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Teachers as Leaders
Article in The Educational Forum · June 2005
DOI: 10.1080/00131720508984679
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Teachers as Leaders
by Ann Lieberman and Lynne Miller
Educators in the United States are being asked to do more with less: school
budgets are shrinking, principals are struggling to be instructional leaders in the
face of huge management issues, and teachers are trying to meet the needs of in-
creasingly diverse students at a time when a standardized, one-size-fits-all curricu-
lum is mandated. The tenor of schools and classrooms is one of anxiety, stress, and
confusion, and at its worst, hopelessness. Why is this happening? What is going on
in the world that is affecting schools, teaching, and learning in such profound ways?
Changes in the World
Giddens (2002) wrote persuasively about how basic changes create tensions between
fundamentalism and cosmopolitanism. As communities and nations encounter economic
and social changes, there is conflict between those who believe in a set of unchanging rules
about how the world was created and how life should be lived, and those who believe that
change brings diversity and offers opportunities for variety and improvement. For example,
in the United States and the rest of the world, family structures are in flux. Alternative family
structures are challenging long-held beliefs about the nuclear family as the model of how
children should be raised in industrialized countries: who can raise them, and where and at
what age their education and upbringing should to take place. Conventional roles are being
altered, if not reversed. Grandparents are often primary caretakers; same sex partners are
increasingly parenting the young; and women are working in high-powered positions while
more men are becoming homemakers. Such changes threaten the world that many adults
know and lead them to take opposing views on how to deal with the new realities.
Changes in the Economy
Globalization is the word of the day, and the economy is the sector of society most
immediately affected. The emerging economy demands a new view of work and career.
Instead of holding a job for life, workers are expected to change jobs and careers and to
The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005 • 151
Lieberman and Miller
switch loyalties several times in their lives (Mazar 1999, 19). There will continue to be a
decline in the need for manual laborers and an expansion in the demand for knowledge
workers. A high school diploma will no longer be a guarantee of a job or a career;
postsecondary education will become a necessity for all.
Schools must adapt to the changing economy if they are to educate a citizenry pre-
pared for the future. People used to go to school because the knowledge was there. Now,
however, school is losing its monopoly on learning. Online courses and virtual schools
make education accessible from one’s living room. Public schools must make the case
that they are the institutions best situated to teach students to think critically, evaluate
information, and participate as full citizens in a democracy.
Changes in Government and Public Life
Globalization also is having powerful effects on government and public life. The
language of the corporate and private sector ethos in the public domain has led to a
view that government is the purchaser, rather than the provider, of direct services. This
has affected the changing norms of public responsibility, evident in decreased public
engagement, lower voter turnout, calls to reduce taxes, and a shift in responsibility be-
tween the state and family in meeting the needs of the young.
Schools are feeling pressure to shift from public to private sector norms. Standard-
ized assessments and top-down accountability systems are forcing public education to
pay more attention to test scores, which can be tallied, than to the cultivation of learning,
which is not so amenable to measurement. Charter schools, magnet schools, home school-
ing, and vouchers are part of the agenda to reduce the role of government in what tradi-
tionally has been part of the public sphere. Schools must figure out how to serve a public
mission in a world of increasing privatization.
Changes in Demographics
Along with an aging adult population that is gearing up for retirement, the United
States is facing two consecutive baby boomlets that will bring a flood of children into
school. Competition for resources is inevitable. Many of these children will be poor,
come from diverse countries and ethnic groups, represent different language and cul-
tures, and enter schools with unequal social capital.
The face of the teaching force also is changing. For the first time in American history,
the number of teachers leaving the profession exceeds those who are entering. Retire-
ments are greater than expected, and new teachers are leaving in great numbers. Under
new federal legislation, all teachers must meet rigorous standards to be highly qualified.
This requirement, along with simultaneous shifts in student and teacher demographics, cre-
ates unprecedented pressure to recruit, retain, and support new teachers.
