review

t
For a Long Century of Burgundy
The Court, Female Power and Ideology

graeme small

On the evidence of the recent publications under discussion here,

historians are beginning to break free from the constraints of the
traditional chronological boundaries applied to Burgundian history, and
are finding new and valuable ways of exploring political culture either side
of the divide that was once thought to have been created by the events
of 1477. But progress remains uneven: we know more about the court, the
centre of political life, before 1477 than we do for the period that came
after; with honourable exceptions, we know more about female political
agency and power after 1477 than we do about the period before; and we
know too little, still, about political ideologies, a burgeoning area of interest
which has much to yield.

The field of Burgundian studies has witnessed a shift in emphasis over the
past generation from overviews which were biographical and dynastic in
emphasis, such as Richard Vaughan’s volumes on the four Valois dukes, to
studies of the Burgundian ‘state’ and the regions it ruled over, exemplified in
the work of Walter Prevenier, Wim Blockmans and, more recently, Bertrand
Schnerb.1 Within this last strand, two sub-themes are especially prominent.
A great deal of attention has been paid to the ducal court, partly due to
the rich record survival which makes study of the topic so rewarding.2 But
this emphasis is justified in other ways too – by the fact that the court’s
political influence was felt over a greater area than that of any other single
organ of government, or the seemingly widespread nature of the court’s
cultural influence across space and time.3 The second theme in studies of the
Burgundian state concerns the towns and cities of the densely urbanised Low
Countries. Economic developments have not been neglected, but it is above
all the political history of municipalities which stands out, producing major
studies of communities like Ghent, Lille or Leiden.4 Conflict between the
court-dominated state and the powerful cities of the Burgundian lands have
a special place in narratives of Burgundian state formation, but there is now
a growing interest in more peaceable – although no less interesting – forms
 of interaction between the courtly and civic sphere, facilitated by such things
as membership of elite groups like shooting confraternities and rhetoricians’
guilds, or participation in civic processions and religious confraternities which
brought city and court together, sometimes in unexpected ways.5 Into this
unfolding landscape of Burgundian historiography the eight new studies
listed below have emerged. Together they reveal a marked willingness to
extend the chronological scope of the Burgundian period into the sixteenth
century, and in important respects they develop our understanding of the
court, female power and ideology.

The century of Burgundy

­55
Such was the preponderance of Burgundy in Johan Huizinga’s vision of
medieval culture that he considered entitling his ‘Study of the forms of life,

bmgn/lhcr | deel 126 - 1 | 54 - 69

thought, and art’, not the Waning of the Middle Ages as it would eventually
become in English, but rather The Century of Burgundy.6 How is one to define
the chronological parameters of such a ‘century’? The relevance of the

1 Vaughan’s four biographies were recently re- in Marc Boone, À la recherche d’une modernité
published by The Boydell Press (2002) with new civique: La société urbaine des anciens Pays-Bas au
introductions by M.G.A. Vale, B. Schnerb, G. bas Moyen Âge (Brussels 2010).
Small and W. Paravicini. See also W. Prevenier 5 Peter Arnade, Realms of Ritual: Burgundian
and W. Blockmans, The Burgundian Netherlands Ceremony and Civic Life in Late Medieval Ghent
(Cambridge 1986) and B. Schnerb, L’état (Ithaca [n.y.] 1996); Élodie Lecuppre-Desjardin,
bourguignon (Paris 1999) (although the latter has La ville des cérémonies: Essai sur la communication
also recently written a biography: Jean sans Peur: politique dans les anciens Pays-Bas bourguignons
Le prince meurtrier [Paris 2005]). (Turnhout 2004); Andrew Brown and Graeme
2 The work of Werner Paravicini is key here, much Small, Court and Civic Society in the Burgundian
of it collected in his Menschen am Hof der Herzöge Low Countries, c. 1420-1530 (Manchester 2007);
von Burgund. Gesammelte Aufsätze (Stuttgart Anne-Laure Van Bruaene, Om beters wille.
2002). Rederijkerskamers en de stedelijke cultuur in de
3 Although just how widespread this influence Zuidelijke Nederlanden (1400-1650) (Amsterdam
really was remains a matter for debate, and is the 2008). Two forthcoming studies should also be
subject of the proceedings of a colloquium at the cited: Andrew Brown, Civic Ceremony and Religion
Deutsches historisches Institut in Paris on La cour in Medieval Bruges (Cambridge University Press);
de Bourgogne et l’Europe: Le rayonnement et les Laura Crombie, ‘In War and in Peace: Archery
limites d’un modèle culturel (forthcoming). and Crossbow Guilds in Flanders, 1300-1500’ (PhD
4 On economic matters, for instance, the work thesis, University of Glasgow).
of Peter Stabel is prominent, such as his Dwarfs 6 E. Peters and W.P. Simons, ‘The New Huizinga and
among Giants: The Flemish Urban Network in the the Old Middle Ages’, Speculum 74 (1999) 587-620,
Late Middle Ages (Leuven 1997). Several recent at 605.
themes in urban historiography are treated
 review

