Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

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Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/segan

Harmonics assessment and mitigation in a photovoltaic integrated

network
∗
Arangarajan Vinayagam a , Asma Aziz b , , Balasubramaniyam PM a , Jaideep Chandran c ,
Veerapandiyan Veerasamy d , Ameen Gargoom b
a
Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India
b
Deakin University, Australia
c
Swinburne University, School of Software and Electrical Engineering, Australia
d
University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a comprehensive review of harmonics dominance in PV integrated network.
Received 3 July 2019 The findings of the review conducted for different scenarios are further supported by the results
Received in revised form 30 August 2019 of an experimental case study exploring the dominance of harmonics in a real time PV integrated
Accepted 25 September 2019
microgrid under varying solar irradiance condition. It is concluded that the level of Total Harmonic
Available online 3 October 2019
Distortions (THD) in the power system network varies in different scenarios. Some of the important
Keywords: scenarios are: (i) percentage of PV penetration in distribution network with respect to the types of
Total harmonic distortion (THD) connected load, (ii) location of PV integration, (iii) effect of harmonic resonance in power network,
Photovoltaic (PV) and (iv) varying power output of PV inverters with varying solar irradiance. A harmonic management
Harmonic resonance system is finally proposed to limit the excessive harmonics in the network under different network
Microgrid (MG)
conditions. The proposed harmonic management can be used to maintain the THD level within the
Solar irradiance
standard limit and ensures the quality of energy supply to the communities.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The rapid change in generation mix has implications for the
whole interconnected system designs, its operational strategies
Power systems around the world are undergoing the con- and the regulatory framework. Now that the solar PV systems are
tinuous shift from centrally dispatched large-scale synchronous being interconnected with grid as distributed system as well as
generation towards grids incorporating intermittent distributed centralized power stations, they have a definite role to play in
generation. Growth in large scale and small scale solar technology future smart grids. Large scale integration of power electronics
has placed solar energy generation technology as the genuine based PV system into the distribution network creates additional
leading renewable energy contender in the energy mix. According technical challenges in terms of maintaining the power quality
to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the total installed ca- (PQ) [4–13]. Harmonic distortion attracts wide research interest
pacity of solar PV at the end of 2016 was around 328 TWh and at as a common problem in the performance and operation of the
the end of 2017 was around 460 TWh [1]. In Australia, around 0.8 distribution networks [14], mainly due to the presence of non-
percent of overall electricity generation amounting to 1875 GW linear power electronics based components and loads [15,16].
was provided by large-scale solar generation while 4.2 per cent of A non-sinusoidal wave form of alternating components (voltage
the Australia’s total electricity was provided by small scale solar and current) which has frequencies that is an integral multiple of
in 2018 [2]. Rising awareness of solar technology’s potential to the fundamental supply frequency is called as harmonics [17,18].
alleviate carbon dioxide emissions, dramatic reduction in prices Interharmonics are voltages or currents with a frequency that
from $US178/MWh to just $US50/MWh [3] over the five years is a non-integral multiple of the fundamental supply frequency
and advancing semiconductor technology with increasing com- and appear as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum.
petitiveness of solar PV have all played crucial roles in the rapid There is a third category of Supraharmonics which have time-
growth of this sector. Nevertheless, most global growth continues frequency variation characteristics which are not common in the
to be driven largely by government’s renewable energy targets harmonic range [19]. Derating of equipments due to over-heating,
and subsidies. circulating currents from harmonic resonance, circuit breaker
tripping and power factor reduction are some of the common
∗ Corresponding author. problems arising due to harmonics. The knowledge of electro-
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Aziz). magnetic disturbance associated with harmonics, interharmonics

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segan.2019.100264
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2 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