The Case for Teacher Leadership
How do schools respond to these changes? As always, there are diverse reac-
tions. The first is what Hargreaves (2003) considered a fundamentalist stance. It sup-
ports standardization, accountability, and assessment and leads to policies that hold
152 • The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005
Essays
schools accountable for meeting externally mandated standards of student achieve-
ment. This stance also views teaching as technical and managed work that requires
close supervision and a system of externally determined and administered rewards
and sanctions.
The second response is a
cosmopolitan rejoinder. It sup-
Teaching is regarded as highly
ports policies that enable good
practice rather than prescribe it;
recognize the knowledge, skills,
and abilities of teachers; and intellectual work, grounded in
provide incentives to increase
their knowledge. Teaching is re-
professional communities where
garded as highly intellectual teachers assume responsibility for
work, grounded in professional
communities where teachers as- the learning of their students and
sume responsibility for the ofoneanother.
learning of their students and of
one another (Lieberman and
Miller 1992). Under this inter-
pretation, teachers assume roles
as researchers, mentors, scholars, and developers; they expand the meaning of what it
means to be a teacher. They are leaders and intellectuals who can make a difference in
their schools and profession.
We clearly advocate the cosmopolitan response: the building of capacity to trans-
form schooling. One essential element of such a transformation is the development, sup-
port, and nurturance of teachers who assume leadership in their schools. Teachers who
formally or informally acquire leadership positions can help make change happen. Among
the many roles and responsibilities they can assume, three appear critical:
• Advocates for new forms of accountability and assessment. Teacher leaders can chal-
lenge the dominance of tests as the sole criterion for success and offer alternatives
to the current models of efficiency and accountability.
• Innovators in the reconstruction of achievement norms and student expectations. Teacher
leaders can help schools become communities that prepare students to participate
in the new knowledge society. They can influence the organizational practices of
schools and work toward distributing resources equitably, upholding high stan-
dards, and giving all students a variety of opportunities to learn and participate in
their schools.
• Stewards for an invigorated profession. Teacher leaders can promote a profession that
views itself as an intellectual and collective enterprise. They can advocate for the
recognition of teaching accomplishments and for a redefinition of teacher roles.
Learning from Research
The literature on teacher leadership began with empirical studies of individual teach-
ers and organizational realities. Attention has shifted to how teachers learn in practice to
The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005 • 153
Lieberman and Miller
become teacher leaders and to understanding the broad conceptions of the role and its
potential to help reshape school culture.
Individual Teacher Leader Roles and Organizational Realities
These are empirical studies of teacher leadership roles in a variety of contexts, the
skills that are required, and how teacher leaders position themselves to earn legitimacy
in school bureaucracies.
• Miles, Saxl, and Lieberman (1988) identified the skills that teacher leaders need:
building trust and rapport, making organizational diagnoses, using resources, man-
aging work, and building skill and confidence in others.
• Wasley (1991) uncovered the difficulties three teacher leaders encountered in work-
ing in bureaucratic systems and assuming new roles, the resistance they faced
from peers, and the support they required.
• Smylie and Denny (1990) reported on 13 teacher leaders and detailed their uncer-
tainties about their roles, tensions around time and divided responsibilities, and
the frequent mismatch between their expectations and those of the principal.
• Little (1995) introduced the idea of “contested ground,” or how teachers were
caught between strategies of commitment and control, and detailed how teachers
granted warrants of leadership to those who demonstrated subject matter exper-
tise.
• Bartlett (2001) illustrated how the absence of appropriate structures and culture
made it difficult for teacher leaders to balance reasonable personal and profes-
sional lives.
• Little and Bartlett (2002) introduced the notion of the “Huberman Paradox,” which
suggests that while teacher leadership work can be stimulating, it also can be en-
ervating and ultimately lead to burnout, disaffection, and conflict.
• Spillane, Hallett, and Diamond (2003) found that teacher leaders were awarded
legitimacy from their peers based on interactions and subject matter expertise,
and accumulated cultural, social, and human capital within the faculty.
• Miller and O’Shea (1992) interviewed four informal teacher leaders in an elemen-
tary school and identified four warrants for leadership: experience, knowledge,
vision, and respect for children.