Burgundian legacy to so many nation states doubtless helps explain the

enduring appeal of the subject, not to mention the continuing willingness of
modern governments to contribute generously to the organisation of great
exhibitions. But the teleology of national state formation can also have the
effect of rigidifying the chronological boundaries attributed to the ‘Century of
Burgundy’ in markedly different ways.
Marc Boone wrily observes in one contribution here that the ‘limites
chronologiques’ of 1363 to 1477 (accession of Philip the Bold as Duke of
Burgundy to the death of his grandson Charles the Bold at Nancy) ‘trahissent
une vision française’ of the Burgundian century.7 To modern Belgian or Dutch
historians, 1369 or 1384 have seemed more legitimate starting points than
1363. Philip the Bold’s marriage to Margaret of Male and his subsequent
accession as Count of Flanders did indeed inaugurate a long period of
increasingly centralised rule.8 If one accepts the logic of 1369 or 1384 as
a terminus a quo, then 1477 begins to lose credibility as a terminus ad quem.
The duchy of Burgundy and other territories reverted to the French crown
from that point on, but the process of ‘state formation’ which is commonly
perceived to have begun under the Valois dukes continued to evolve in the
Low Countries around the ruling Habsburg-Valois dynasty, the central and
local organs of government, great noble families and powerful cities of the
region. When, then, does the ‘Century of Burgundy’ end? In 1506, date of
the death of Philip the Fair, ‘dernier duc de Bourgogne’?9 The ‘Burgundian’
dominions were destined thereafter to form part of a wider universal empire
which commanded the ruler’s attention. The Low Countries were governed by
delegation under a series of great noble lieutenants-généraux or stadhouders who
are studied by Jean-Marie Cauchies in one of the publications listed below,
‘avant que des femmes, prestigieuses et énergiques il est vrai, ne soient à leur
tour mêlées aux affaires’10: first Margaret of Austria (†1530), then her niece,
Mary of Hungary (†1558), both ruling in the name of Charles V. But the idea
of Burgundy and many of the key forces that characterised the pre-1506 era
did not disappear upon Philip the Fair’s death, and many Dutch-language
studies naturally opt for a later division in the history of the Burgundian Low

7 M. Boone, ‘Introduction’, in: Haemers, Van 11 H. Cools, Mannen met macht. Edellieden en de
Hoorebeeck and Wijsman, Entre la ville, la noblesse moderne staat in de Bourgondisch-Habsburgse
et l’état, 1-6, at 5. Nederlanden (1475-1530) (Zutphen 2001) 143,
8 Kerkhoff, Maria van Hongarije en haar hof, 17. agreeing with W. Prevenier and W. Blockmans, De
9 J.-M. Cauchies, Philippe le Beau: Le dernier duc de Bourgondiërs. De Nederlanden op weg naar eenheid,
Bourgogne (Turnhout 2003), especially 246-250. 1384-1530 (Amsterdam, Leuven 1997) 11.
10 J.M. Cauchies, ‘Les premières lieutenances
générales dans les Pays-Bas (fin 15e - début 16e
siècle)’, in: Federinov and Docquier, Marie de
Hongrie, 33-38, at 38.
 Countries: 1530, date of Margaret of Austria’s demise?11 1555, date of Charles
V’s abdication? Even the Dutch Revolt no longer seems quite as obvious a
break as it once appeared. Peter Arnade has recently argued that ‘the cultural
forerunners of the Revolt [lie] in the Burgundian era of the fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries [...] [and] it is in the fifteenth century that tensions between
the civic and princely spheres of the Habsburg Netherlands come fully into
relief’.12 The century of Burgundy grows ever longer.

small
Continuities in political culture

However one defines it, the notion of a ‘Long Century of Burgundy’ (longer, at
least, than the dates commonly attributed in Francophone and Anglophone ­57
historiographies) has the undeniable merit of drawing out continuities of
political culture which can be obscured when undue emphasis is placed

for a long century of burgundy

upon dynastic caesurae. This central point emerges, for the early part of the
‘Burgundian century’, in Carole Chattaway’s study of the Order of the Golden
Tree during the reign of Philip the Bold (1363-1404). The order, she argues,
was a widespread alliance of French nobles under Burgundian leadership
against the policies of Louis Duke of Orléans during the internal conflicts
which engulfed the kingdom under Charles VI (1380-1422). Whether Philip’s
aims really did include his family ‘taking over the [French] Crown itself’ (as
Chattaway hypothesises) is impossible to say and actually quite difficult to
believe, but the deep engagement of the first Valois Burgundian duke with
French royal politics is amply demonstrated here. Chattaway’s central point
reminds us that Richard Vaughan’s depiction of Philip the Bold – a prince
intent on creating ‘a separate, independent Burgundian state’ – was a rather
one-dimensional figure.13 Arguably, indeed, Philip the Bold continued where
his Capetian predecessors as dukes of Burgundy had left off, at least in terms
of his profound immersion in the political life of the kingdom of France.
Raymond Cazelles showed long ago how the Capetian dukes of the late
thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries also sought to influence the actions
of French kings, and by similar means: by marrying into the royal line, for
instance, or by peopling the king’s administration with ‘men of the east’.14

