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Programming Paradigms CSI2120: Jochen Lang EECS, University of Ottawa Canada

1) Prolog can efficiently manage databases by representing entities as facts and structures. Rules can be dynamically added, removed, and inspected. 2) Examples demonstrate representing a library database with books, borrowers, and loans as facts and querying the data. 3) Dynamic rules allow adding and removing rules during execution, while listing and telling/told allow inspecting and saving the current rule set.

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57 views

Programming Paradigms CSI2120: Jochen Lang EECS, University of Ottawa Canada

1) Prolog can efficiently manage databases by representing entities as facts and structures. Rules can be dynamically added, removed, and inspected. 2) Examples demonstrate representing a library database with books, borrowers, and loans as facts and querying the data. 3) Dynamic rules allow adding and removing rules during execution, while listing and telling/told allow inspecting and saving the current rule set.

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© © All Rights Reserved
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Programming

Paradigms CSI2120

Jochen Lang
EECS, University of Ottawa
Canada
Logic Programming in Prolog

• Databases
• Managing the Prolog database of rules
– Dynamic rules
– Adding rules
– Removing rules
– Inspecting rules

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Organizing the Database: Composite
Terms
• Predicate student
– student(jim, white, 17, main, ottawa, ontario, 10, 12, 83, ...)
• which says that there is a student named Jim White who lives at 17
Main in Ottawa, Ontario born on October 12th, 1983.
• Better by a combination of terms
– student(name(john, white), address(17, main, ottawa, ontario), born(10, 12,
83), ...)
• Flexible queries to the database
?- student(name(john,_), X, born(_, _, Y)).
?- student(X, address(_, _, _, quebec), _).
?- student(X, address(_, _, ottawa, _), born(_, _, Y)), Y>87.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Databases in Prolog

• Prolog can be very efficient when it comes to managing a


database
– Each of the entities are represented using facts
– Using structures, lists.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Example: Library

• A record of a book has a call number of the library. A book


record stores the location, title and authors.
book(callNum(qa76, '73P76C57', 2003),
location( mrt, general ),
['Programming' , in, 'Prolog' ],
[name( clocksin, [william, f] ),
name( mellish, [christopher, s] )]).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Borrowers

• A user record for the library contains the user’s name, an


identifier, an address and number of books currently taken
out.
reader(name(blake, [ann]), 33333,
address([100, main], ottawa, k1a2b2),3).
reader(name(brady,[jim,b]), 12345,
address([2, second], ottawa, k1n3m3),0).
reader(name(carp,[tony,a]), 765432,
address([3, third], ottawa, k1k4p4),0).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Records of Books on Loan

loan(33333,
callNum(qa76, '73P76C57', 2003),
date(mar, 25, 2019)).
loan(765432,
callNum(q336, 'B74', 2001),
date(apr, 20, 2019)).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Query if a Book is Available

?- book(callNum(X, Y, 1994), Location, Title,


Authors),\+ loan(_,callNum(X, Y, 1994), _).
X = qa76,
Y = '73P76S74',
Location = location(mrt, general),
Title = ['The', art, of, 'Prolog', :, advanced,
programming, techniques],
Authors = [name(sterling, [leon]),
name(shapiro, [ehud, y])]

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Relationships

• Looking for books by a given author (by last name)


wrote(Auth, CallN, Title) :-
book(CallN, _, Title, Authors),
member(name(Auth,_), Authors).
• Seeing if a book is available
borrowed(Name, Title) :-
reader(Name, Id, _Addr, _),
loan(Id, CallN, _DateDue),
book(CallN, _, Title, _Auths).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Managing Loans – Dynamic Rules

• Define a predicate as dynamic


:- dynamic book/4, reader/4, loan/3.
– New rules can be added to the Prolog database with assert
• assertz adds the clause at the end of the predicate
• asserta adds the clause at the beginning of the predicate
newLoan(Cn, Id, Due) :-
assertz(loan(Id, Cn, Due)).
• Example: New loan adds a record
?- newLoan(callNum(qa76, '73P76S74', 1994),
12345,
date(jun, 15, 2019)).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Managing Loans – Dynamic Rules II