Learning in Practice
The literature included here is grounded in professions outside of education. The
idea of learning in practice (Gawande 2002, 18) was expressed by a young surgeon:
In surgery, as in anything else, skill and confidence are learned through experi-
ence—haltingly and humiliatingly. Like the tennis player and the oboist and the guy
who fixes hard drives, we need practice to get good at what we do . . . we want
perfection without practice . . . learning is hidden behind drapes and anesthesia, and
the elisions of language.
The literature on professional learning develops theoretical foundations rather than
descriptions of practice. It begins with the observation that professionals learn by actu-
ally doing the work and reflecting on it.
154 • The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005
Essays
• Schön (1983) laid the foundation for understanding learning in practice when he
coined the term “reflective practice” as a starting point for developing a learning
theory in professions. According to Schön (1983), learning takes place on the job
where people develop theories in use derived from practicing their craft. Schön
opened the door for educational researchers to examine the development of teach-
ers’ learning and to explore the connections between learning and context.
• Lave and Wenger’s (1991) and Wenger’s (1998) social theory of learning was
grounded in four processes: learning, meaning, community, and identity. They
viewed learning as social
and collective—coming
about through social par-
ticipation in communities
Teachers who formally or
of practice where people
feel a sense of belonging
and a need to make a con-
tribution. informally acquire leadership
• Hargreaves (2003) cau-
tioned against false com-
positions can help make change
munities of practice that happen.
value results over process
and view learning as
transfer rather than mak-
ing meaning and identity.
Such approaches promote
standardized scripts and externally imposed rules and regulations. These prac-
tices run counter to the joint construction of knowledge, learning, and authority.
Broadened Conceptions of the Teacher Leader Role
The third body of literature explored broadened conceptions of teacher leadership
and described the development of professional communities where teacher leaders have
the opportunity to reshape school culture.
• Fullan’s (1994) conception of teacher leadership lifted the burden of leadership
from individuals and distributed it throughout the community. By identifying six
domains where teacher leaders could impact school culture (teaching and learn-
ing, collegiality, context, continuous learning, management of change, and sense
of moral purpose), he laid the groundwork for teachers to assume a broader role
in culture building.
• Lambert’s (2003, 13) advocated seeing teacher leadership as “performing ac-
tions . . . that enabled participants in a community to evoke potential in a trusting
environment, to inquire into practice, to focus on constructing meaning, or to frame
actions based on new behaviors and purposeful intentions.”
• McLaughlin and Talbert (1993) observed secondary schools over five years to
understand how professional communities that nurture teacher leadership de-
velop. They documented how these communities took form when teachers
talked openly about their problems, discussed changes in curricular and peda-
gogical approaches together, taught one another different practices, and
The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005 • 155
Lieberman and Miller
committed themselves to collective discussion and action.
• Little (1990) studied how teachers moved from individualism to colleagueship.
She developed a continuum that moves from storytelling and scanning (occasional
opportunistic contacts), to aid and assistance (giving help and advice), to sharing
(exchanging materials, strategies, and ideas), and finally to joint work (collective
action based on shared responsibility).
• Westheimer (1998) found that community involves interaction and participation,
interdependence, shared interests and beliefs, concern for minority views, and
meaningful relationships. His study concluded that professional communities differ
in their cultural commitment to participation, shared visions, and ways of work-
ing together.
• Grossman, Wineburg, and Woolworth (2001) documented the development of a
community among English and social studies teachers in a large secondary school
They (2001, 3) noted the “inevi-
table conflicts of social relation-
ships, and formed structures
that sustain relationships over
time” and described conflicts
In the current era, change that due to differences in disci-
plines, gender, and race, as
calls for the development of well as the difficulties of work-
ing together.
professional communities and the
emergence of teacher leadership The idea of teacher lead-
ership has grown in sophisti-
may be even more difficult to cation and complexity. The
studies reviewed here dem-
achieve and maintain. onstrate an unfolding of de-
scriptions, interpretations,
and theories that began with
stories of individual leaders
striving to “make a dent” in
the school organization,
moved on to analyses of how new organizational roles were learned and enacted,
and culminated in new conceptions of the role and its possibilities. The research
provides a foundation for understanding the power, promise, and perplexities of
teacher leadership.
