Chapter 1: THE CONCEPT OF PUBLIC PUBLIC POLICY AS AN OUTPUT:

POLICY
1. Public policies are courses of action,
Cunningham - public policy is like an elephant. sometimes inaction, rules and
One readily recognizes it when he or she sees it. guidance for action.
However, one cannot easily define it.
- They are modern government’s quintessential
Office policy- rules on tardiness, union response to the environment (Pal, 1992).
organizing or promotions and incentives.
- They connote a plan, a coherent vision, a
Constitution - mother of all laws in the country. direction and a resolve to take on the job.

-other examples of these policies are specific - Also include intentional withdrawal of
acts of the Congress approved by the President. governmental action, or government willfully
refraining from doing, waiting, or leaving things
Examples of public policies: as they are. These are inactions where
government does other more strategic things
1. Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan
than actively doing particular functions.
known as Philippines 2000
Inactions- government is withdrawing from
2. Privatization of Philippine Airlines, PETRON,
actively doing some of the functions which it has
Manila Hotel
been doing in the past.
3. Water Crisis Act
e.g.: 1) providing womb to tomb services, 2)
4. Deregulation of the airline, oil, letting other sectors (civil society and private
telecommunications and retail industries sector) who can do them better, 3) government’s
privatization thrusts, 4) decentralization or the
5. The liberalization of trade Local Government Code of 1991 authored by
Aquilino Pimentel Jr., 5) the build-operate
6. Announcement of public holidays, etc. transfer, and policy and diplomacy on war.

Power of LGU’s:

Policies - actions, guides to actions, or the rules 1) Power of eminent domain

of the game, taken by individuals or group(s) of
persons, purposively for a particular objective or 2) Power of taxation
goal. These are also outputs of authorities.
3) Police power
Private Policies - those of individuals and
private sector 2.) Public policies are taken and adopted by
government or its instrumentality.
e.g.: reporting on time, a son who is not yet
independent from his parents, obeys the latter, - Public policy are defined, assessed,
for his own good. formulated, adopted, implemented, and
sometimes monitored and evaluated.
Public Policies - those which citizens generally
refer to as what governments do or not do. Authorities

- Tangible manifestations of government’s - elders, paramount chiefs, executives,

actions and decisions. legislators, judges, administrators, councilors,
and monarchs
- persons or institutions who engage in the daily 3) Aspirations of, for the society- may include
affairs of a political system. government pronouncements such as war
against poverty, NIC-hood by the year 200,
- have the mandate to formulate, implement and health for all, global competitiveness, etc.
interpret policies for the welfare and interest of
the people. -They also seem to hold people together and
maintain an orderly state.
Non-authorities or unofficial stakeholders have a
role in policy making as well 4) Specific proposals or means for achieving
larger ends
3) Public policies are made presumably to
address a given problem or set of 5) Decisions of government
interrelated problems in the society (Dunn,
1991) theories that if there is no problem, 6) Formal organizations
there is no policy solution.
7) Program of government
4) Public policies are ideally intended for the
8) An output or what government actually
common good and welfare of the people.
delivers
- Policies can never be completely unintentional
9) A theory or model of cause and effect- may
- They are ideally supposed to achieve a certain include assuming that privatization improves
purpose or goal beneficial to the public. industry efficiency, promotes competition,
encourages private entrepreneurial behavior,
- They are intended to improve society. broadens the ownership base, and raises capital
of government corporations (E.O. 237 s. 1995).
Take note that:
10) A process
1) Public policy is not restricted to its outputs,
nor to its stated objectives or formal strategies to CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC POLICIES
pursue government activities.
Dual Character of Public Policy:
2) The concept of public policy includes impacts
which result either from a government’s action or 1) Command
lack of the same. (Continual choice between
2) Agreement
preserving or altering status quo)
Two Forms of Public Policy:
Read Table 2. Public Policy as Defined by
Various Authors page 11 1) Normative form- its form could be a set of
rules arranged hierarchically or logically
THE VARIOUS MEANINGS AND USES OF
THE CONCEPT 2) Empirical Form- not as unified or
harmoniously as pictured
1) A label for a field of government activity-
public policy may consist of economic policies, Nakamura (1981) - vagueness may be a
social policies, policies on international relations, characteristic of policy formulation stage.
policies on defense, and peace and order.
Aucoin’s Three Principal Characteristics of
2) Expression of general purpose- achieving Public Policies:
policy objective
1) Coercive - entails capacity of government to 10) The Local Government Code of 1991 or R.A
bring on citizens the full force of political 7160
authority, including imposition of sanctions
GUIDES IN DEFINING PUBLIC POLICY
2) Distributive - directly or indirectly to allocate (HOGWOOD AND GUNN, 1994)
goods and services, rights and privileges in
socio-economic affairs and of equal importance 1) Public policy is larger than decisions
to arrange the offices or positions of authority in
2) It involves behavior as well as intentions
the political system
3) It involves action as well as inactions
3) Systematic - exercise of political authority
across the total range of public affairs 4) It is a purposive course of action, but
purposes may be defined retrospectively
Dye (1978) - public policy has legitimacy,
universality, and coercive characteristics. Ex post facto - after the fact (creation of
GOCC’s)
1) Legitimacy - public policies are legal and
command the loyalty of citizens. Ex ante - before anything else (deregulation of
telecommunication industry)
2) Universality - only government policies
extend to cover all people in the society. 5) It has outcomes which may or may not have
been foreseen
3) Coercion - only government monopolizes
coercion on society and legitimately imprisons 6) It is subjectively defined- the final structure of
violators of its policies. a public policy becomes a political resultant, a
hydraulic press that slants or tilts in favor of
SOME EXAMPLES OF PUBLIC POLICIES IN
those whose interests, power and resources
THE PHILIPPINES:
predominate.
1) The Philippine Constitution of 1987
7) It involves intra and inter-organizational
2) Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988 relationships and a key, but not exclusive role
or R.A. 6655 for public agencies