12 P. Arnade, Beggars, Iconoclasts and Civic Patriots: 14 R. Cazelles, La société politique et la crise de la
The Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt (Ithaca, royauté sous Philippe de Valois (Paris 1958). For a
London 2008) 8-9. development of this point, see G. Small, Late
13 Chattaway, The Order of the Golden Tree, 107-108; Medieval France (Basingstoke 2009) passim.
R. Vaughan (with an introduction by M.G.A. Vale),
Philip the Bold: The Formation of the Burgundian
State (Woodbridge 2002).
 review

Raymond Cazelles is absent from the bibliography of Edward de

Maesschalck’s new account of the history of the Burgundian dominions, De
Bourgondische vorsten 1315-1530, and that is not the only omission which might
raise an eyebrow. But De Maesschalck’s purpose is not to produce a major
scholarly revision of our understanding of the Burgundian phenomenon;
rather, this is an attempt, for a wider public, ‘om de meest geslaagde aspecten
van diverse biografieën en synthesen tot één overzichtelijk geheel te
combineren’ (10). In this respect De Bourgondische vorsten is a definite success,
its lively narrative built around the ‘strong women’ and ‘dissolute macho-
men’ of the Burgundian court, the whole accompanied by a large number
of colour illustrations, many of them unfamiliar. In at least one respect too,
De Maesschalck does draw attention to continuities in Burgundian political
culture beyond the dates one commonly associates with the Valois dukes.
This handsome book begins in 1315, not a date usually associated with the
history of the Burgundian Netherlands, but rather the year in which Odo IV,
penultimate Capetian duke of Burgundy, succeeded to his title.15 The reason
given is simply the author’s curiosity to know what preceded the reign of
Philip the Bold, but the choice inevitably leads him to delineate continuities
between the Capetian and Valois eras, such as the problems which confronted
rulers governing lands either side of the Franco-imperial boundary (the duchy
and the county of Burgundy in particular).
Some historians would even argue that continuities in Franco-
Burgundian political culture extended far beyond the fourteenth century,
and that the actions of the Valois dukes of Burgundy themselves can only be
properly understood in the light of their deep attachment to a wider polity in
the Kingdom of France. Huizinga, later followed by Paul Bonenfant and André
Leguai, clearly thought of Philip the Good in this way.16 Few would accuse
Charles the Bold of having a Francocentric outlook, but many of his servants
remained strongly convinced of their obligations towards the French king as
their ultimate lord. In the collection of essays devoted to Philip of Cleves under
discussion here, we are rightly reminded by Jean-Marie Cauchies, Frederick
Buylaert and Jan Dumolyn that such continuities remained real concerns for
contemporaries. In the eyes of the great Burgundian nobles who were forced

15 I am aware of only one other work dealing with 16 See, for bibliography, R. Vaughan (with
the Valois period which starts in 1315: Marie- introduction by G. Small), Philip the Good: The
Thérèse Caron, La noblesse dans le duché de Apogee of Burgundy (Woodbridge 2002) xix, xlvi,
Bourgogne, 1315-1477 (Lille 1987). But the date is li.
selected in this case purely because a particularly
informative document in the field becomes
available at that point (17).
 by difficult circumstances to take stock of their position in the decades after
1477, ‘la loyauté vis-à-vis du roi de France, suzerain du comté de Flandre, est
indubitablement entrée en ligne de compte’.17 Conclusions such as these sit
uncomfortably within the chronologies generated by the teleology of national
state formation, this time of Belgium and the Netherlands, but they are no less
significant for that.
Gradually, then, we have come to think of the ‘Century of Burgundy’
in broader terms than those once suggested by the subsequent development
of the nation state. Lines of inquiry are pursued and methods and theoretical

small
approaches are applied either side of any notional dividing line which might
be deemed to exist in 1477. The raft of books under review here provides much
evidence that the trend is strengthening, but we are also made aware of the
uneven spread of the work, as well as some of the obstacles to be faced. These ­59
points can be pursued through a discussion of three themes which stand out in
this latest crop.

for a long century of burgundy

The court

Analysis of the court has long been central to our understanding of

Burgundian power for reasons adduced above. One strand in the
historiography – going back at least as far as Huizinga – focuses on the
material culture of the court, widening outwards from the contemplation
of objects now housed in museums (in Huizinga’s case, the work of Flemish
primitives) to consider the societies and polities that made and used them.
That tradition is alive and well today – if anything, indeed, it has been
accentuated by the ‘cultural turn’ in historical research. The remarkable
catalogue of the exhibition devoted to Charles the Bold (1433-1477): Splendour of
Burgundy (Bern, Bruges,Vienna 2008-2010) is a model in this field. Alongside
the fine plates and informative commentary, the catalogue brings together
a number of valuable essays and shorter contextual pieces which, together,
deepen our understanding of Burgundian court culture. In ‘Palaces and
tents filled with art: the court culture of Charles the Bold’, for example,
Birgit Franke and Barbara Welzel use their understanding of a wide-range
of artistic media – tapestry, table decoration, ceremonial armour – to analyse
in convincing detail how ducal ‘choreographies of power’ were orchestrated

