Mobile Path

Radio Wave
Propagation
Loss
(Large Scale Fading)
Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
● Follows the principle of Electromagnetic wave propagation
● reflection
● diffraction
● scattering
● Problems with urban areas
● No direct line-of-sight
● high-rise buildings causes severe diffraction loss
● multipath fading due to different paths of varying lengths
● Large-scale propagation models predict the mean signal
strength for an arbitrary Tx-Rx separation distance. (generally
for a larger distance).
● Small-scale (fading) models characterize the rapid fluctuations
of the received signal strength over very short travel distance or
short time duration.
Large scale and Small scale
fading
 Radio wave propagation
● Line of sight The line-of-sight (LOS) propagation is the wave propagation in which the EM ray
follows a straight line from the transmitter to the receiver. It is shown as a direct ray in the next
figure.
● Non-line of sight The non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation mechanism is based on and is the
resultant of the following mechanisms:
● Reflection This occurs when the propagating wave impinges on an object that is larger than its
wavelength. Examples of such objects are the surface of the earth, buildings, and walls.
● Diffraction This occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is obstructed by a
surface with sharp irregular edges, which results in the waves bending around the obstacle.
Diffraction is more with low- frequency (LF) signals than with high-frequency (HF)
● Scattering This occurs when the propagating wave is obstructed by objects that are smaller than its
wavelength. Examples of such objects are lamp posts, foliage, street signs, and particles in the air.
● Refraction Due to variations in the refractive index of the atmospheric layers, the EM wave bends (in the
cases other than satellite communication).
T-R Signal variations
 Propagation Channel Effects
● Attenuation It is the drop in the signal power when it is being transmitted
from one point to another. It is caused by the transmission path length,
obstructions in the signal path, and multipath effect.
● Fading As there are obstacles and reflectors in the wireless propagation
channel, the transmitted signal arrives at the receiver from various directions
over multiple paths. Such a phenomenon is called multipath. Fading is the
result of multipath in which the signal strength varies continuously with respect to
distance and with time from the transmitter to the receiver along with the
attenuation
● Shadowing This occurs whenever there is an obstruction between the
transmitter and the receiver, and it can be observed in long-distance as well as
short distance communication. It is generally caused by buildings and hills.
 Free Space Propagation
Model
● The free space propagation model is used to predict received
signal strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear
line-of-sight path between them.
o satellite communication
o microwave line-of-sight radio link
● Friis free space equation
: transmitted power : T-R separation
distance (m)
: received power : system loss factor
: transmitter antenna gain : wave length in
meters
: receiver antenna gain
• The gain of the antenna

: effective aperture is related to the physical size of the

antenna
• The wave length is related to the carrier frequency by

: carrier frequency in Hertz

: carrier frequency in radians
: speed of light (meters/s)
• The losses are usually due to transmission line
attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the
communication system. A value of L=1 indicates no loss in
the system hardware.
• Isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with
unit gain.
• Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as

and represents the maximum radiated power available from

transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain as
compared to an isotropic radiator.
• Path loss for the free space model with antenna gains

• When antenna gains are excluded

• The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for , for
values of d which is in the far-field (Fraunhofer region) of the
transmission antenna.
• The far-field region of a transmitting antenna is defined as
the region beyond the far-field distance

where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the

antenna.
• To be in the far-filed region the following equations must
be satisfied
and
• Furthermore the following equation does not hold for d=0.

• Use close-in distance and a known received power

at that point

or
The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
• Basic propagation mechanisms
– reflection
– diffraction
– scattering
• Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave
impinges upon an object which has very large dimensions
when compared to the wavelength, e.g., buildings, walls.
• Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has
sharp edges.
• Waves bend around the obstacle, when LOS (line of sight)
does not exist
• Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength.
• Reflection from dielectrics:

E-field normal to the plane of incidence E-field in the plane of

incidence

• Reflection from perfect Conductors:

• E-field in the plane of incidence
θi = θ r and Ei = E r
• E-field normal to the plane of incidence
θi = θ r and Ei = -E r
Classical 2-ray Ground Bounce Model

Two-ray ground reflection

model

(Wireless Communications by Theodore

Rappaport)
Classical 2-ray Ground Bounce Model
● ETOT is the electric field that results from a combination of a
direct line-of-sight path and a ground reflected path

