UNIT 8

CAUSE & EFFECT, COMPARISON & CONTRAST,

and ADVERB CLAUSES
Objectives:
1. To identify signals/clues that indicate causes or effects
2. To identify causes and effects
3. To identify signals/clues that indicate comparison & contrast
4. To identify comparison & contrast
5. To identify adverb clauses

1. Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a dependent clause used as an adverb within a sentence

to indicate time, place, condition, contrast, concession, reason, purpose, or
result. Also, it is known as adverbial clause.

An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as if, when,

because, or although) and includes a subject and a predicate.

Kinds of adverbial clauses

Kind of Common
Function Examples
clause conjunctions

These clauses are When you finished

when, before, your homework, you
used to say when
after, since, may go home.
time something happens by
while, as, as
clauses referring to a period of
long as, until, As soon as he heard
time or to another
as soon as the news, he called
event.
me.
These clauses are
used to talk about a Unless you work hard,
conditional
if, unless possible or counter- you will fail in this
clauses
factual situation and its exam.
consequences.

in order to, so These clauses are I will give you a map

purpose
that, in order used to indicate the so that you can find
clauses
that purpose of an action. the library easily.

because, These clauses are I did this work because

reason
since, as, used to indicate the it is part of my
clauses
given reason for something. educational project.

There were so many

These clauses are
result books on the subject
so….that used to indicate the
clauses that Mary didn’t know
result of something.
where to begin.

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 These clauses are
used to make two I used to read a lot
concession statements, one of although I don't get
although,
clauses which contrasts with much time for books
though, while
the other or makes it now.
seem surprising.

where, These clauses are

place wherever, used to talk about the He said he was happy
clauses anywhere, location or position of where he was.
everywhere something.

Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences with a suitable word or phrase from the table
above.

1. Living in Bogor is sometimes frustrating ____________there are a lot of

traffic jams in every part of the city.
2. ___________dolphin lives in the sea, it is not a fish – it’s a mammal.
3. I want to live __________ there are a lot of trees.
4. Riding a motorcycle needs fuel ____________ riding a bicycle needs
human energy.
5. ____________ you study hard, I am sure you’ll pass the test.

2. Causes & Effects

When describing a sequence of events or actions, the writer can relate them
in two ways: by showing their order in time or showing how one causes the other,
if it does. Often, one action following another in time is also the result of that
action. There are a number of ways the writers can express these causal
relations. Some of them are listed below as the common cause and effect
markers.

The following are possible common signals to indicate cause and effect relations:

Verbs linking cause and effect: result, produce, allow, prevent, enable,
cause, result in, result from, bring about

Connectives: due to, as a result of, since, because, because of, in response
to, as, with the result that, so that, thus, therefore, consequently, hence, for
this reason, thereby

Implied marker: if, means

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Sample Passage

Pulmonary Tuberculosis is caused by infection of the lungs with the

tubercle bacillus. Pulmonary lesions are due almost entirely to the human
form of the tubercle bacillus, as distinct from the bovine type, which is
Line mainly responsible for glandular and bovine tuberculosis. The bacilli lodge
5 in the lungs and set up a chronic inflammation of a specific type. They
produce areas of infiltration which have a characteristic tubercle
formation; hence the name for the organism.

The above passage shows relations of cause and effects. Some of the relations
are marked but others are linked implicitly.