and supraharmonics is still developing and currently there is a 2. Harmonics in PV integrated power network
great deal of interest in this phenomenon.
In general, harmonic distortion can occur in a power sys- A literature review about the influence of harmonics in PV
tem network due to the presence of equipment having non- integrated power network at various scenarios was conducted.
linear current/voltage characteristics and equipment’s with the The dominance of THD in power system network can be expected
power electronics (PE) based converter [20]. The amplitude of under various scenarios as listed below and shown in Fig. 1:
the harmonic content in a current (or) voltage signal is generally (1) Penetration level (%) of PV in the network [6,37–39]: with
characterized by the factor of THD [21]. Harmonics may be dom- respect to the connected load [22,40], power transformer capac-
inant when the percentage of inverter connected PV penetration ity [41], and presence of non-linear loads [42–45].
(with respect to the linear load and non-linear load) is high in (2) Location of PV integration in the network [22,34,46,47]: at
network [13,22–24]. The harmonic distortion is less when the same bus node of the point of common coupling (PCC), different
bus node of PCC, near to the transformer (high short circuit level)
solar PV is integrated at the beginning of a feeder which has
and at a far end feeder which is a remote connecting point from
high short circuit level while the harmonics may be dominant
the power transformer (low short circuit level).
when the PV system is integrated at the far end feeder of the
(3) Network resonance due to the dynamic interaction be-
network with low short circuit level [22,25]. Resonance occurs
tween grid and inverter output impedance causes the harmonic
in a network whenever the reactance of capacitive elements be-
resonance in current and voltage level of grid network at certain
comes equal to the reactance of inductive elements at a particular frequencies [31,48–52].
frequency [26]. The frequencies at resonance condition will be (4) Effect of varying solar irradiance conditions, can cause
a major concern whenever it is coincides with any of the indi- the variation in output power of PV inverter. During low level
vidual harmonic frequencies induced in the network. Based on condition of solar irradiance (during sunrise, sunset, and due to
the series and parallel arrangement of network passive elements, cloud effect), the domination of current harmonics can arise in
the type of resonance may be classified as series or parallel in particular while actual output power (PPV) of PV inverter is low
nature [26–29]. The harmonic resonance of current or voltage in with respect to its full power rating (PN) [40,53–59].
grid network can occur due to the effect of interaction between Some of the key results are highlighted in Table 1 and are
impedance of grid network and output impedance of PV inverters. further discussed below:
The effect of harmonic resonance imposes several issues such
Influence of PV penetration level
as mal-operation of the protection devices and affects the per-
The level of PV penetration can be expressed in terms of per-
formance operation of sensitive equipment’s connected in the
centage of PV generation with respect to the total load connected
network [30]. The domination of odd harmonics can be expected in the network. The domination of harmonics can be expected
due to the effect of series/parallel resonance in network [31– when the percentage of PV penetration (with respect to the light
33]. The harmonic amplification due to the effect of network load (linear), and non-linear load) is high in network [13,22–24].
resonance can limit the connectivity of solar PV in the distribution This is due to the effect of cumulative harmonic contribution from
network. In case of reduced solar irradiance level during the multiple PV inverters and additional harmonic contribution from
period of sun rise/sunset condition [13] and also during cloudy the non-linear load [60,61].
condition, the actual power generation from the PV inverter (with
respect to power rating of PV inverter) decreases linearly. The Location of PV integration into the network
The current and voltage THD level varies with respect to the
current harmonics is dominant in power network during low
location of PV system integration in the network. Higher level
power mode of PV inverter operation [34,35] when fundamen-
of voltage and current THD level was found at far end of feeder
tal current is also low. Harmonic contents of the network at
which is also far away from the transformer in network. On the
the point of common coupling (PCC) can be actively mitigated
other hand, the current and voltage THD level was low at begin-
by converter based methods. A random pulse width modula-
ning of the feeder network which is near to the transformer. This
tion (PWM) method for high peak control of single harmonics variation in THD level is attributed to the effect of high network
can be used to smooth the harmonic content over a wider fre- short circuit level at the beginning of feeder (nearby transformer)
quency domain [36] while, selective harmonic elimination (SHE) and low at far end feeder (away from transformer) [22,25].
for selective known problematic harmonics can be used.
The aim of this paper is to systematically review the possi- Influence of Network Resonance
bilities of harmonics distortion in PV based low power network Resonance condition occurs in a network whenever the reac-
at different scenarios and the factors influencing the domination tance of capacitive elements becomes equal to the reactance of
inductive elements at a particular frequency [67]. The frequencies
of THD level in the network. In addition, a case study exploring
at resonance condition will be a major concern whenever it coin-
the influence of harmonics in a real time microgrid (MG) facility
cides with any of the individual harmonic frequencies induced in
has been discussed with results compared with standards. A har-
the network. Based on the series and parallel arrangement of net-
monic management system is explained through the flow chart
work passive elements, the type of resonance may be classified as
for mitigation methods for various scenarios. The appropriate
series or parallel in nature [27–29]. The harmonic resonance of
mitigation measures for limiting the excessive harmonics are fur- current or voltage in grid network can occur due to the effect of
ther discussed for PV integrated power network. This theoretical interaction between impedance of the grid network and output
study will be further complemented with second part where var- impedance of PV inverters.
ious mitigation method will be evaluated for their effectiveness The effect of harmonic resonance imposes several issues such
in low power network. as mal-operation of the protection devices and affects the per-
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the formance operation of sensitive equipment connected in the net-
literature review of harmonics in a power network; Section 3 work [30]. The domination of odd harmonics can be expected due
presents the results and analysis of THD level in a real time MG to the effect of series/parallel resonance in network [31–33]. The
facility and Section 4 proposes harmonic management system harmonic amplification due to the effect of network resonance
with sequence of operation and control of THD mitigation under can limit the connectivity of solar PV in the distribution network.
different scenarios.
 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264 3