17 F. Buylaert and J. Dumolyn, ‘Conclusion.

L’importance sociale, politique et culturelle de la
haute noblesse dans les Pays-Bas bourguignons et
habsbourgeois (1475-1525): Un état de la question’,
in: Haemers, Van Hoorebeeck and Wijsman, Entre
la ville, la noblesse et l’état, 279-294, at 288.
review

r
The town council reading out an ordinance, while the
citizens look on and discuss among themselves.
Jacques de Guise, Croniques de Hainaut [Chronicles of
Hainaut], 1448.
Royal Belgian Library, Brussels.
 through multiple layers of display and meaning. The performative
contexts within which these objects commonly functioned – tournaments,
entry ceremonies, marriages – have been identified as core constituents
of a Burgundian ‘Theatre State’, a term which Walter Prevenier and Wim
Blockmans borrowed from the anthropologist Clifford Geertz. This, too, is a
notion which has recently been transplanted from the historiography of the
Valois court into that of its Habsburg successor, by Anne-Laure Van Bruaene.18
Historians are thus finding new ways to investigate the massive investment
of the state’s growing revenues in luxury goods and symbolic communication

small
across the ‘Long Burgundian century’.
But in other respects, the study of the court has not travelled quite so
smoothly from the Valois context to a Habsburg one. A second strand in the
historiography uses ordonnances and prosopographical methods to dissect ­61
the court as a dynamic political entity, and it would be fair to say that the
Habsburg court in the Low Countries has not always benefitted from the same

for a long century of burgundy

level of analysis as its Valois predecessor in this regard. Jacqueline Kerkhoff’s
study of Maria van Hongarije en haar hof uses court ordonnances to shed new light
on many aspects of court life during one of the most neglected reigns in the
‘Long Century of Burgundy’, with particular emphasis on court structure and
function, court culture and itineration. Although there is also a chapter on the
courtiers, what is missing, as the author readily admits, is a prosopographical
approach to that subject. One can sympathise with the reasons why. The sources
lie in far-flung repositories and pose far greater linguistic challenges than
those associated with the Valois Burgundian court. Nonetheless, without a
firmer knowledge of who served at court and, more especially, what their wider
interests and attributes were, it is hard to concur with Kerkhoff’s view that the
court in the early modern period was moving ever further from the business
of government, conducted increasingly through discrete organs of state. Was
the court really a ‘gesloten gemeenschap’ (110), a judgment echoing Sergio
Bertelli’s description of Italian Renaissance courts as ‘closed worlds’?19 Without
a prosopographical approach, it is hard to say in what sense this might be
accurate. Courtiers took part in activities which had a direct bearing on political
life far beyond the court, and if we knew who these courtiers were in greater
detail, we might find such encounters highly significant. The art of hunting
illustrates the point. As Christoph Niedermann notes in a separate contribution
to this crop of work on Mary of Hungary, the hunt brought together ‘les

18 A.-L. Van Bruaene, ‘The Habsburg Theatre State: 19 Sergio Bertelli, ‘The Courtly Universe’, in: S.
Court, City and the Performance of Identity in Bertelli, F. Cardini and E. Garbero Zorzi (eds.),
the Early Modern Low Countries’, in: R. Stein and Italian Renaissance Courts (London 1986) 7-38, at 17.
J. Pollmann (eds.), Networks, Regions and Nations:
Shaping Identities in the Low Countries, 1300-1650
(Leiden, Boston 2010) 131-149.
review

r
The Death Bed of Maria of Burgundy (1482). The man
at the foot of the bed (with ermine cape) probably
represents Maximilian, looking his wife in the eyes for
the last time.
Die excellente cronike van Vlaenderen [The Excellent
Chronicle of Flanders], published by Willem
Vorsterman in Antwerp, 1531.
National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague.
 courtisans, mais aussi la petite noblesse et les membres du patriciat urbain [...]
c’était un moyen efficace permettant au souverain et à sa régente d’entretenir
des relations personnelles avec leur entourage, leurs hôtes, et la noblesse
locale’.20 Who met whom at the hunt was an important political matter. For
the Habsburg court in the Low Countries, therefore, there is still a need for
the type of research Jeroen Duindam called for recently: ‘studies met een
prosopografische ondergrond en analyses van de besluitvorming aan het hof’.21
Prosopography is, by contrast, used to remarkable effect in Jelle
Haemers’ new study of state power and urban revolts in the reign of Mary