3) The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law 8) It arises from a process over time
(CARL) or R.A. 6657
THE ‘PUBLIC-NESS’ OF PUBLIC POLICIES
4) The Generics Drug Act or R.A. 6675
A policy is public:
5) The Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards
- if it is authoritatively determined, implemented
for Public Officials and Employees or R.A. 6713
and enforced by governmental institutions
6) R.A. 6735 or and Act Providing for a System
- if it is legitimate, universal and coercive in
of Citizen’s Initiative and Referendum
effect
7) R.A. 7042 or the Foreign Investments Act of
- if it commands obedience as well as
1991
agreement
8) The Anti-Plunder Act or R.A. 7080
-if it has a key role of government and also the
9) The Foreign Service Act of 1991 participation of other institutions/sectors
-if it is fore the achievement of societal
improvement, or ideally for the common good of
the public

Towards a Working Definition of Public

Policy:

1) Form – is a guide / rule / course of action

2) Character – manifestation or clarification of

specific goals

3) Theory of Cause and Effect – is both an

output, a process, an outcome and effect

4) Ultimate Objective – for stability /

consistency / uniformity, and continuity

5) Public – made by government who has

legitimacy, authority

6) Hierarchy – choice of priorities through plans

to decision rules
CHAPTER 2: THE PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS • It is dynamic and gets contributions from
various institutions, groups or individuals who
What is public policy? have a say in governance.

1) An official pronouncement or aspiration • It is a big pot which many stirs.

2) A constitutional provision • The policy process is a course of

transformation which turns political inputs into
3) A government programs
political outputs.
4) A government projects
• It also translates vague and often abstract
Policy making process may be studied by societal commitments into specific commitments
adopting one of at least two schools of thought, to one or more specific courses of action.
namely:
• The policy process decides major guidelines
1.) That the process is rationally done; policy for action directed at the future, mainly by
making is assumed to be essentially based government organ.
on the classic problem
FIVE STAGES OF THE POLICY CYCLE AND
- solving steps from problem formulation and THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO APPLIED
evaluation of alternatives through PROBLEM-SOLVING (HOWLETT AND
implementation. RAMESH, 1995)