● is the amplitude of the electric field at distance d

● ωc = 2πfc where fc is the carrier frequency of the signal
● Notice at different distances d the wave is at a different phase
because of the form similar to
Classical 2-ray Ground Bounce Model
● For the direct path let d = d’ ; for the reflected path
d = d” then

● for large T−R separation : θi goes to 0 (angle of incidence

to the ground of the reflected wave) and Γ = −1 (perfect
horizontal E field polarization and ground wave
reflection)
● Phase difference can occur depending on the phase
difference between direct and reflected E fields
● The phase difference is θ∆ due to Path difference , ∆
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= d”− d’, between
 Method of Images

The method of images is used to find the path difference between the
LOS and the ground reflected paths
(Wireless Communications by Theodore
● ∆ can be expanded using a Taylor series
expansion

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● which works well for d >> (ht + hr), which means
and are small

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● the phase difference between the two arriving
signals is

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● note that the magnitude is with respect to
a reference of E0=1 at d0=100 meters, so
near 100 meters the signal can be stronger
than E0=1
● the second ray adds in energy that would
have been lost otherwise
● for large distances it can be
shown that
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 Free Space (LOS) Model

d=v
t
● Path loss for unobstructed LOS path
● Power falls off :
● Proportional to 1/d2
● Proportional to λ2 (inversely proportional to f2)
 Ray Tracing Approximation

● Represent wavefronts as simple particles

● Geometry determines received signal
from each signal component
● Typically includes reflected rays, can also
include scattered and defracted rays.
● Requires site parameters
● Geometry
● Dielectric properties
 Two Path Model

● Path loss for one LOS path and 1 ground (or

reflected) bounce
● Ground bounce approximately cancels LOS
path above critical distance
● Power falls off
● Proportional to d 2 (small d)
● Proportional to d 4 (d>dc)
● Independent of λ (f)
 General Ray Tracing

● Models all signal components

● Reflections
● Scattering
● Diffraction
(Wireless Communications by Andrea

● Requires detailed geometry and dielectric

Goldsmith)

properties of site
● Similar to Maxwell, but easier math.
● Computer packages often used
 Diffraction model
● RF energy can propagate:
● around the curved surface of the Earth
● beyond the line-of-sight horizon
● Behind obstructions
● Although EM field strength decays rapidly as
Rx moves deeper into “shadowed” or
obstructed (OBS) region
● The diffraction field often has sufficient
strength to produce a useful signal
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● Huygen’s principle says points on a wavefront can be
considered sources for additional wavelets.

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Diffraction Geometry

Knife-edge geometry

(Wireless Communications by Theodore

● The difference between the direct path and
diffracted path, call excess path length
Δ
Δ

● Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter

● The corresponding phase difference

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 Fresnel Screens

Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive

Fresnel zones

(Wireless Communications by Theodore

 Fresnel Diffraction Geometry

(Wireless Communications by Theodore

Figure 4.12 Illustration of Fresnel zones for different knife-edge diffraction scenarios.
 Knife-edge Diffraction

Illustrations of knife-edge diffraction geometry. The receiver is

located in the shadow region
(Wireless Communications by Theodore
● The diffraction gain due to the presence of a
knife edge, as compared the the free space E-
field

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35
Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction

Bullington’s construction of an equivalent knife edge

(Wireless Communications by Theodore

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 Scattering
● Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles
per unit volume is large.

● Scattered waves are produced by

● rough surfaces,
● small objects,
● or by other irregularities in the channel.

● Scattering is caused by trees, lamp posts, towers, etc.

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 Scattering
● Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted by
reflection/diffraction models alone

● The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is

scattered in many directions and provides more energy at a
receiver
● energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected to
the Rx.

● flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)

● rough surface → EM scattering (many directions)
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Simplified Path Loss Model
Simplified path loss model
Outdoor propagation Environment
■ Based on the coverage area, the Outdoor
propagation environment may be divided into
three categories
1. Propagation in Macro cells
2. Propagation in Micro cells
3. Propagation in street Micro cells

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Outdoor propagation Environment

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 Empirical Models
● Okumura model
● Empirically based (site/freq specific)
● Awkward (uses graphs)

● Hata model
● Analytical approximation to Okumura model
● Cost 231 Model:
● Extends Hata model to higher frequency (2 GHz)
● Walfish/Bertoni:
● Cost 231 extension to include diffraction from rooftops
● Slope model
Commonly used in cellular system
Outdoor propagation Models
■ Outdoor radio transmission takes place over
an irregular terrain.
■ The terrain profile must be taken into
consideration for estimating the path loss
e.g. trees buildings and hills must be taken
into consideration
■ Some common models used are
Longley Rice Model 1960s
Okumura Model 1968
Hatta model 1970s

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Longley Rice Model
■ Longley Rice Model is applicable to point to point
communication.
■ It covers 40MHz to 100 GHz
■ It can be used in wide range of terrain
■ Path geometry of terrain and the refractivity of
troposphere is used for transmission path loss
calculations
■ Geometrical optics is also used along with the two
ray model for the calculation of signal strength.
■ Two modes
❖ Point to point mode prediction
❖ Area mode prediction

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Longley Rice Model
■ Longley Rice Model is normally available as a
computer program which takes inputs as
❑ Transmission frequency
❑ Path length
❑ Polarization
❑ Antenna heights
❑ Surface reflectivity
❑ Ground conductivity and dialectic constants
❑ Climate factors
❖ A problem with Longley rice is that It doesn't
take into account the buildings and multipath.

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Okumura Model
■ In 1968 Okumura did a lot of measurements and
produce a new model.
■ The new model was used for signal prediction in Urban
areas.
■ Okumura introduced a graphical method to predict the
median attenuation relative to free-space for a quasi-
smooth terrain
■ The model consists of a set of curves developed from
measurements and is valid for a particular set of system
parameters in terms of carrier frequency, antenna height,
etc.

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Okumura Model
■ First of all the model determined the free space path
loss of link.
■ After the free-space path loss has been computed, the
median attenuation, as given by Okumura’s curves has
to be taken to account
■ The model was designed for use in the frequency range
200 MHz to 1920 MHz and mostly in an urban
propagation environment.
■ Okumura’s model assumes that the path loss between
the TX and RX in the terrestrial propagation
environment can be expressed as:

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Okumura Model
▪ Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. Determine free space loss and A mu(f ,d ), between points of

interest
2. Add Amu(f ,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
A mu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment

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Okumura Model
■ Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of
frequencies
■ Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB or 10dB per decade

G(hte) = 10m < hte < 1000m

G(hre) = hre ≤ 3m

G(hre) = 3m < hre <10m

■ model corrected for

Δh = terrain undulation height, isolated ridge height
average terrain slope and mixed land/sea parameter

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Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space = A mu(f,d) (dB)
70 Urban Area 100
60 ht = 200m 80
hr = 3m 70
50 60
50
Amu(f,d) (dB)

)
d(km
40
40
30
20
30 10
5
20 2
1
10

100 200 300 500 700 1000 f (MHz)

2000 3000 57
Correction Factor GAREA

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Example

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Hata Model
■ Most widely used model in Radio frequency.

■ Predicting the behavior of cellular communication in built

up areas.

■ Applicable to the transmission inside cities.

■ Suited for point to point and broadcast transmission.

■ 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz, Transmission height up to 200m

and link distance less than 20 Km.

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 Hata Model
■ Hata transformed Okumura’s graphical model into an analytical framework.

■ The Hata model for urban areas is given by the empirical formula:

L50, urban = 69.55 dB +26.16 log(f c)- 3.82 log(h t) -a(h r) + (44.9 − 6.55 log(ht)) log(d)

■ Where L50, urban is the median path loss in dB.

■ The formula is valid for

150 MHz<=f c<=1.5GHz,
1 m<=h r<=10m, 30m<=h t<=200m,
1km<d<20km

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Hata Model
■ The correction factor a(h r) for mobile antenna height hr for a small
or
medium-sized city is given by:
a(h r) = (1.1 logf c − 0.7)h r − (1.56 log(f c) − 0.8) dB

■ For a large city it is given by

a(h r) = 8.29[log(1.54h r)]2 − 1.10 dB for f c <=300 MHz
3.20[log (11.75h r)]2 − 4.97 dB for f c >= 300 MHz

■ To obtain path loss for suburban area the standard Hata model is
modified as
L 50 =L 50(urban)-2[log(f c/28)] 2-5.4
■ For rural areas
L 50 =L 50(urban)-4.78log(f c)2-18.33logf c -40.98