Cause Effect Marker

Tubercle bacillus Infection of lungs

Infection of lungs Pulmonary Tuberculosis caused by
Human form of tubercle Pulmonary lesions due to
bacillus
Bovine type of tubercle Glandular and bovine responsible for
bacillus tuberculosis
Bacilli lodge in lungs Chronic inflammation set up
Inflammation Infiltration produce

Exercise 2
Read the text below and complete the table that follows.
Scientific studies have shown that vitamin A may have beneficial
effects in clearing up skin problems, treating eye disorders, and fighting
infection. Tablets with vitamin A have been used effectively in treating
Line skin problems like acne. When it is applied directly to the skin, vitamin A
5 can also clear up boils and heal ulcers. Injections of vitamin A have been
used to remove warts from people’s skin. Vitamin A is a successful way
of treating such eye disorders as night blindness and blurred vision. In
addition, therapeutic doses of vitamin A are used to treat glaucoma and
conjunctivitis (inflammation of the eyelids). Most important, vitamin A
10 protects the mucous membrane from invading bacteria. Furthermore,
dosages of vitamin A have shortened the duration of communicable
diseases, such as cold and measles. In conclusion, these many
beneficial effects demonstrate the importance of encouraging people to
take regular dietary supplements of vitamin A.

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 CAUSE: Use of Vitamin A in the Body
EFFECT 1: EFFECT 2: EFFECT 3
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
Examples: Examples: Examples:
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………
…………………………… ………………………….. ……………………………

Exercise 3
Read the text below and do the exercises that follow.
There are three reasons why solar energy generation has not
developed more rapidly. First, the cost per watt of solar cell generation is
more expensive than that of the steam power or nuclear power
Line generation. Therefore, the researchers are still looking for ways to make
5 solar cells cheaper. Second, nature plays a large part in solar cell
generation. For example, some days are cloudy and rainy. Because there
is no always fine weather, solar energy cannot be generated every day.
No solar energy is generated at night. Consequently, solar cells which are
very expensive must have the capacity to store energy for use during
10 these times. As a result, in low latitude areas can enough solar energy be
generated effectively at these times. Finally, building plants for solar cell
generation is extremely expensive. A very large space is needed, and the
need for maintenance is constant. To illustrate, the surface of the solar
cell plants has to be cleaned daily.
15 For all these reasons, it is very difficult to develop solar cell plants and
make solar cell energy available to the general public for a competitive
price. Despite all these problems, it is believed that the day will come and
when we use solar energy cells because they are a form of clean energy
with no pollution.

a. Underline the signal words for Cause &Effect.

b. Complete the following table based on the text above.

Effect: Solar Generation has not developed more rapidly

First Reason/Cause Second Reason/Cause Third Reason/Cause
………………………… …………………………… …………………………
………………………… …………………………… …………………………
………………………… …………………………… …………………………
………………………… …………………………… …………………………

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c. Decide whether the following sentences and decide whether they are TRUE
or FALSE.
1. The topic sentence of paragraph 1 is stated at the first sentence of the
paragraph.
2. The controlling idea of the topic sentence is solar energy generation has not
developed more rapidly.
3. The words “First” (line 2), “Second” (line 5) and “Finally (line 11) are markers
for process.
4. The word “it” in line 15 refers to the solar energy.
5. The word “they” in line 18 refers to solar energy cells.

d. Underline the adjective, noun, adverb clauses in the text above.

2. Comparison & Contrast

In most academic subjects, we often need to compare and contrast

things. Thus, one type of text organization is one in which several things are
compared or contrasted, where the language of comparison and contrast is used.
Paragraphs of this type of passage usually state the main idea of the things being
demonstrated as similar or different in the first sentence. Then, the idea is
developed in subsequent sentences, often with examples.

To compare means to show in what ways several things are similar, and
to contrast means to show in what ways they are different.

Signal Words/Markers

Some common signal words/markers for comparison

also in the same manner in comparison like

similarly in the same way likewise too
as correspondingly the same as well as
similar to in comparison both resemble

Some common signal words/markers for contrast

however on the other hand while but

nevertheless on the contrary in contrast yet
more (than) --er than whereas conversely
rather than although despite/in spite of unless
unlike instead different from by contrast

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Sample Passage

Both New York City and Paris depend on vast subway lines to transport
their millions of commuters. In both cities, the subways are often crowded,
especially at rush hours. Another likeness is the terrible noise level in the
trains. A further similarity is that the two subway systems both cover a wide
area at little expense for commuters. However, the differences between the
5 two are quite striking. While subway stations in New York range from plain
to ugly, Paris stations are generally attractive. Many of the French stations
are filled with works of art. In Paris, the subway trains are clean and they
run every few minutes. On the other hand, New York’s trains can be less
clean and reliable.

