (z0 )
Resz=z0 f (z) = .
(m − 1)!

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 18 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 19 / 24

Example-1

I
(2z + 6)dz
Question: Evaluate .
|z−i|=2 z2 + 4
Solution: The integrand

(2z + 6) (2z + 6)
f (z) = 2
= ,
z +4 (z − 2i)(z + 2i)

has simple poles at −2i and 2i. Because only 2i lies within the contour C ,
it follows from Residue theorem that
I
(2z + 6)dz
= 2πiResz=2i f (z).
|z−i|=2 z2 + 4

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 20 / 24

Example-1

But  
(2z + 6)/(z + 2i) 2z + 6
Resz=2i f (z) = Resz=2i =
z − 2i z + 2i z=2i
4i + 6 3 + 2i
= = .
4i 2i
and I
(2z + 6)dz 3 + 2i
2
= 2πi = π(3 + 2i).
|z−i|=2 z +4 2i

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 21 / 24

Going into it....

1 Three types of isolated singularities

Classification
Classification captured in a table
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3

2 Characterization of poles
Pole of order n
Proof
Example-1
Example-2

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 22 / 24

Example-2

e z dz
I
Question: Evaluate .
|z|=2 (z 4 + 5z 3 )
e e z z
Solution: The integrand f (z) = (z 4 +5z 3 ) = z 3 (z+5) has a pole of order 3 at

z = 0 and a simple pole at z = −5. But only the pole z = 0 lies within the
given contour and so

e z dz 1 d2 z
I
4 3
= 2πiRes z=0 f (z) = 2πi [e /(z + 5)]z=0
|z|=2 (z + 5z ) 2! dz 2

(z 2 + 8z + 17)e z
 
17πi
= πi = .
(z + 5)3 z=0 125

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 23 / 24

 THANK YOU

GOOD LUCK

Pradeep Boggarapu (BITS-Goa) Classification of Isolated Singularities 24 / 24