Fig. 1. THD in power network under various scenarios and corresponding governing factors.

Influence of varying solar irradiance pulse-width modulation, selective harmonic mitigation pulse-
In general, the output power of PV inverter has the linear width modulation and hysteresis control), and high frequency
relationship with solar irradiance level in PV power system [68]. modulation techniques with soft switching (such as dual mode
In the case of reduced solar irradiance level during the period current modulation, fixed reverse current modulation, variable
of sun rise/sunset condition [13] and also due to the effect of reverse current modulation, fixed bandwidth current modula-
cloud condition, the actual power generation from the PV inverter tion [73]. A study shows that boundary conduction mode (BCM)
(with respect to power rating of PV inverter) gets reduced in zero-voltage switching (ZVS) with fixed reverse current modula-
linear manner. In such a condition, the domination of current tion scheme for three phase micro-inverter has the highest output
harmonics can be expected in power network while PV inverter current THD while BCM with fixed bandwidth current modulation
is operating with low power output (PPV) with respect to its scheme has the lowest output current THD and has the narrowest
actual power rating (PN) [34,69]. Thus the domination of current switching frequency range [36]. In spite of the ability of these
harmonics in power network can be expected during low power techniques to reduce harmonics in the output waveforms, the
mode of PV inverter operation [69]. This is due to the effect of complexity of solving nonlinear equations containing trigonomet-
reduced fundamental current of PV inverter at low power mode ric terms poses the main challenge of their implementations [74].
of operation. Also the influence of harmonics during the case of There are other nonlinear control schemes, such as sliding mode
varying solar irradiance in a real time PV integrated (MG) power control, feedback linearization, and model predictive control.
network was explored and is presented as a case study in the Those nonlinear control approaches generally present superior
following section. dynamic performance than traditional linear feedback or feedfor-
ward control options, but many cause more complicate power
Influence of power converters
quality problems. A detailed report on converter topology on
Conventional inverter technology uses a centralized topology,
harmonics generation can be read from [19].
feed by several PV panels whereas micro-inverter technology uses
While the internal design of the individual converters has a
a distributed inverter topology, with an inverter associated with
significant impact on the harmonics injection from PV systems,
each individual PV panel. Two stage topology is the most common
the main focus of this paper is the assessment of the harmonic
topology for microinverter where maximum power from source
based on the whole power system design with the available prac-
is boosted to suitable high voltage at first stage and then con-
tical PV converters. Therefore the influence of converter internal
verter to ac in second stage. The internal design of the power
design is not considered.
converters including the switching topologies and the modu-
lation techniques have a direct impact on the quality of the THD analysis of real time operating solar generation based
output waveforms and consequently their harmonic levels [70]. microgrid
Dominant frequency of power system harmonic phenomena can THD analysis for a PV integrated microgrid power network
range from a few Hz to several kHz. PV inverters influence the under varying solar irradiance was conducted by authors at
harmonics levels in the network by acting as source of harmonics the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organi-
current and by changing the effective network impedance as zation (CSIRO) of Renewable Energy Integration Facility (REIF),
seen by other harmonics sources. The most common harmonic Newcastle-Australia [75]. The PV integrated MG in CSIRO-REIF
problems arises when the converter topology has low output as shown in Fig. 2 can be operated in both on-grid (connected
impedance as a function of frequency because a small harmonics with utility grid) as well as off-grid (island) mode. Household
in grid voltage will result in high current harmonics. Single phase electrical load variations or a whole commercial building complex
micro-inverter necessitates small size bus capacitor which leads load variations during the course of the day can be replicated in
to high ripple at the ac line second harmonic frequency, causing the facility. The real time PV generation and main parameters of
harmonic distortion. Current THD is also generally higher in sin- the low voltage CSIRO-REIF microgrid is controlled and monitored
gle and three phase microinverter at low power output. Inverter through the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
output current THD can be reduced by implementing phase skip- facility. The Data Acquisition (DAQ) system provides ac network
ping control in DC link voltage controller [71]. Although several data logging at a faster sample rate of 50000 samples/second
improved converter topologies such as multi-level converters or supporting the operation and control of MG network in real time.
matrix converters can offer improved waveforms with lower total More details about the CSIRO microgrid setup can be obtained
harmonic distortion, those topologies impose higher costs and from [76,77].
larger size of the converter along with more sophisticated control Experimental Setup:
algorithms as compared to conventional converters [72]. Highly efficient N-type monocrystalline solar PV in two differ-
Additionally, several advanced modulation techniques and ent configurations with total installed capacity of around 50 KW
switching frequency are utilized to eliminate or mitigate the was considered during the analysis of harmonics in MG network.
harmonic contents of the output waveforms of the three phase Configuration 1:
micro-inverters. These techniques are classified as low frequency Group of single phase micro Inverters (ABB power-one Aurora
modulation techniques (such as selective harmonic elimination Micro-0.3.I.OUTD) – each capacity 0.300 KVA
4 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