- problem is seen as technical, climate is Phases of Applied Problem-Solving

consensual, process as controlled
1) Problem Recognition
2.) That it is politically negotiated-
2) Proposal of Solution
perceptions and interests of individual
actors enter at all stages. 3) Choice of Solution

-policy is seen as bargained outcome 4) Putting Solution into Effect

Public Policy is Process Defined 5) Monitoring Results

-concept of process; refers to a regularized cycle Stages in Policy Cycle

of behavior that policy actors to some extent
have to work through or around 1) Agenda Setting

- as a public process; it is a sequential flow of 2) Policy Formulation

interactions between government and non-
government participants who discuss, argue 3) Decision making
about and find some common grounds for
4) Policy Implementation
agreeing upon the scope and types of policies
appropriate in dealing with a particular society 5) Policy Evaluation
problem.

• Policy cycle may not always be linear and its

stages are not always clear cut • The policy process is an activity of finding
problems that can be solved. It is a learning
• Public policy making is extremely complex. It is process of error detection and correction.
analytical and political. It is an ongoing cycle Hopefully, to modify societal conditions.
which has no beginning or end.
• The policy process includes a core activity An ATOM (August Twenty-One Movement) led
following a Problem Alternatives and Solution group even sought audience with the general
Analysis Solution sequence (PAS) manager of

It includes the following activities: NAPOCOR to articulate the inconvenience

wrought by the series of electric interruptions to
P 1) Seeking information to define and re- the country, economy, and society.
structure the societal problem
The President and her cabinet knew too well
A 2) Developing alternatives to solve the that the situation had become crucial to the very
problem survival of the economy and the society. They
were in fact, not spared the inconvenience and
S 3) Reaching and adopting an agreement on
discomfort brought about by blackouts. They
which alternative will best solve the problem
knew they had to do something fast to nip the
S 4) implementing the solution problem in the bud.

P 5) Evaluating the outcomes 3) Search and analysis of alternatives or of

ways to solve the problem
The case of the power shortage in the country in
the late 80’s to early 90’s: -in this policy formulation stage, all major
alternatives are assessed as to their potential
1) Seeking information to define and re- costs and benefits, and their likely efficiency and
structure the societal problem effectiveness.

-stage referred to as problem identification and -at this stage, the bureaucratic influence
redefinition especially the executive) is strongest.

-involves a process in which the problem is Suggestions to solve the problem:

shaped or confined to more practical limits from
the point of view of the policy makers and a) streamlining the loan processing facility
advisers.
b) using emergency power to speed up
Problem was because: processing of fund release

1) Most of power plants were decades old and c) consistent with the privatization thrust of the
were ever well-maintained government, assessing the possibility of private
ventures for power and infrastructure plants,
2) Most plants were dependent on imported oil using the build-operate-transfer scheme

3) Alternative sources of energy such as coal, d) using power barges

hydro, geothermal, nuclear, etc., were not
extensively harnessed e) regular rehabilitation and repair of existing
power plants
4) Other reasons; inefficiency of National Power
Corporation f) scheduling / rationing electricity

2) Agenda setting 4) Deciding on the best choice

-if the problem is valued as legitimate concern of -assuming that the best choice among
government, it may be set in the agenda of the alternatives is reached, it may need
government as a whole, or of an agency of the legitimization and official adoption by the
government in particular. government in power.
Choices enacted into law or declared as state 3) Policy Statements - formal expressions or
policies on energy and electricity: articulations of public policy e.g., Administrative
Order, Executive Order, or Republic Act
1) servicing areas with power barges
Policy Issue - when an actual or potential
2) fast-tracking release of development funds for course of action by government involves conflict
the construction, repair or rehabilitation of power among segments of the society.
plants
4) Policy Outputs - pertains to tangible
3) enactment of the build-operate-transfer policy manifestations of public policies; they are the
things actually done by government in
4) enactment of the power and energy crisis act
pursuance of policy decisions and statements;
of 1991
they are simply what the government actually
5) re-creation of the Department of Energy, etc. does.