small
of Burgundy (1477-1482). At last the complex events of the years following
Charles the Bold’s demise are set out in an accessible, book-length study which
an Anglophone audience can read with profit. Haemers charts the gradual
but fragile establishment of Habsburg authority over the former Burgundian ­63
dominions in a three-cornered narrative which focuses on the state (the ruler,
central organs of government), the great nobles of the Low Countries, and

for a long century of burgundy

the cities (particularly the commercial metropole of Bruges, and to a lesser
extent the great manufacturing centre of Ghent and the sleepier city of
Ypres). Prosopographical techniques are used to identify and then explore the
interests of key factions which operated at court and within the cities, around
leading men like Louis of Bruges (Mary of Burgundy’s ‘first knight of honour’)
or William Moreel (a prominent member of the Bruges elite). The result is an
impressively nuanced account of why it proved so difficult for Maximilian
to establish his rights in the Burgundian dominions. At the centre of this
narrative is the court, which emerges from Haemers’s study, not as a closed
world disconnected from government and politics, but rather as the beating
heart of the polity.

Female power, female agency

The court could serve as a particularly effective forum for the development and
exercise of female power. This last theme has itself become a significant feature
of research into the ‘Long Century of Burgundy’, and arguably the study of
female figures of the Burgundian house is the one remaining growth area in
that strand of biographical and dynastic historiography which was typified
by Richard Vaughan. Monique Sommé’s work on Isabella of Portugal, third
wife of Philip the Good, stands as a landmark in the field, but in recent years

20 C. Niedermann, ‘Marie de Hongrie et la chasse’, 21 J. Duindam, ‘Van cohabitatie naar coexistentie?

in: Federinov and Docquier, Marie de Hongrie, 115- Hofhouding en staatsbestuur in vroeg-modern
123, at 123. Europa’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 115 (2002)
254-273, at 272.
 review

it is the ‘early modern’ (rather than ‘late medieval’) period which has attracted
most attention – a period when women of the ruling house in this region were,
among many other things, regents with potentially wide powers.22 Perhaps
the closest we come in this batch of studies to isolating and interpreting
specifically female agency is in Laetitia Gorter-van Royen’s contribution to the
new collection of essays on Marie de Hongrie: Politique et culture sous la Renaissance
aux Pays-Bas, concerning Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary as regents
under Charles V. Here, regency ordonnances are examined in tandem with
the details of the princesses’ political roles in the Low Countries, which was
substantial in both cases, perhaps even more so in Mary’s than in Margaret’s.23
Our knowledge can only be enhanced by important new initiatives underway
in the field, notably the edition of Mary of Hungary’s early correspondence
with her brother which is announced here by Jean-Paul Hoyois.24 Elsewhere,
however, it is hard to gauge what agency the women of the dynasty really had.
We learn a great deal about the events of Mary of Burgundy’s reign in Jelle
Haemers’s new book as we have seen, but Mary herself is la grande absente: ‘after
her marriage with Maximilian she no longer played a role in the decision-
taking process’.25 Or should we say, more accurately, that the decision-taking
process did not leave records of any role she might have played? Perhaps Philip
the Good really did believe that almost every noble family was ruled by the
lady of the house, as he is reported to have said: but how would one prove that
were true?26
Identifying female agency remains problematic, a fact that is illustrated
in other ways by essays which figure in the collaborative volume on Livres
et lectures de femmes en Europe entre Moyen Âge et Renaissance. In the library of
Jeanne d’Artois, which was a gift from Philip the Good to his chancellor
Nicolas Rolin in 1426, Hanno Wijsman can say with some confidence that
we have a clear example of a female collection of books. Jeanne was a widow

22 M. Sommé, Isabelle de Portugal, duchesse de 23 L. Gorter-van Royen, ‘Les régentes de Charles-

Bourgogne: Une femme au pouvoir au XVe siècle Quint aux Pays-Bas: Marguerite d’Autriche et
(Villeneuve d’Ascq 1998); M. Triest, Macht, Marie de Hongrie’, in: Federinov and Docquier,
vrouwen en politiek, 1477-1558. Maria van Marie de Hongrie, 25-32, building on her Maria van
Bourgondië, Margareta van Oostenrijk, Maria van Hongarije, regentes der Nederlanden. Een politieke
Hongarije (Leuven 2000); D. Eichberger (ed.), analyse op basis van haar regentschapsordonnanties
Women of Distinction: Margaret of York. Margaret en haar correspondentie met Karel V (Hilversum
of Austria (Leuven 2005); H. Schnitker, ‘Margaret 1995).
of York, Princess of England and Duchess of 24 J.-P. Hoyois, ‘La correspondance entre Marie de
Burgundy, 1446-1503: Female Power, Influence Hongrie et Charles Quint avant et au début de la
and Authority in Later Fifteenth-Century North- régence: Une édition sur le métier’, in: Federinov
Western Europe’, 2 volumes (University of and Docquier, Marie de Hongrie, 52-60.
Edinburgh PhD 2007). 25 Haemers, For the Common Good, 38.
26 Vaughan, Philip the Good, 130.
 for almost all her days, and her brothers are far more likely than her to
have inherited their father’s manuscripts.27 But in other contributions it
becomes clear that a female library may in fact have been a couple’s library,
and instances of husbands and wives borrowing books from one another are
numerous.28 Margaret of Austria, for her part, appears to have read like a man.
Anne-Marie Legaré notes that princess’s marked preference for ‘romans de
chevalerie, compilations historiques, chroniques et généalogies de la maison
de Bourgogne’ – precisely the sort of reading material which, according to
another of her contributors, ‘on trouve habituellement dans les bibliothèques
typiquement masculines’.29 Margaret inherited books from male relatives