The above paragraph compares and contrasts the subways in New York
City and with those in Paris. If we transfer the passage into a note form, this
would like the following.

Subways in NY City Subways in Paris Markers

Crowded Both
Terribly noisy Another likeness
Relatively cheap A further similarity
Stations range from Stations are attractive and However
plain to ugly filled with art works
Less clean Clean While
Less reliable Run every few minutes On the other hand

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 Exercises for Tutorial Classes
(Unit 8)

Exercise 1
A. Read the following text and complete the table that follows.
Though some people may term communism and fascism as the two
sides of the same coin, they are different in their ideology and other
aspects. Communism is a socio-economic system that stands for a
Line classless, stateless and an egalitarian society. Fascism is an ideology that
5 tries to bring together radical and authoritarian nationalism. Fascism is
derived from Italian fascio, meaning bundle, whereas Communism comes
from French communisme, meaning common.
Fascism became popular between 1919 and 1945 and the term has
become an epithet for all bad things. Fascism originally referred to the
10 Fascists under Benito Mussolini. The authoritative document of Fascism is
“The Doctrine of Fascism.”
Communism became popular after the Bolshevik Revolution of
Russia in 1917. The Communist Manifesto was made by Karl Marx, and
Friedrich Engels is considered to be the bible of communism.
15 Communism stands for a stateless society where all are equal. No
one is rich or poor in a communist system. In Communism, it is the
community that holds the production and the major resources. On the
other hand, Fascism pertains to state and it considers the state on top of
everything. In fascism the state is all embracing; no human values exist
20 outside the state.

Fascism Communism
1. Communism is a socio economic
system that stands for a class less,
state less and an egalitarian society
2. 3.

Fascism originally referred to the 4.

Fascists under Benito Mussolini
5. The Communist Manifesto was
made by Karl Marx
6. 7.

Fascism pertains to state and it 8.

considers the state on top of
everything.
9. The community that holds the
production and the major resources.

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B. Answer the following questions briefly.
1. The first paragraph contains definitions. What are the terms being defined?
And what are the signal words for definitions?
2. What is the topic of the above passage?
3. Which country refers to fascism?
4. What is the holy book of communism?
5. Which ideology says that the state is above everything?

Exercise 2
A. Read the text and complete the table below.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is like a blueprint of biological guidelines
that a living organism must follow to exist and remain functional. RNA, or
ribonucleic acid, helps carry out this blueprint's guidelines. Of the two,
Line RNA is more versatile than DNA, capable of performing numerous, diverse
5 tasks in an organism, but DNA is more stable and holds more complex
information for longer periods of time.
DNA provides living organisms with guidelines—genetic information in
chromosomal DNA—that help determine the nature of an organism's
biology, how it will look and function, based on information passed down
10 from former generations through reproduction. The slow, steady changes
found in DNA over time, known as mutations, which can be destructive,
neutral, or beneficial to an organism, are at the core of the theory of
evolution.
Genes are found in small segments of long DNA strands; humans
15 have around 19,000 genes. The detailed instructions found in genes—
determined by how nucleobases in DNA are ordered—are responsible for
both the big and small differences between different living organisms and
even among similar living organisms. The genetic information in DNA is
what makes plants look like plants, dogs look like dogs, and humans look
20 like humans; it is also what prevents different species from producing
offspring (their DNA will not match up to form new, healthy life). Genetic
DNA is what leads some people to have curly, black hair and others to
have straight, blond hair.

Some Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

I. the name stands for 1.

II. more versatile

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B. Find any sub-clauses (noun, adjective, or adverb) that you can find in the
passage.