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 COST 231 Extension of Hata Model
● COST-231 Hata Model, European standard
● Higher frequencies: up to 2GHz
● Smaller cell sizes
● Lower antenna heights

a(hr) is the same correction factor as before and CM is 0 dB

for medium sized cities and suburbs, and 3 dB for
metropolitan areas. This model is referred to as the
COST-231 extension to the Hata model, and is restricted to
the following range of parameters:
1.5GHz < fc < 2 GHz, 30m < ht< 200 m, 1m < hr < 10 m,
 Walfisch and Bertoni’s Model
This model uses diffraction to predict average signal
strength at street level. The model considers the path
loss to be the product of three factors:
Q2 reflects the signal power reduction due to buildings that block the receiver at
street level and P1 is based on the signal loss from the rooftop to the street due to
diffraction.

(Wireless Communications by Theodore

Rappaport)

Propagation geometry for model proposed by Walfisch and

Bertoni
 Piece wise linear model

Piecewise Linear Model for Path Loss.

A piecewise linear model with N segments must specify N − 1 breakpoints d1,.
..,dN−1 and the slopes corresponding to each segment s1,...,sN .

Dual-slope
model
Indoor Models
■ Indoor Channels are different from traditional
channels in two ways
1.The distances covered are much smaller
2.The variability of environment is much greater for a
much small range of Tx and Rx separation.
■ Propagation inside a building is influenced by:
- Layout of the building
- Construction materials
- Building Type: office , Home or factory
Floor losses, Partition losses, Penetration losses

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Indoor Models
■ Indoor models are dominated by the same
mechanism as out door models:
- Reflection, Diffraction and scattering
■ Conditions are much more variable
- Doors/Windows open or not
- Antenna mounting : desk ceiling etc
- The levels of floor
■ Indoor models are classifies as
- Line of sight (LOS)
- Obstructed (OBS) with varying degree of clutter

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Indoor Models
■ Portable receiver usually experience
- Rayleigh fading for OBS propagation paths
- Ricean fading for LOS propagation path
■ Indoors models are effected by type of
building e.g. Residential buildings, offices,
stores and sports area etc.
■ Multipath delay spread
- Building with small amount of metal and hard partition
have small delay spread 30 to 60ns
- Building with large amount of metal and open isles
have delay spread up to 300ns

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Partition losses (same floor)
■ Two types of partitions
1. hard partitions: Walls of room
2. Soft partitions : Moveable partitions that
do not span to ceiling

■ Partitions vary widely in their Physical and

electrical properties.

■ Path loss depend upon the types of partitions

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Partition losses (same floor)

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Signal penetration into building
■ Effect of frequency
- Penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency

■ Effect of Height
■ Penetration loss decreases with the height of
building up to some certain height.
- At lower heights the Urban clutter induces greater
attenuation
- Up to some height attenuation decreases but then again
increase after a few floors
- Increase in attenuation at higher floors is due to the
Shadowing effects of adjacent buildings
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 Shadowing

X
● Models attenuation from obstructions
c

● Random due to random # and type of obstructions

● Typically follows a log-normal distribution
● dB value of power is normally distributed
● μ=0 (mean captured in path loss), 4<σ<12 (empirical)
● LLN used to explain this model
● Decorrelated over decorrelation distance Xc
 Combined Path Loss
and Shadowing
● Linear Model: ψ lognormal

10log Slo
Κ w

Pr/
Very
Pt -10 slow
γ log
● dB Model (dB) d
Outage Probability under
path loss and shadowing
 Cell Coverage Area
● Path loss: circular cells
● Path loss+shadowing: amoeba cells
● Tradeoff between coverage and interference
(Wireless Communications
● Outage probability by

● Probability received power below given minimum

Andrea Goldsmith)

● Cell coverage area

● % of cell locations at desired power
● Increases as shadowing variance decreases
● Large % indicates interference to other cells
 Main Points
● Random attenuation due to shadowing modeled as
log-normal (empirical parameters)
● Shadowing decorrelates over decorrelation distance

● Combined path loss and shadowing leads to

outage and amoeba-like cell shapes
● Cellular coverage area dictates the percentage of
locations within a cell that are not in outage
● Path loss and shadowing parameters are obtained
from empirical measurements