small
and bought others from male servants, but she also commissioned major
historiographical enterprises herself, such as the recension of the official
chronicle written for her grandfather and great-grandfather, in which ­65
Habsburg rulers could read of an earlier Golden Age of Burgundian
greatness.30 Perhaps, then, Margaret’s was simply a ruler’s library, irrespective

for a long century of burgundy

of her gender? Rulers read history, or at least they were supposed to, according
to the extensive literature of advice that was aimed at them.

Ideology

Rulers’ libraries are a core component in the third of our themes, ideology.
Late medievalists in particular have come to regard the ‘birth of ideologies’
as something they can write about, and in the Burgundian Low Countries
the work of Arjo Vanderjagt has been influential.31 In a period of increasingly
intense communication between ruler and ruled, itself stimulated by taxation

27 H. Wijsman, ‘Les livres de la “Demoiselle de 257, and Wijsman, ‘Les livres de la “Demoiselle de
Dreux”: La bibliothèque d’une femme au seuil du Dreux”’, ibid., 74.
XVe siècle’, in: Legaré, Livres et lectures de femmes 30 G. Small, George Chastelain and the Shaping of
en Europe entre Moyen Âge et Renaissance, 67-75. Valois Burgundy: Political and Historical Culture at
28 D. Jeannot, ‘Les bibliothèques de princesses Court in the Fifteenth Century (Woodbridge 1997)
en France au temps de Charles VI: L’exemple 209-211, 216.
de Marguerite de Bavière’, in: Legaré, Livres et 31 Recent relevant work includes C. Beaune, The
lectures de femmes en Europe entre Moyen Âge et Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation
Renaissance, 191-201, at 196; B. Schnerb, ‘Les livres in Late Medieval France (Berkeley, Oxford 1991);
de Marguerite de Bécourt, dame de Santes’, in: D.J.D. Boulton and J.R. Veenstra (eds.), The
ibid., 211-220, at 215-216. Ideology of Burgundy: The Promotion of a National
29 Cf. A.-M. Legaré, ‘Les bibliothèques de deux Consciousness, 1364-1565 (Leiden, Boston 2006).
princesses: Marguerite d’York et Marguerite Arjo Vanderjagt’s many contributions date
d’Autriche’, in: idem, Livres et lectures de femmes en back to his Qui sa vertu anoblist: The Concepts
Europe entre Moyen Âge et Renaissance, 253-264, at of Noblesse and Chose Publicque in Burgundian
Political Thought (Groningen 1981).
 review

and the growth of the state, ideology may be defined as a set of discourses
and key words ‘deployed to convince a society that the interests of a small
group [were] really common interests’.32 We commonly look for sources
and formative influences of ideologies in books: those owned by Flemish
councillors of the dukes of Burgundy, for example, or in the works read by
‘sage and prudent’ advisors to English kings.33 Sustained attempts to isolate
strands in the ideology of the governing elite in the Low Countries now
exist for the ‘Long Burgundian century’, including Lisa Maria van Hijum’s
thesis which takes the period from 1450 to 1550 as a single unit, or Bernhard
Sterchi’s study of aristocratic literature and political communication, which
also extends into the sixteenth century.34 But of course, despite these wide-
ranging and stimulating studies, ‘l’analyse idéologique des idées soutenues
par ces élites [...] est loin d’avoir livré tous ces secrets’.35 In this current crop
of work, for instance, Céline van Hoorebeeck raises some important caveats
concerning our attempts to locate the intellectual origins of ideologies.
Discussing the libraries of three great Burgundian servants – Philip of Cleves,
Thomas de Plaine and Philippe Wielant – she enumerates the dangers of
‘reading off’ ideological inclinations from lists of books which people owned.
Book lists are imperfect, not necessarily made by the owner, or even during his
or her lifetime. Books may be read differently depending on ‘edition’, authorial
intention, reader’s training and so forth – all of which is to assume, of course,
that they were ever read in the first place, something which the late Pierre
Cockshaw was fond of questioning, perhaps tongue-in-cheek.36 Beyond the
construction of ideologies lay their dissemination and reception, a wider and
more complex subject area in which our current crop makes further valuable
contributions. Foremost among these is Jelle Haemers’s close discussion of