C. Indicate whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE.

1. The main idea of the above passage is the differences between DNA and
RNA.
2. The first paragraph explains what DNA and RNA are.
3. It can be inferred from Paragraph One that RNA does not have as many
functions as DNA.
4. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
5. The slow, steady changes in DNA can destroy, neutralize, and benefit an
organism.
6. We know what plant is like because of the genetic information in DNA.
7. The guidelines in DNA provide genetic information in chromosomal DNA.
8. The part of speech of the word ‘function’ in line 9 is a NOUN.
9. The word ‘which’ in line 11 refers to mutations.
10. The word ‘others’ in line 22 refers to genes.

Exercise 3
Mitosis and meiosis have different purposes, but share common features
in how they work. Mitosis allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair
damaged tissue. Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually.
Line The fundamental difference between mitosis and meiosis is that
5 mitosis produces two daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis results in four daughter cells
harboring only half of their parent's chromosomes, which underwent
recombination. Aside from these two distinct purposes, both mitosis and
meiosis occur in multiple stages during which the same general things
10 happen: DNA replication and condensation, nuclear membrane
degradation, spindle formation, chromosomal segregation and nuclear
reformation. The same mechanisms of chromosomal segregation are at
work in both mitosis and meiosis -- centrosomes, microtubules and motor
proteins.
15 Both mitosis and meiosis are multistage processes. The stages are
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The same
general processes occur in each of these stages for mitosis and meiosis.
Interphase is cell growth and DNA replication in preparation for cell
division. Prophase is when the nuclear membrane degrades. Metaphase is
20 when the chromosomes align in the middle of the cell. Anaphase is when
the chromosomes are pulled apart. Lastly, telophase is when one cell
splits into two separate cells.

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Complete the following table to show similarities and differences between mitosis
and meiosis.
Mitosis Meiosis

Purpose

Number of divisions

Number of Daughter
Cells produced

Chromosome Number

Mechanisms

Stages

Exercise 4
Read the text below and choose the best answer to each question that follows.
1)
According to researchers, two viruses cause Aids, namely HIV-1
and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the predominant virus in most parts of the world,
whereas HIV-2 is most commonly found in West Africa. These viruses
Line belong to a family called the retroviruses. They are unique viruses in that
5 they are able to insert their genetic material into the genetic material (DNA)
of cells of the person that they have infected. In this way they are able to
infect a person for the rest of that person's life. Viruses that are very
closely related to HIV are found in other primates (apes and monkeys).
These viruses are called Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses (SIV). HV-2 is
10 genetically almost indistinguishable from the SIV found in sooty
mangabeys. A very close genetic relative of HIV-1 has been found in
chimpanzees. Therefore, most scientists accept that the human immune-
deficiency viruses are recently derived from these primate viruses. The
earliest human blood sample found to contain HIV dates from 1959; this
15 sample was collected in Central Africa.
2)
Based on molecular technology and the use of large computer
programs, scientists have been able to trace back the genetic origins of
HIV-1 and HIV-2 and roughly pinpoint the time when these viruses first
appeared in humans. The current theory is that sometime between 1930
20 and 1940 there was a "species-jump" of certain SIV's into human
populations, probably through the practice of slaughtering, preparing and
consuming of "bush meat" from monkeys in parts of Central and West
Africa.

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 3)
HIV is not as contagious as is often believed. The virus does not
25 survive long outside the body and can only be transmitted through the
direct exchange of certain body fluids such as blood, semen and vaginal
fluid. The virus can gain access to the body at its moist surfaces ("mucous
membranes") during sex, or through direct injection into the blood stream.
Sex is the major mode of transmission of HIV worldwide.