• Rules can be removed from the Prolog database with


retract
• Example: Returning a book
– retracting the loan
– correcting the borrower record
returns(Id, Cn) :-
retract(loan(Id, Cn, _Due)),
retract(reader(Nm, Id, A, N)),
N1 is N - 1, % loan was retracted
assertz(reader(Nm, Id, A, N1)).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Inspecting the Database

• Rules can be listed with listing\0 and listing\1


?- listing(loan).
:- dynamic loan/3.
loan(33333, callNum(qa76, '73P76C57', 2003), date(mar, 25, 2019)).
loan(765432, callNum(q336, 'B74', 2001), date(apr, 20, 2019)).
loan(12345, callNum(qa76, '73P76S74', 1994), date(jun, 15, 2019)).
true.

?- returns( 33333, X ).
X = callNum(qa76, '73P76C57', 2003).

?- listing(loan).
:- dynamic loan/3.
loan(765432, callNum(q336, 'B74', 2001), date(apr, 20, 2019)).
loan(12345, callNum(qa76, '73P76S74', 1994), date(jun, 15, 2019)).
true.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Storing Information in the Database

• Dynamic informs the interpreter that the definition of a


predicate may change during execution
– The predicate assert can be used to store solutions
– Warning: assert can lead to strange effects
– A false relationship can become true at a later time.
– Example:
?- solve(problem, solution).
false.
?- assertz(solve(problem,solution)).
true.
?- solve(problem, solution).
true.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Generating Facts

• Multiplication table
– add a product fact for the multiplication table to 9 if
maketable was used.
maketable :- L=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9],
member(X,L),
member(Y,L),
Z is X*Y,
assertz(product(X,Y,Z)),
fail.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Another Example: Alphabet Position
:- dynamic letter/2.

alphabet([a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z]).

% add a rule for each letter queried


letter(A, B):-
alphabet(C),
letter(A, C, B),
asserta(letter(A,B)). % Add a new fact

letter(A, [A|_], 1). % boundary case, letter matches

letter(A, [B|C], D):-


\+(A=B), % letter does not match, keep searching
letter(A, C, E),
D is E+1. % Count on the way out of the recursion

?- letter(h,X).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


More on Dynamic Predicates

• All rules of a dynamic predicate can be queried


:- dynamic a/2.
a(1,2).
a(3,4).
a(X,Y):- b(X), b(Y).

?- clause(a(X,Y),B).
X = 1,
Y = 2,
B = true ;
X = 3,
Y = 4,
B = true ;
B = (b(X), b(Y)).

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Dynamic Predicates - Removing Rules
?- listing(a).
:- dynamic a/2.
a(1, 2).
a(3, 4).
a(A, B) :- b(A), b(B).
true.

?- retract((a(A,B):-b(A),b(B))).
true.

?- listing(a).
:- dynamic a/2.
a(1, 2).
a(3, 4).
true.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Remove all rules of a predicate

?- retractall(a(X,Y)).
true.

?- listing(a).
:- dynamic a/2.
true.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Saving the Current Rules

• Change the output stream to a file


?- tell(‘cache.pl').
true.
• Use listing to list all currently existing facts and rules
?- listing.
true.
• Back to the console (file is closed)
?- told.
true.

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Implementing findall Ourselves

find_all(X,Goal,Bag) :- post_it(X,Goal),
gather([],Bag).
post_it(X,Goal) :- call(Goal), % try Goal
asserta(data999(X)), % assert above others
fail. % force backtracking
post_it(_,_). % Done, no more solutions
gather(B,Bag) :-
data999(X), % next recorded solution
retract(data999(X)), % erase posting
gather([X|B],Bag), % continue
!. % cut off tail end
gather(S,S). % Done

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms


Summary

• Databases
• Managing the Prolog database of rules
– Dynamic rules
– Adding, removing, inspecting and saving rules
• Detailed examples
– Library
– Adventure
– An implementation of findall

CSI2120: Programming Paradigms

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