Leading from the Classroom
Teacher leadership often comes from classroom teaching. Yvonne Divans-
Hutchinson, who teaches English to a minority population at King/Drew Magnet
School for Medicine and Science in Los Angeles, is an example. Hutchinson is a gifted
classroom teacher who is an active member of the National Writing Project (NWP)
and a National Board Certified teacher. She is part of a literacy cadre and coordi-
nates teachers, from across the disciplines, who are interested in literacy develop-
ment. A resource teacher in her district, she also serves as a curriculum coordinator,
156 • The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005
Essays
literacy coach, and cochair of the English department. Last year, she conducted staff
development in her school and was an official mentor for new teachers. She was a
member of the second cohort of the Carnegie Scholars and recently served as a Na-
tional Board scholar and an instructor at UCLA and for the Los Angeles Unified
School District.
Learning to Lead
Hutchinson’s leadership journey began when she joined the NWP, a network
that combines professional de-
velopment for literacy instruc-
tion with opportunities for
building teacher leadership.
The project is an exemplar of
the community of practice that
Lave and Wenger (1991) de-
Teachers,likestudents,need
scribed in their work. opportunities to engage actively
in their own learning, rather
Leading from Classroom
Practice than being told what to do.
Hutchinson’s leadership is
coupled with her commitment
to student learning, participa-
tion, and overall development.
She never leaves the role of
teacher behind; she takes it with her when she organizes, mentors, and engages other
teachers. Her leadership practices with adults reflect her beliefs about teaching, her
embracement of difference, and her growing confidence and willingness to go pub-
lic about her practice. She views leadership in the same way she views teaching—
not as handing down information, but creating a circle of people who share and
learn from one another. Her approach is to model participation, build habits of mind,
and support people in becoming apprentices to their own learning. She often shows
her colleagues how she teaches—how she engages students in varied learning ac-
tivities, how she encourages the development of their voice, and how she places
student work at the center of her teaching. By demonstration rather than remonstra-
tion, others see that it is possible for all students to achieve.
She engages teachers in conversations about their practice to help them better un-
derstand their motivations and commitments to their students. She encourages teachers
to talk about their work and build new strategies that enlarge and deepen their reper-
toire. Hutchinson understands that teachers, like students, need opportunities to en-
gage actively in their own learning, rather than being told what to do. She asks teachers
to use the new and nuanced ideas they learn from one other to build upon what they
know about their own teaching.
Hutchinson understands that in leadership, as in classroom teaching, she has to
vary approaches for different audiences. Those new to the profession have different
The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005 • 157
Lieberman and Miller
needs than veterans. Novice teachers are more open and appreciative of opportuni-
ties to learn how to engage their students. As students of their own practice, they are
more deferential and tentative, but seem eager to do well and join in the collegial
conversation.
Veteran teachers approach new ideas in different ways. Because they already have a
repertoire of strategies, their interest lies in refining or adding to it. Veteran teachers
start with “What else can I do? I tried this and it didn’t work.” Hutchinson encourages
teachers to work together to share what they have developed. As teachers engage in
conversations, they replace negative attitudes toward students with strategies for en-
gagement and participation.
Hutchinson takes her own learning seriously. She is supported by colleagues who
meet regularly to inspire one another with success stories, swap ideas, and figure out
how to fix the trouble spots in their teaching. For further support, Hutchinson has sev-
eral close friends who share stories about happenings in their classrooms. They provide
mutual support, friendship, and guidance through the complexities of their teaching
lives because they are connected by close friendship, respect for one another, and a love
of teaching.
A major aspect of Hutchinson’s persona and one that distinguishes her as a teacher
leader is her willingness and courage to go public with her work and to encourage other
teachers to do so. Her Web site, A Friend of Their Minds: Capitalizing on the Oral Tradition of My
African-American Students (2003), reflects her love of literature and her belief in humanity.