Table 1
Harmonics analysis in PV integrated power network: Literature review.
Scenario’s Operating THD analysis Factors to be noticed Reference
conditions

PV penetration Under THDV : Negligible Impact Lightly loaded [22]

(%) normal load THDi : High; When network is operating with network
light load (50% of normal load capacity)
THDi rises with increase in PV penetration level. High PV penetration [42]
THDi rises to 40.22% from 30.47% for PV
penetration level increment from 0.6 p. u. to 0.8
p. u. respectively.
THDi rises to 5% from 2.5% when multiple single Multiple single phase [62]
phase inverters are integrated in the network inverter
rather than single PV inverter.
THDi level increases more than THDV level with Large numbers of [53]
PV penetration having large number of inverter inverters
rather than PV integration with minimum
number of inverters.
Under Comparatively low value of THDi (7.9%) and much Increment in [24]
non-linear load lower THDV (2.05%) when PV operates with only non-linear loads
1 non-linear load.
Significant increase in THDi (118.76%) and THDV
(51.25%) when PV operates with increased
number (4) of non-linear load.
THDi level rises to 5.6% from 4% when PV is Microgrid power [61]
operated with composite load having 15% of network with
non-linear load (w.r.to 100% linear load capacity) presence of PV
in place of 10% non-linear load (w.r.to 100% inverters and
linear load capacity). composite load
NO significant change observed in THDV levels
under composite loads.
With respect to THDV level significantly increases with higher High penetration of [41]
Transformer penetration of PV inverters (60% to 80% with PV inverters w.r.t to
capacity respect to the distribution transformer power transformer ratings
rating) in grid network.
Minimum THDi (2) observed at the same level of
PV penetration.
Location of PV At various location THDi and THDv rises when PV is integrated at far Low short circuit [22,25,46,47]
integration with different end feeder with low short circuit level. Lesser level
short circuit level values are observed when PV is integrated at the
beginning of feeder network closer to the
transformer.
Network Series/Parallel Significant voltage harmonic distortion at 11th Resonance between [31]
resonance resonance and 15th order observed due to the resonance grid inductance and
effect between grid inductance and inverter inverter capacitance
capacitance in PV integrated power network.
High 3rd harmonic injection from solar farm was Network resonance [33]
observed while network with capacitive loads with capacitive loads
was resonant at 3rd harmonic frequency.
Large increment in harmonic voltage when Parallel resonance [46]
parallel resonant frequency is dominant between
11th and 13th and 17th and 23rd harmonic order.
Current distortion in 5th and 7th order observed Additional impedance [49]
when additional impedance incorporated between added in real time
solar inverters and utility grid which lead to the test bed of power
harmonic resonance between 350 to 420 Hz. network
The interaction between grid impedance and Parallel impedance [63]
output impedance of the PV inverter, a parallel
resonance takes place and it causes a large
harmonic voltage level at 21st harmonic order.