5) Policy Implementation 5) Policy Outcomes

-intent is to produce results in a reliable, - these are the consequences for society,
predictable way to meet the ideas and objectives intended or unintended, that flow from the action
sought by a policy solution. Implementation or inaction by government
occurs over time and is usually the longest and
The Rushefsky’s Model (1990)
most permanent stage in the policy cycle.
- works in a linear fashion. He recognizes
6) Policy monitoring and evaluation
that this pattern may not always be true
- necessary to see if the objectives have been in reality, and that complexities occur at
met. It may also lead to the termination, reform every step of the process.
and change of existing policies.
Rushefsky’s Model stages:
MODELS OF PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS:
1) Problem Identification
COMPONENTS, CONTRIBUTIONS AND
LIMITATIONS - the demand for government action to resolve a
problem or take advantage of an opportunity is
Anderson’s Model
verbalized by affected groups or individuals or
- developed in 1975 and modified in 1978 those who have a stake in the policy issue or
and again in 1984, is appealing in that it concern.
reflects transformations themselves.
- attempts to get government to see that a policy
Anderson in 1975: problem or opportunity exists are ventured into
by affected or interested parties at this stage.
1) Policy Demand - claims made upon public
officials by other actors, private or official, in the Notable distinctions of problems according
political system for action or inaction of some to Rushefsky:
perceived problem.
1) Private problem - limited in effect to one or
2) Policy Decision - decision by public officials few persons directly involved
that authorizes or gives direction and content to
2) Public problem - has broad effects, including
public policy actions.
consequences for persons not directly involved
3) Policy problem - situation that produces 5) personal interest of legislators
needs or dissatisfactions on the part of the
people for which public relief or redress is being 6) pressures of public opinion or public outcry
sought
7) statistics and indicators
2) Agenda Building
3) Policy Formulation
- items are built into the agenda of government,
- stage where a policy, plan, program or project
so that policy makers are expected to discuss
to remedy the problem is developed; the stage
and seriously consider them, later.
for real and conceptual problem solving.
Policy Agenda- demands that policy makers
4) Policy Adoption
make choose or feel compelled to act upon, they
consist of the sum of all issues judged to require - acceptance by some person or group that has
public intervention. power or authority to make decisions or referred
to her/him/them.
Agenda Formation Process - course wherein
private problems are transformed into public 5) Budgeting
problem, which in turn become a policy issue,
and later built into the agenda of government, - multifaceted process of providing funds to an
either systematically or institutionally. adopted preferred solution to a problem.

Policy Issue - arises when a public problem 6) Implementation

seeks or demands government action and when
there is a public disagreement over the best - carrying out a policy, program, project or
solution to the problem. activity intended to address a particular set of
problems.
Systemic Agenda - consists of all issues
commonly perceived by members of the political 7) Evaluation
community as meriting public attention and
- assessment on how well a policy has worked.
involving matters within the legitimate jurisdiction
of existing governmental activity. 8) Policy Succession
- also known as the discussion agenda -phase when reflection on whether a policy is to
be changed, amended or terminated is done.
Institutional Agenda - consists of those
problems which public officials feel obliged to • Rushefsky insists that budgeting is part of the
give serious attention to. policy process. He asserts that resources should
be allotted officially to ensure a more successful
- also known as the decision agenda
policy implementation.
Other ways for an issue to become part of
• Rushefsky also stresses the need for policy
the policy agenda:
succession or termination, particularly if the
1) pressures by interest groups reason for a policy’s existence has already been
satisfied.
2) desires of important people or group in the
community The Mendoza’s Model

3) attention given by agenda - the Mendoza model is basically a reflection of

the politics and rationality of public policy making
4) triggering events in the country.
- the process is cyclical and dynamic. represented by the barangay or (municipal or
regional) trial courts.
- each phase is replete with objectivity,
subjectivity, balance and tilt, rationality and 1) The executive branch - supposed to be
politics. involved in almost all phases of the policy cycle
from policy reformulation and re-definition to
- it is different from other models in that it implementation and evaluation.
emphasizes problem re-definition, assuming a
serious evaluation of policy performance has 2) The legislative branch - mainly involved in
been made. the policy formulation and legitimization stages.

- it also espouses more participation by citizens 3) The judiciary branch - more in arbitration of
and other institutions of democracy, as well as constitutional concerns, its involvement is more
their advocacy role for change and reform in the on policy legitimization but can also immerse in
society. policy adoption and review.