Through this Web site, Hutchinson opens her classroom and her teaching to a wide
audience. The site includes teacher narratives about thinking with text and question-
answer relationships, four videos, and strategies for promoting literate discourse. The
Web site is a revelation of how a teacher thinks, plans, revises, and reflects. It demon-
strates the confidence, competence, and commitment of an individual who models what
she espouses as a teacher and as a leader.
In her leadership work, Hutchinson shows rather than tells, respects rather than
prescribes, and engages in authentic conversation rather than lectures. Hutchinson finds
ways for teachers to contribute to their own work and that of their colleagues. These are
the same values that drive her classroom instruction.
Leading in the ‘Middle Space’
The classroom is but one venue for teacher leadership. Another is what David Galen
calls the “middle space” between teachers and administrators. Galen serves in the hy-
brid role of Coordinator of Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment in Falmouth, Maine.
He leads the district’s efforts to comply with Maine’s Learning Results and local assess-
ment system rules and laws. He facilitates National Board Certification for district teachers
and works closely with school administrators to create and sustain internal conditions
that support teacher leadership, learning, and student success in the face of external
expectations.
158 • The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005
Essays
Learning to Lead
Galen credits two experiences as pivotal in his formation as a teacher leader. One
was the influence of a principal who assigned him leadership responsibility in curricu-
lum development and technology. The second influence was his participation in Leader-
ship for Tomorrow’s Schools
(LTS), a two-year program
whose premise is that districts
can grow their own leaders in
collaboration with responsive
university faculty. Like NWP,
LTS establishes a community of
Teacher leaders inquire into
practice in which participants their own practice and, in so
learn by doing in the company
of their peers.
doing, become articulate about
learning, teaching, and
LTS provides participants
with access to a community of
modeling lifelong learning.
school leaders by engaging them
in the practice of leadership—
first in peripheral ways and ul-
timately as full participants in
district work. Participants have the opportunity to rehearse leadership roles, take risks
with support and guidance, and shape their identities as leaders. In the process, they
help their districts improve and change. Galen reflected on the experience:
Being exposed to others who had experience as teacher leaders helped me figure
out the structures that allow teacher leadership to be effective. Everything from
running a good meeting to doing advance work with skeptics became part of being
effective. The experience has made a huge difference in my life. Most important has
been having the opportunity to share assumptions, developing a common language,
being involved in joint inquiry, finding a direction for my work, learning to craft a
framework from shared learning, and seeing how to use existing resources to build
capacity to get district work done.
Leading from the ‘Middle Space’
Galen spent 10 years as a classroom teacher before he assumed the role of teacher
leader. At first, he thought the new role would make him look more like an administra-
tor than a teacher. He found, however, that the position planted him even more firmly as
a teacher—this time as a teacher of adults.
Galen’s leadership work is varied. He coordinates state and federal grants
and oversees district professional development for administrators as well as
teachers. He leads K–12 curriculum development and curriculum mapping and
works closely with teacher leaders on a stipend. He also helped create leader-
ship teams in the elementary schools, which allowed teachers to take responsibility
for math and language arts at grades K–2 and grades 3–4. His most important re-
The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005 • 159
Lieberman and Miller
sponsibilities are in local assessment development and facilitation of National Board
Certification processes.
Galen is in charge of align-
ing all district curriculum and
developing assessment with
state requirements. This is a
When teachers lead, they difficult and complex task that
requires expertise and techni-
help to create an environment cal skills exceeding those of
most teachers. Galen sees his
for learning that has influence role as being a translator. By
throughout the school inviting, mediating, and guid-
ing teacher involvement, he
community and affects students has made difficult work easier
to understand and manage.
and teachers alike. Galen, however, does not view
this effort as representative of
what he thinks teacher leader-
ship should be about. He wor-
ries that by being a translator,
he keeps people from owning
the assessment work which leads to people losing their passion. His investment in
leadership lies elsewhere.