1. What is the best title for the passage above?

A. How Aids are transmitted. C. Where Aids come from.
B. The two viruses that cause Aids. D. The most dangerous viruses.
2. Which of the following is NOT true about HIV-2?
A. It is mostly found in West Africa. C. It belongs to retroviruses family.
B. It is dominant all over the world. D. It is unique.
3. According to the text, SIV found in sooty mangabeys is similar to …..
A. HV-2 B. HV-1 C. apes D. monkeys
4. The first sample of human blood containing HIV was found in …..
A. Central Africa B. West Africa C. chimpanzees D. monkeys
5. The passage mentions the means of transmitting HIV through these
fluids, except ……
A. blood B. vaginal fluid C. semen D. water
6. The synonym of the word ‘contagious’ in line 24 is probably……
A. dangerous B. infectious C. famous D. serious
7. It can be inferred from Paragraph 3 that……
A. HIV cannot infect other people.
B. We can share food and drink with an HIV patient.
C. HIV victims cannot be cured.
D. HIV can only survive in a fluid.
8. The first sentence of Paragraph 3 is a statement of ……
A. Opinion B. Fact
9. Information about the first human blood containing HIV can be found in
…..
A. Lines 7-8 B. Lines 13-15 C. Lines 16-19 D. Lines 24-27
10. The last paragraph is mainly talking about ……
A. how HIV is transmitted
B. how to prevent HIV
C. what causes HIV
D. why HIV cannot survive outside the body

Exercise 5
1)
World War I was a direct result of a tangled system of secret
alliances. Beginning after the unification of Germany in 1871, many
European nations began secretly allying themselves with each other.
Line Starting with the Dual Alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany in
5 1879, the nations of Europe allied themselves in mutual protection pacts in
such a way that if any one nation became the target of aggression, all of
Europe would be pulled into war. That act of aggression occurred in
Bosnia in 1914 when a young Serb, Gavrilo Princip, assassinated

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 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-
10 Hungary declared war on the nation of Serbia soon after. Within a year,
Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy had allied themselves against France,
Britain, Russia and the Ottoman Empire.
2)
The after-effects of the war are numerous. Four empires
disappeared: Austria-Hungary, the Ottomans, Germany and Russia. Four
15 age-old royal lines were shattered: the Hapsburgs, Romanov’s,
Hohenzollerens and the Ottman Turks. Of the 60 million soldiers mobilized
during the war, 8 million were dead, 7 million were disabled in some way
and 15 million were seriously injured. 15% of German’s men aged 18-40
were gone, as were 17% of Austria-Hungary. A global famine also came
20 after the war, killing 100,000 people in Lebanon and 10 million in Russia!
One of the most important effects was that Germany was saddled with a
huge war debt that bankrupted the nation and provided fertile ground for
the rise of Hitler and the Nazi's, so one could argue World War I caused
World War II.

A. Choose the best answer to each question.

1. What is the topic sentence of Paragraph 1?

A. The first sentence C. The third sentence
B. The second sentence D. The last sentence

2. The controlling idea of the topic sentence of the first paragraph is ……

A. a tangled system of secret alliances
B. secretly allying themselves with each other
C. mutual protection pacts
D. heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne

3. The text organization of the first paragraph is ……

A. process B. cause-effect C. comparison D. contrast

4. The signal words to support the above text organization are ……

A. a way B. when C. soon after D. each other

5. The controlling idea the second paragraph is ……

A. after-effects B. are C. the war D. numerous

6. With which country did Germany ally in 1879?

A. Austria-Hungary B. France C. Britain D. Russia

7. Which sentence from Paragraph One contains an adverb clause?

A. The first sentence C. The third sentence
B. The second sentence D. The last sentence

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B. Complete the following table with the information from Paragraph 1.

Causes Effects Markers

any one nation became the 1. If

target of aggression

2. Austria-Hungary declared war 3.

on the nation of Serbia soon
after

C. Complete the following table with the information from Paragraph 2.

Causes Effects

World War 1 1.

2.

Of 60 million 1. 8 million were dead

soldiers
mobilized
during the war
2.

3.

4. 15% of German’s men aged 18-40 were gone

5.

Global famine 1.

2.

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