THE PHILIPPINE POLICY MAKING PROCESS The Cabinet - composed of all the heads of
departments and those occupying the rank of
Institutions involved in policy making secretary, in the executive branch. Headed by
process: the President, who is the prime initiator and
implementor of policies and programs in the
1) Bicameral legislative body
country.
2) Senate and the House of Representatives
The NEDA Board - like the mini-cabinet or the
3) The Executive branch midicluster. Its chair is also the President of the
Republic. The vice-chair is the Director-General
4) The Judiciary of the NEDA Secretariat.

Various mechanisms in place for public The LEDAC (Legislative-Executive

policy making: Development Advisory Council) - a special
consultative body, which aims to provide
1) The Cabinet advisory and consultative mechanism to ensure
consistency in coordinating executive
2) The NEDA Board
development planning and congressional
3) Special Consultative Bodies such as LEDAC budgeting.

4) The committees and the procedures for - also aims to provide a mechanism for
enacting laws consensus building and serve as a
consultative and advisory body to the
• By levels of government, LGU’s pattern their President.
system of decision and policy making with that
of national government. However, other LGU’s How a Bill Becomes a Law:
may differ from the latter’s system minimally or
1) Labeled H or S and assigned a number
substantively.
2) First Reading
• At the LGU level, the executive branch is
represented by the local executive (governor or - Reading of title/author
mayor) and his offices. The legislative is in the
Saggunians or local councils headed by the vice - Committee studies and recommends, if action
governor or vice-mayor. The judiciary is is favorable, the report is submitted through the
Committee on Rules. If unfavorable, the bill is
laid on the table and the author/s are informed

-Committee on Rules Calendars

-Bill for floor discussion

3) Second Reading

-Floor discussion/debates

-Period of amendments

-Voting

4) Third reading

- Distribution of bill in final form

- Roll call vote

In case of conflicting provisions, an Ad Hoc

conference committee is constituted to reconcile
differences

- Floor deliberation on the Conference

Committee Report

-Voting

5) Presidential Action

-Failure to act within 30 days after receipt, bill

will lapse into law

If vetoed:

- Return to originating house with explanation

- Legislative accepts or overrides by 2/3 vote in

both houses
 Chapter 3: THE EVOLUTION OF THE the entire context of significant events in
DISCIPLINE OF PUBLIC POLICY which scientist is living.

The Evolution Knowledge of decision - processes implies

systematic, empirical studies of how policies are
Garson’s account of the evolution of the field made and put into effect.
starts with Lasswell’s grand dream of a “policy
science”. Policy science must strive for three principal
attributes:
Charles Merriam - a secretary of a state
planning body in the USA and also a faculty 1) Contextuality - decisions are part of a larger
member of the Yale University. social process

- view of planning as an interdisciplinary 2) Problem orientation - policy scientists are at

policy science and not just economic home with the intellectual activities involved in
analysis, agricultural planning and other clarifying goals, trends, conditions, projections,
specialized perspective. and alternatives.

Screw-driver syndrome - being blinded by 3) Diversity - the methods employed are not
one’s expertise and background without much limited to a narrow range of quantitative
regard to the contribution of other disciplines. methods

Harold Lasswell - modern day father of policy The Plant and Its Branches
science in America.
1) Synoptic Tradition - considers system
Lasswell’s grand vision: analysis as metatheory; statistical empiricism as
methodology; optimization of values and
- a theoretically oriented multi-discipline efficiency as a deciding criterion; and policy as a
science.
- concerned with the fundamental problems of
man - associated with the orientation of looking at the
forest in its entirety.
- is global in perspective
- generalist in orientation.
- emphasizes historical context of policy
- details are glossed over.
- stresses the study of change (diffusion,
invention, and revolution) 2) Anti-synoptic Tradition - advocates
pluralism as metatheory, contextual and case
- he thought of it as a policy science of
analysis as methodology, social rationality as a
democracy serving democratic values, academic
deciding factor, and policy as an art and craft.
theory building, and governmental needs.
- views particular specie of flora and fauna in the
Lasswell defined policy sciences as the
forest.
disciplines concerned with explaining policy
making and policy executing processes, and - is more specialist.
with locating data and providing interpretations
which are relevant to policy problems of a given - particular concern is on specific areas were
period. problems exist.

