The symmetrical airfoil: summary

Vorticity distribution 1  cos cx

 ( )  2V  2V
(=lift distribution) sin  x

L'
Lift coefficient: cl   2
2 V c.(1)
1 2

dcl
Lift slope:  2
d
Moment coefficient cl
about quarter-chord point:
c m , c / 4  c m , LE  0
4

quarter-chord point is both the center of pressure: c m , c / 4  0

and the aerodynamic center: c m , c / 4 is independent of 
 4.8 The cambered airfoil
Condition to make the camber line 
dz w 1  ( ) sin 
z(x) a streamline of the flow
dx
 
V

2V 
0
(cos  cos 0 )
d

The solution for this more general

problem can be written as a  1  cos 

Fourier series:  ( )  2V  A0
 sin 
 
n 1
An sin n  

– the coefficients An (n=0,1,2,...)
depend on the shape of the “Basic solution” Additional terms
camber line z(x) for the symmetrical airfoil:
– the coefficients A0 depends A0 =  Note: () = 0, so
also on  the Kutta condition
is satisfied
Substitution of the proposed
solution in the upper equation dz 
gives:
dx
 (  A0 )  A
n 1
n cos n
(use again standard integrals)
The cambered airfoil: finding the coefficients An

The solution can be interpreted as dz
a Fourier expansion of the
dx
 (  A0 )  A
n 1
n cos n
function dz/dx

1 dz
This Fourier series can be inverted
A0   
 
0
dx
d
to find the explicit relations for the
individual coefficients An

2 dz
An 
 
0
dx
cos n d

We can use these expressions in two ways:

1. Analysis: determine the coefficients An for a given camber line z(x)
2. Design: determine camber line z(x) for given coefficients An
 The cambered airfoil: the aerodynamic coefficients

c
The lift coefficient: L' 2
cl     ( )d  (...)   (2 A0  A1 )
2 V c.(1)
2
1 V c 0

Note: for the lift coefficient   

1 dz
only A0 and A1 required! cl  2    ( cos   1) d 
  0 dx 
 

Independent of 
dcl
Lift slope:  2 for every (thin) airfoil!
d

1 dz
Zero-lift angle:  L 0  
 
0
dx
( cos  1) d
 The cambered airfoil: the aerodynamic coefficients
The moment c
coefficient c M ' 2  A2
about the LE: m, LE 12 V 2 c 2 .(1) V c 2 0
 LE
  ( ) d  (...)   ( A0  A1  )
2 2

Note: for the moment coefficient only A0, A1 and A2 required!

moment about the cl 

quarter-chord point: c m , c / 4  c m , LE   ( A 2  A1 )
4 4
Independent of !
For every (thin) airfoil the aerodynamic center
is located at the quarter-chord point

The quarter-chord point is (in general) not the

center of pressure:
x CP c m , LE 1 c m ,c / 4
c m , CP  0 c
 
cl

4

cl
 The cambered airfoil: summary
Vorticity distribution
(=lift distribution)  1  cos 

 ( )  2V  A0
 sin 
 
n 1
An sin n  

c
x (1  cos  )
2
Relation with the camber line shape z(x) 
1 dz

A0   
  dx
d
dz 0

dx
 (  A0 )  A n cos n 2

dz
n 1 An 
 
0
dx
cos n d

Aerodynamic coefficients: cl   (2 A0  A1 )  2 (   L 0 )

c m ,c / 4  ( A 2  A1 )
4
x CP 1 c m ,c / 4 1  A 2  A1 
    1  
c 4 cl 4 2 A 0  A1 
EXAMPLE 4.6
• Consider an NACA 23012 airfoil.
• The mean camber line for this airfoil is given by
EXAMPLE 4.6

Calculate:
a) the angle of attack at zero lift
b) the lift coefficient when α = 4◦
c) the moment coefficient about the quarter
chord
d) the location of the center of pressure in terms
of xcp/c, when α = 4◦.
Compare the results with experimental data.
 Solution
We will need dz/dx

Transforming from x to θ
 Solution
we have

a) From Equation (4.61)

b) α = 4◦ = 0.0698 rad

c) The value of cm,c/4 is obtained from Equation (4.64).

– For this, we need the two Fourier coefficients A1 and A2.
– From Equation (4.51)
–From Equation (4.51),
(d) From Equation (4.66)
 4.9 The Aerodynamic Center: Additional Considerations

that point on a body about which the

aerodynamically generated moment is independent
of angle of attack.

Taking moments about the

aerodynamic center designated by ac

Dividing Equation by q∞Sc:

 Aerodynamic Center

Differentiating the above Equation with respect to angle of attack α:

is zero by definition of
the aerodynamic center

For airfoils below the stalling angle of

attack, the slopes of the lift coefficient and
moment coefficient curves are constant
 Example: 4.7
• Consider the NACA 23012 airfoil studied in
Example 4.2.
• Experimental data for this airfoil is plotted in
Figure 4.28, and can be obtained from Reference
11.
• It shows that, at α = 4°, cl = 0.55 and cm,c/4 = —
0.005.
• The zero-lift angle of attack is —1.1°.
• at α = —4°, cm,c/4 = -0.0125.
• From the given information, calculate the
location of the aerodynamic center for the NACA
23012 airfoil.
 Solution
cl = 0.55 at α = 4◦
lift slope is
cl = 0 at α = −1.1◦

The slope of the moment

coefficient curve is
ACTUAL LOCATION OF AERODYNAMIC CENTER

–NACA 23012
–xA.C. < 0.25c

–NACA 64212
–xA.C. > 0.25 c
 The Vortex Panel Method (principle)

Arbitrary shape (thick airfoil):

vortex sheet on airfoil surface

Numerical implementation
• Approximate the true contour by n straight panels:
i=1,2,…n
• Describe the vortex strength on each panel, e.g., by a constant value of i.
• Take on each panel a control point where the flow-tangency condition is to
be satisfied, e.g., the center of each panel;
• Evaluate this condition, for each control point:
n

(V ,n ) i  (Vn ) i  0 V cos  i   Ai , j j  0

j 1
here, Ai,j is the contribution of panel # j on the velocity in control point # i
• This system of n equations for n unknowns (i) is singular (the circulation is
undetermined), and one of the equations is to be replaced by (a form of) the
Kutta condition, (TE) = 0.