32 Haemers, For the Common Good, 263. 34 L.M. van Hijum, Grenzen aan macht. Aspecten van
33 J. Dumolyn, ‘L’idéologie d’état des conseillers des politieke ideologie aan de hoven van Bourgondische
ducs de Bourgogne’, in: V. Challet, J.-P. Genet and en Bourgondisch-Habsburgse machthebbers
H.R. Oliva Herrier (eds.), La sociedad política a fines tussen 1450 en 1555 (Enschede 1999); B. Sterchi,
del siglo XV en los reinos ibéricos y en Europa: ¿Élites, Über den Umgang mit Lob und Tadel. Normative
pueblo, súbditos? (Valladolid 2007) 145-164; J.-P. Adelsliteratur und politische Kommunikation im
Genet, ‘Les conseillers du prince en Angleterre burgundischen Hofadel, 1430-1506 (Turnhout 2005).
à la fin du Moyen Âge: Sages et prudents?’, in: 35 Boone, ‘Introduction’, in: Haemers, Van
R. Stein (ed.), Powerbrokers in the Late Middle Hoorebeeck and Wijsman, Entre la ville, la noblesse
Ages: The Burgundian Low Countries in a European et l’état, 1-6, at 6.
Context (Turnhout 2001) 117-151. 36 C. Van Hoorebeeck, ‘Les bibliothèques de
Philippe de Clèves (1456-1528), Thomas de Plaine
(ca. 1444-1507) et Philippe Wielant (1441-1520):
Essai de mise en perspective’, in: Haemers, Van
Hoorebeeck and Wijsman, Entre la ville, la noblesse
et l’état, 223-243.
 how the ruling élite’s notion of the ‘Common Good’ failed to convince a wider
polity among the nobility and the towns of the Burgundian Netherlands in
the tumultous years of Mary of Burgundy’s reign. This narrative has now been
joined by a stimulating series of essays on the theme of the Common Good in
a late medieval urban context, with much to say about the Burgundian Low
Countries.37

Conclusions

small
Historians are thus developing new approaches to Burgundian history in
ways that scale down the importance of chronological boundaries resulting
from the teleology of national state formation. Surprising though it may ­67
seem, the current crop of work suggests we need more studies which explore
the history of the court, especially the Habsburg court – not just how it was

for a long century of burgundy

organised internally, but also how it opened onto a wider polity and interacted
with other forces there. Great nobles were a key part of that wider polity
and yet they remain a surprisingly understudied group, so more initiatives
like the collective volume devoted to Philip of Cleves would be valuable. We
are beginning to understand far better the role of the women of the ruling
dynasty in the ‘Long Burgundian Century’, but it would be good to see that
work located within a wider framework of gender studies, thus far a neglected
area in Burgundian historiography. Finally, there is the question of political
thought, here articulated as ‘ideology’ – an emerging strand which has much
more to yield, especially if it is extended beyond the court to encompass urban
groups in power. q

Dr Graeme Small (1963) has taught at the universities of Edinburgh, Newcastle upon
Tyne, Keele, and Glasgow. He is the author of two recent books, one a history of Late
medieval France (2009), the other (with Andrew Brown) on Court and Civic Society in the
Burgundian Netherlands (2007), and he has also written a research monograph on the
chronicler George Chastelain (1997). He is currently interested (with Jan Dumolyn) in
Burgundian ideology, and in town council minutes as an index of late medieval European
political culture. Email: [email protected].

37 E. Lecuppre-Desjardin and A.-L. Van Bruaene

(eds.), De Bono Communi: The Discourse and
Practice of the Common Good in the European City,
13th-16th Centuries (Turnhout 2010).
review
List of reviewed publications Haemers, Jelle, Hoorebeeck, Céline Van, Wijsman,
Hanno (eds.), Entre la ville, la noblesse et l’État.
Chattaway, Carol M., The Order of the Golden Tree: Philippe de Cléves (1456-1528): Homme politique
The Gift-giving Objectives of Duke Philip the Bold et bibliophile (Burgundica 13; Turnhout: Brepols,
of Burgundy (Burgundica 12; Turnhout: Brepols, 2007, vi + 294 pp., isbn 978 2 503 51912 8).
2006, vii + 288 pp., isbn 2 503 52297 1). Kerkhoff, J., Maria van Hongarije en haar hof (1505-1558).
Federinov, B., Docquier, G. (eds.), Marie de Hongrie. Tot plichtsbetrachting uitverkoren (Hilversum:
Politique et culture sous la Renaissance aux Verloren, 2008, 359 pp., isbn 978 90 6550 941 3).
Pays-Bas: Actes du colloque tenu au Musée Legaré, Anne-Marie, Livres et lectures de femmes en

small
royal de Mariemont les 11 et 12 novembre 2005 Europe entre Moyen Âge et Renaissance (Turnhout:
(Monographies du Musée royal de Mariemont 17; Brepols, 2007, xiv + 378 pp., isbn 978 2 503 51882 4).
Morlanwelz: Musée royal de Mariemont, 2008, Maesschalck, Edward De, De Bourgondische vorsten
188 pp., isbn 978 2 930469 20 1). 1315-1530 (Leuven: Davidsfonds, 2008, 247 pp., isbn ­69
Haemers, Jelle, For the Common Good: State Power and 978 90 5826 551 7).
Urban Revolts in the Reign of Mary of Burgundy (1477- Marti, Susan, Borchert, Till-Holger, Keck, Gabriëlle

for a long century of burgundy

1482) (PhD Gent 2008, Studies in European Urban (eds.), Charles the Bold (1433-1477): Splendour of
History (1100-1800) 17; Turnhout: Brepols, 2009, xii Burgundy (Brussel: Mercatorfonds, 2009, 382 pp.,
+ 319 pp., isbn 978 90 503 52986 8). isbn 978 90 6153 859 2).