- to him, the policy frame of reference 3) Neo-Pluralist Reaction - the goal of policy
makes it necessary to take into account science.
- the goal is not vaguely toward developing a - conducting inductive rather than deductive data
policy science of democracy. analyses

- geared towards preparing a cadre of - reporting in case study modes than in scientific
professional experts with sophisticated or technical reports
quantitative methodological and analytical skills,
who can provide supportive researches to policy - criteria based on credibility, transferability,
makers. dependability, and confirmability

- to serve policy maker’s information needs. WHAT IS POLICY SCIENCE?

4) Handmaiden Approach - policy analysis, Policy science is public policy

similar to handmaids during reign of royalties
- interrelationships between substantive
exists to help policy makers arrive at a mere
issues and the political process.
enlightened decision.
- public policy considers how problems
- the job of policy researchers is to act as come to the attention of government,
translator between the two worlds they live in: how the governmental agenda
the world of their discipline, and the world of develops, the actors who shape policy
action outside their discipline. proposals, the interaction of legislative-
executive bargaining, administrative
5) Design Science (Miller, 1944) - goal is to implementation and program evaluation.
improve public sector performance.
Policy Science is Policy Science
- policy inquiry focuses on performance of
humans and entities they create, rather than - vast field concerned with the causes and
merely observe. consequences of public policy.

- aims to increase the number of reforms options - inquires how policies are formulated and
open to decision makers and enhance the legitimized.
probability of attaining their specified goals.
- a field committed to broadening, rather than
- design science will remove apparent conflicts narrowing the theories, issues, processes
between getting things done and being examined in government and society.
scientists.
- it is problem oriented, contextual, eclectic, and
- enable quantification of diversity as well as process sensitive.
equilibrium, disorder as well as order, human
Policy Science is Policy Analysis
laws as well as natural laws.
- involves the description, analysis and
6) Naturalistic Inquiry - focuses on natural than
explanation of the causes and consequences of
experimental setting to comprehend a reality
government activity.
that is constructed, multiple, holistic, and
sometimes existing essentially only in the minds - it is concerned with how to make public
of the individual. decisions rigorously and analytically on the basis
of systematic quantitative evidence.
- using humans rather than survey instruments
- finding out what governments do, why they do
- using intuitive, felt tacit knowledge
it, and what difference does it makes.
- using qualitative rather than quantitative
methodologies
Tripartite divisions between types of inquiry - political science are paying more
inaugurated by Aristotle: attention to substantive issues, public
administration gives greater attention to
1) Theoretical - meant to provide knowledge for program management and control and
its own sake the more specialized public policy
programs to quantitative and non-
2) Technical - supplied knowledge needed for
quantitative methods and analyses.
making or artifacts
WHAT ROLES DO SCIENTISTS PLAY?
3) Practical - reserved for insights garnered
through life experiences and through practical Weiner and Vinning (1934) views on the role
conduct preferably in public affairs of policy scientists or analysts:
Ocampo (1978)- Policy science as policy 1) Objective Technicians or neutral
studies researcher
- a call for the active orientation of social - hold analytical integrity as their fundamental
sciences, psychology and other value
disciplines to the solution of policy
issues and problems. - let analysis speak for itself
- refers to the teaching, research and
academic and professional activities - provides objective advice about the
directed at gaining applying knowledge consequences of proposed policies
for the improvement of government
- they realize they do specific research under
policies.
severe time constraints and data limitations
Nagel (1987)- Public policy studies
- view their clients as necessary evils
- study of nature, causes and effects of
-they give their clients the most accurate
governmental decisions in dealing with
predictions possible
social problems
-maintain a safe distance from their clients and
Henry (1989) likened public policy to a field
place only second priority to the latter’s political
in a twilight zone with ambivalent evolution
fortunes
in both the disciplines of political science
(descriptive) and public administration -they prefer institutional clients
(prescriptive).
-the analysts contribute to the good society by
- policy science is having a sort of identity consistently providing unbiased advice even if it
crisis, it being in the twilight zone. does not