Galen is in charge of all district professional development, and he elected to under-
stand the National Board of Professional Teaching Standards certification process. He
attended a training session where he learned what the standards entailed, what the cer-
tification process required, and how to work effectively with teachers toward demon-
stration. Galen considers this work to be an empowering form of teacher leadership. He
said, “Teachers look at their practice and improve. There is no other supervision/profes-
sional development model I’ve seen that gets people to improve their practice to the
same degree.”
Galen’s vision of teacher leadership has deepened over time. He sees teacher
leadership as helping teachers make the transition from looking at curriculum and
textbooks to looking at student work and teacher practice. Teacher leadership has
moved from telling stories and relating anecdotes to looking at data and using them
to make decisions about teaching and learning. Galen believes that for teacher lead-
ership to be successful, it must have an infrastructure and investment at the district
level. These conditions for success became apparent to him in the LTS program where
he saw a clear distinction between participants from districts that had made an in-
vestment in teacher leadership and those that had not.
Galen has come to view teacher leadership as a necessary, but not sufficient, element
in school transformation. He said:
160 • The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005
Essays
Unless you have teacher leadership and strong administrative leadership, you
don’t get to transformation. Teachers and administrators often get into ‘learned
powerlessness,’ especially when it comes to standards. When a new paradigm is
introduced, the default is the known; the instinct is to recreate the second grade
classroom you experienced. It is up to both teacher and administrative leaders to create
the conditions that push the conversation beyond blame and helplessness, to create a
tone. We’re smart enough to make good choices for us and for our students.
Teacher Leadership: From Practice to Theory
This paper provides a rationale for teacher leadership as a cosmopolitan response to
changes in the world and in schools and demonstrates the realities of teacher leadership
being enacted in practice. In studying teacher leaders, the following understandings
about their work emerge:
• Teacher leaders inquire into their own practice and, in so doing, become articulate
about learning, teaching, and modeling lifelong learning.
• Teacher leaders “go public” with their understandings about students, learning,
and teaching, thereby influencing other teachers and impacting the culture of their
schools.
• Teacher leaders find and invent opportunities to lead and to maintain connections
to classroom practice.
• Teacher leaders learn to lead in communities of practice that promote colleagueship
and support risk-taking and experimentation.
• Teacher leaders reproduce these communities of practice when they work with nov-
ice and veteran teachers and create safe environments for professional learning.
• Teacher leaders are sensitive to context and culture; they know that different con-
texts and populations require different approaches to leadership. As in teaching,
one size does not fit all.
• When teachers lead, they help to create an environment for learning that has
influence throughout the school community and affects students and teachers
alike.
This is not to say that being a teacher leader is easy or that teacher leadership is
fully integrated into the teaching culture. Nor can we gloss over the difficulties that
await professionals who seek to change the concept of what it means to be a teacher.
Change is always accompanied by conflict, disequilibrium, and confusion. In the
current era, shaped as it is by dramatic changes in the world and dominated by a
push toward accountability and standardization, change that calls for the develop-
ment of professional communities and the emergence of teacher leadership may be
even more difficult to achieve and maintain. Despite all this, our studies of teacher
leaders imbue us with hope. They help envision a future in which teachers lean to-
ward more democratic and enlightened schooling. The teacher leaders we have come
to know are committed for the long-term. They do not intend to give up on their
students or one another. They plan to continue to assume responsibility for deepen-
ing their own practice and that of their colleagues. They are determined to become
the architects of vibrant professional communities in which teachers take the lead in
inventing new possibilities for their students and for themselves.
The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005 • 161
Lieberman and Miller
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Ann Lieberman is a Senior Scholar with the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching. Her interests include teacher leadership and development, collaborative research,
networks and university partnerships, and the problems and prospects for understanding
educational change. Her books include The International Handbook on Educational
Change (1998) and Teachers Transforming Their World and Their Work (1999).
Lieberman is a member of Kappa Delta Pi’s Laureate Chapter.
Lynne Miller is Professor of Education and Co-Executive Director of the Southern Maine
Partnership at the University of Southern Maine. Her work focuses on ensuring rigor, equity,
and personalization for students and quality professional learning for educators.
162 • The Educational Forum • Volume 69 • Winter 2005
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