(continued on next page)

Group of Solar PV panel (LG 300 N1C-A3 MONOX NEON) – Two numbers of Solar PV panel (monocrystalline silicon cell)
each capacity 0.300 KW with capacity of each around 12.5 KW (total 25 KW)
Total installed capacity of group of single phase Micro invert- Two numbers of three phase PV inverters (SMA Sunny -15,000
ers in Phase A = 10 KVA with integration of solar PV capacity TL, Tri Power Economic Excellence) with capacity of each around
around 7 KW. 15 KVA.
Total installed capacity of group of single phase Micro invert- Load:
ers in B-Phase = 10 KVA with integration of solar PV capacity A RLC load bank of 64 kVA rated capacity. A constant load
around 7 KW. capacity of 64 KVA is maintained during the analysis:
Configuration 2: Impedance level at PCC: R/X ratio > 5.
 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264 5

Table 1 (continued).
Scenario’s Operating THD analysis Factors to be Refer-
conditions noticed ence
Sunrise/Sunset During sunrise period (from 8:00am to 9:00am), Low solar [64]
Varying solar
and cloud when solar irradiance is below 100 W/m2 , THDi level irradiance
Irradiance
effect condition is high (14.34%) as compared to THD level at peak
sunshine hour (900 to 1000 W/m2 ).
THDi level is high (22.5%) during cloudy day with a
minimum solar irradiance level (62 W/m2 ), whereas
during clear day at maximum solar irradiance level
of around 835 W/m2 , THDi is minimum at 4.4%.
Two PV inverters (PV1 3.6 KW and PV2 2.6 KW) at Low PV inverter [34]
different power output level. When the power input
output of PV1 is reduced from 100% to 25% (with
respect to inverter nominal power output), the THDi
increased from 3.33% to 9.15%. Similarly, from PV2 it
was observed that the current THD was increased
from 3.85% to 8.23% when power output of PV2 is
reduced from 100% to 25%
High THDi when PV generation is below (25%) Low PV generation [65]
during morning and evening hours and also during
cloudy conditions.
Low THDi whenever the PV generation was high
during peak sunshine hours.
Odd order harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th)
dominant at low solar irradiance conditions.
THDv is minimum while THDi is high at low PV Peak power [53]
power generation periods (sunrise or sunset). periods
THDv is high (around 1.4%) while THDi is low
(around 3%) during peak power periods (sunny and
average cloudy days) of the PV system.
3rd order current harmonics was significant during High 3rd order [56]
sunrise and sunset conditions. The amplitude of 3rd harmonic current
order harmonic current is around 40%–50% of
amplitude of fundamental current.
No significant changes in THDv level during sunrise
and sunset conditions.
During low power level of PV inverter (due to low Dominant odd [14]
solar irradiance), odd order current harmonics (3rd harmonics current
(5%), 5th (3%) and 7th (2.8%) order) increases.
However in all PV power level, voltage distortion in
5th harmonic order was more intense with value of
only around 0.7–0.9% and no changes was found in
overall voltage THD level.
During low solar irradiance condition (sunset period), Low PV inverter [66]
when power generation from PV inverter was less output
than 15% that the THDi rises to nearly 200% as
compared to THD level at peak sunshine hours.
A domination of 5th order current harmonics was
observed with follow up of other odd order
harmonics (3rd, 11th, and 13th). However, there was
no significant variation in THDv level during low
solar condition

Fig. 2. MG network configuration at CSIRO-REIF.