Political Science - deals with content, politics, lead to the selection of personally favored
intellectualized understanding of public issues. policies

Public Administration - deals with the political 2) Client’s Advocate

economy, organizational theory, implementation,
and evaluation of public policies. - emphasis on his or her responsibility to the
client
Engelbert (1997) believes that no other field
has done more in propagating policy studies - analysts derive their legitimacy as participants
than public administration. in the formation of public policy from their clients
- vigorously promote their client’s interest - a combination of diverse ideas that enable
fields to deal better with systematic evaluation of
- may be likened to yes-men or handmaids alternative public policies

3) Issue Advocate - scientific field concerned with normative

questions as to the good society, ultimate values
- believe that analysis should be an instrument
and good policy
for making progress toward their conception of
the good society Policy Studies (descriptive) - deals with
knowledge of the policy and the policy process
- focus on values inherent in policy outcomes
rather than on the values, like analytical integrity Policy Analysis (prescriptive) - deals with
and responsibility to the client, associated with knowledge in the policy process
the actual conduct of analysis
Evaluation studies - assess the extent specific
- they see themselves as intrinsically legitimate policies have achieved their objectives and
players in the policy process outcomes

- select clients opportunistically Analysis of information for policy making -

examines data to aid policy decision or advise
- clients unable or unwilling to promote the
on the implications of policy alternatives
advocates personal policy agenda should be
abandoned for clients who can and who will Process advocacy - understanding and
changing the policy making process to make it
- loyalty to one’s conception of the good society
more participative, accessible and fair.
should take priority over loyalty to a particular
client -prescribes what government ought to do and
why.
CONTROVERSIAL COMMENTS ON THE
FIELD POLICY SCIENCE IN THE PHILIPPINES

1) A temporary fad or stale material - public policy started in the late 70’s

2) Too practical or too theoretical - came about alongside a compelling respect for
science and a felt need for sustained interest,
3) Too multi-disciplinary or too narrowly focused
inquiry and advocacy for reforms in the society
on political science
Technocrats- the leaders of technological
4) Too quantitative or too subjective
politics as policy makers
5) Underutilized or over utilized
- tend to hold advanced academic
6) Too liberal or too conservative degrees and come from or have
connections with recognized academic
SOME AGREEMENTS institutions
- many of them were willing or lured to
Policy Science is being hailed as: work with government by tasks or
reform, structural adjustments and
- a new perspective on political and social
political renewal
phenomena
• Public policy in the country did not experience
- an interdisciplinary perspective across all fields
the same intensity of debates and
of knowledge
transformation as the field did in the West. It was 2) more graduates and researchers with the
adopted as a technology of policy studies. needed commitment and resolve to help the
nation develop can be produced
• It was never in a twilight zone as Henry (1989)
outlines the field. Here, it is a sub-field of public 3) if more policy makers and administrators
administration, not political science. would recognize the potential of policy analysis
in helping them to formulate and implement
• It draws from the expertise and contributions of better policies for the good of the greater
numerous other disciplines. Filipinos

As an Academic Discipline

- Public policy started with the creation of

a Policy Studies Program (PSP) in the
College of Public Administration,
University of the Philippines in 1978.
- The PSP was funded by the Ford
Foundation

FUTURE AND PROSPECTS: TOWARD

INSTITUTIONALIZING PUBLIC POLICY IN
THE PHILIPPINES

Public policy in the country is a relatively

new technology of policy studies. Its reach
or impact is still limited. This is basically
because of the following factors:

• The limited reach of its academic offerings

• The long gestation period to produce a cadre

of policy professionals

• The newness of many policy research

institutions

• The disjointed incrementalism and

individualism of most institutions doing policy
research, education and advocacy

• Its low recognition as a tool to improve policy

making

• Dismally poor the utilization of its outputs

Nevertheless, the field of policy science can

still blossom into a full-blown
multidisciplinary science in the country if:

1) more funding can be made available for policy

education, research and advocacy