q Front page of the Getijdenboek of Filips van Kleef

[Book of Hours of Filips van Kleef,] ca. 1480.
Royal Belgian Library, Brussels.
 recensies

t
Recensies me invloedrijker dan elders. De antiparlementaire
houding van de Sociaal-Democratische Bond van
Domela Nieuwenhuis, die in 1894 aanleiding zou
worden voor de oprichting van de sdap, vond een
Algemeen belangrijke basis op het Oost-Groningse platteland
(het antiparlementarisme van de sdb werd in 1893
Duijvendak, M.G.J., e.a. (eds.), Geschiedenis van vastgelegd in een ‘motie Hoogezand-Sappemeer’).
Groningen, I, Prehistorie - Middeleeuwen (Zwolle: Volgens de socioloog Hofstee waaierde een ‘mo-
Waanders, [Groningen: Stichting Erven A. de dern-dynamisch cultuurpatroon’ vanuit Groningen
Jager], 2008, 393 blz., isbn 978 90 400 8539 0); uit over Nederland, wat zich onder meer uitte in
Duijvendak, M.G.J., e.a. (eds.), Geschiedenis van vroege geboortebeperking. Aletta Jacobs kwam
Groningen, II, Nieuwe Tijd (Zwolle: Waanders, hier vandaan. In kerkelijk opzicht ontstonden hier
[Groningen: Stichting Erven A. de Jager], 2008, zowel het modernisme van de Groninger richting
443 blz., isbn 978 90 400 8540 6); Duijvendak, in de hervormde kerk, als de orthodoxe afscheiding
M.G.J., e.a. (eds.), Geschiedenis van Groningen, van 1834.
III, Nieuwste Tijd - Heden (Zwolle: Waanders, Men kan dit beschouwen als clichés, en deze
[Groningen: Stichting Erven A. de Jager], 2009, 441 provinciegeschiedenis brengt, zoals het betaamt,
blz., isbn 978 90 400 8541 3). tal van nuances aan, maar de indruk blijft bestaan
dat het geavanceerde Groningen in de negentiende
De bekende slogan ‘Er gaat niets boven Groningen’ eeuw vanuit een oppositionele houding meer
maakt duidelijk dat de Groningers de perifere invloed heeft gehad in het nationale bestel dan
ligging van hun gewest niet als een nadeel be- andere perifere streken. Of dit zo is geweest is uit
schouwen. Men zou dit als een rode draad in de de betreffende hoofdstukken niet na te gaan, want
Groningse geschiedenis kunnen beschouwen. Ver vergelijkingen met andere provincies treft men er
verwijderd van de centra van de macht konden de niet in aan. Toch was de vraag naar de voorsprong
Groningers hun eigen rol spelen in de economi- van Groningen op zijn plaats geweest, te meer daar
sche, politieke en culturele geschiedenis van de Ne- de integratie van de Groningse streken in het Ne-
derlandse natiestaat. In de negentiende eeuw ont- derlandse bestel wel een hoofdthema van het boek
wikkelde de Groningse landbouw zich tot de meest is. Vanuit een andere uithoek, Limburg, is opval-
geavanceerde van Europa. Hier ontstond een lend dat in deze negentiende-eeuwse oppositie- en
welvarende ‘graanrepubliek’, waarin een boeren- vernieuwingsbewegingen in Groningen steeds
stand zich zelfbewust als economische, politieke en binnen het nationale verband, dus niet regionalis-
culturele elite, eerst tegenover de adel, later tegen- tisch opereerden. In Limburg was (en is) het anti-
over de arbeidersbevolking plaatste. Op basis van Hollandse element veel sterker, zij het deels in het
de landbouw en het transport in de Veenkoloniën kader van de nationale katholieke emancipatie en
kwam een moderne industrie tot stand. De mix van verzuiling.
snelle economische ontwikkeling en een perifere De geschiedenis van Groningen wordt in
ligging stimuleerde de opkomst van oppositionele deze delen beschreven vanuit het besef dat de
bewegingen in het nationale verband. Al vroeg in ‘eenwording van Nederland’ een langdurig pro-
de negentiende eeuw wortelde hier een radicaal ces is geweest. Dat geldt ook voor de integratie
liberalisme, dat zich ook nationaal manifesteerde; van Groningen in het Nederlandse bestel. Het
later werden socialisme, anarchisme en communis- integratieproces werd gemarkeerd door politieke