6 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

For THD level calculation, the voltage and current data up

to 25th order of harmonics level was considered. The overall
THD level along with odd harmonic components in each phase
of power network were estimated at different output power
(PPV−Out ) of PV inverters with respect to their full power rating
(PPV−Rated ). The estimated THD at different power level of PV
inverter was compared to the Australian standard AS477 [80,81].
Results and Discussion
THD analysis
Fig. 3. Varying solar irradiance (during cloud condition) [78]. Conformance to the maximum harmonic levels at a customer’s
PCC (point of common coupling) are demanded by power utility
companies and Australian Standards. Even though the maximum
permissible harmonic distortion is specified in terms of THDv (%),
reduction in THDi is also desired to achieve a reduction in THD.
IEEE STD 519 (1992), IEEE 1547, AS/NZS 61000.3.6 (2001), AS
4777 are widely used harmonic limit standards in Australia.
The overall current and voltage THD analysis was carried
out on each phase of three phase network at different output
power level of PV units with respect to its full power rating
(PPV−Out /PPV−Rated ). The overall THD analysis at different solar PV
generated power with respect to their rated power are presented
in Table 3. Also, the results of voltage and current THD level in
Fig. 4. Varying PV power (during solar variation) [78].
comparison with standard limit of AS 4777 standard is shown in
Figs. 5 and 6 respectively.
Voltage THD level was minimum for all of the PV power ratio
Microgrid mode of operation: On Grid. The status of PV gen- (PPV-Out/PPV-Rating) under different solar condition and was
erator and PV inverters was in grid connected mode, since the within the allowable limit of AS 477 standard. THD voltage level
Microgrid was connected to the Utility grid (on-grid) during that was below 3% in all cases for our case study, which is well within
time of experiment analysis. the standard limit solicited in IEEE 519-1992-standard (5% limit)
Cable connection: The single phase PV inverter were connected and AS/NZS 61000.2.2 standard (8%).
to the low voltage grid through three core AC cables while three A current THD of 5% is solicited at LV network by both IEEE
phase PV inverter were connected through five-core AC cables. 519–1992 standard [82] and AS 4777 [83,84]. The current THD
The system was configured with a stable grid supply of 240 V was also lowest and within the allowable limit of THD standard
followed by emulated 800 m of hard-drawn bare copper (HDBC) under maximum solar irradiance (910 W/m2 ) and maximum PV
to 415 V bus. 100 m of Cross Linked Polyethylene (XLPE) emulated power ratio of 86% in phase-A and 89% in both phase-B and C
cables were used for PV system and load bank connection. The respectively. Though within the allowable limit, the current THD
distribution of PV power in each phase is given in Table 2. level rises with the reduction in solar irradiance up to 310 W/m2
The current and voltage THD level in each phase of three and PV power ratio of 31%. However AS 4777 standard limits are
phase network was analyzed at different output power level violated at minimum solar (280 W/m2 ). Current THD rises to 5.7%
of PV inverters. During this analysis, a varying solar irradiance at phase A and 5.1% for phase B with minimum PV power ratio
(15 min duration) due to the effect of real cloud condition was of 26% in phase-A and 28% in phase-B respectively. The current
THD level in phase-C (4.9%) was also close to the allowable limit
considered. The variation in solar irradiance due to the cloud
of AS 4777 THD standard.
effect and corresponding variation in PV inverter output power
level (with respect to its power rating) are shown in Figs. 3 and Harmonics Analysis
4 respectively. In all the PV power level (PPV−Out / PPV−Rated ), the even har-
During the analysis, based on the current and voltage level monic components were found at a minimum and neglected.
measurement from the DAQ system, the current and voltage During this analysis, only odd order harmonics were considered
harmonics up to 25th order was estimated by the SCADA system to estimate the level, since it is the odd harmonics which violates
software facility. Based on the current and voltage harmonics the limit of AS 4777 standard during the case of low solar condi-
value (up to 25th order), the total harmonic distortions of current tion. In this study, during the case of maximum and minimum
and voltage level was estimated through FFT analysis. level of solar condition, the odd order harmonics levels were
The current and voltage THD percentage from the data col- analyzed and verified with the tolerance level of odd harmonics,
lected was calculated as per the expression given in Eqs. (1) and specified by the AS 4777 standard. The results of odd harmonics
(2) respectively [20,79,80]: level during maximum and minimum solar conditions are com-
√ pared with AS 4777 standard limit is presented in Table 4. As
2
Ih2 2
+ Ih3 2
+ Ihn can be noted from Figs. 7 and 8, the odd order harmonics was
THDi = (%) (1) found high and exceeds the allowable limit of AS 4777 standard
2
Ih1 during minimum solar condition with minimum PV power level.
This is due to the effect of reduced fundamental current over the
√
2 2 2
Uh2 + Uh3 + Uhn harmonics current of inverter at low power mode of operation.
THDv = 2
(%) (2)
Uh1
3. Harmonic management system
where Ih1 is the fundamental current harmonic, Uh1 is the fun-
damental voltage harmonic, Ihn is the current harmonic at the It is necessary to take appropriate control measures in order to
highest order n and Uhn is the voltage harmonic at the highest control the excessive harmonics in various scenarios. An appro-
order n. priate mitigation strategy for reducing the excessive harmonics
 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264 7

Table 2
Distribution of PV power (Rating) in each phase.
Phase distribution 3 Phase PV units Single phase PV units Total power distribution
power distribution (KW) power distribution (KW) (KW)
Phase-A 8.3 11 19.3
Phase-B 8.3 7 15.3
Phase-C 8.3 7 15.3

Table 3
Overall THD level at different solar irradiances condition.
Irradiance (W/m2 ) Total PV power (kW) Phase distribution PPV−Out (kW) PPV−Rated (kW) (PPV−Out /PPV−Rated ) (%) THDi (%) THDv (%)
A 16.6 19.3 86 2.4 1.6
910 44 B 13.7 15.3 89 1.9 1.6
C 13.7 19.3 89 1.9 1.5
A 8 19.3 41 4.2 1.9
430 22 B 7 15.3 46 3.9 1.7
C 7 15.3 46 4.1 1.8
A 6 19.3 31 4.8 1.95
310 16 B 5 15.3 33 4.9 1.85
C 5 15.3 33 4.6 1.9
A 5 19.3 26 5.7 2.6
280 13.5 B 4.2 15.3 28 5.1 1.9
C 4.3 15.3 28 4.9 2.5

Table 4
PV power at different solar irradiance level.
Odd order current harmonics
Irradiance (W/m2 ) Phase distribution (PPV-Out/PPV-Rating) (%)
3rd 7th 11th 13th
Phase-A 86 1.0 1.7 1.3 1.2
910 (Max) Phase-B 89 0.7 1.4 1.1 0.9
Phase-C 89 0.6 1.3 1.2 0.5
Phase-A 26 1.2 3.9 3.3 2.2
280 (Min) Phase-B 28 1.7 3.8 1.2 2.2
Phase-C 28 1.7 2.8 1.8 2.0

Fig. 5. Overall voltage THD level.

Fig. 6. Overall current THD level.

level in a PV integrated power network can be developed by im- A three layered harmonic management system (HMS) is proposed
plementing a radical centralized harmonic management system. in this section such that each management layer incorporates
8 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

Fig. 7. Odd harmonics level (At maximum solar).

Fig. 8. Odd harmonics level (At minimum solar).

communication and decision making capabilities. The first analy-

sis layer determines and compare the harmonics level as per the
allowable limit of THD standard. Excessive harmonics conditions
for specific scenarios are evaluated in the second evaluation layer.
Four parallel operation runs in the control layer to identify the
scenario. The last control layer initiates appropriate mitigation
measures based on the identified scenario. The mitigation mea-
sures will be applied on the basis of selected priority and the
probability of occurrence of the specific condition. If THD is above
the standard limit in all scenarios, respective mitigation strategy
will be applied on the basis of selected priority sequence. If all
the conditions are not met, HMS will proceed to check individual
scenario and apply the respective mitigation. The scenario involv-
ing inverter power ratio check has been given first priority in HMS
as the probability of occurrence of this scenario is highest consid-
ering the climatic conditions of solar PV system. PV penetration
level has second priority followed with network resonance and
lastly the short circuit level of the network. The basic skeleton
of the proposed HMS is shown in Fig. 9. The steps undertaken
by HMS to initiate various mitigation measures at the control
layer based on the identified scenarios are presented through the
flowchart in Fig. 10.

Mitigation method — priority 1: (Effect of varying solar irradiance)

In general, the solar irradiance has linear relationship with

active power output of PV unit [14,85]. During the case of low
solar condition (sunrise, sunset, and cloud effect periods), power
output from the PV inverter reduces and the inverter operates
under low power mode with respect to its full power rating.
During low power mode of PV inverter operation, current har-
monics is dominant due to the fundamental current being lower
than the non-fundamental current of PV inverter [69]. The current Fig. 9. Block diagram of harmonic management system.
harmonics in PV inverter is mainly dependent on its power ratio
( PP o ), where P o is the output power and P R is the power rating
R
of the PV inverter. Hence, in order to reduce the domination of operate the PV inverter at high power mode which is close to
current harmonics during low solar condition, it is necessary to
 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264 9

Fig. 10. Flow chart of proposed harmonic management system.

its full power rating. The PV inverters can be operated at high QRPV = 0, (PR = PRPV ) (5)
power mode (during low solar condition), by means of following
few methods as below: where PPV , QPV are the active and reactive power of the PV
(i) Switch on battery storage: During low solar condition (during inverter respectively while PRPV , QRPV are the allowable active
sunset, sunrise, and cloud effect condition), an appropriately sized and reactive power rating of PV inverter respectively. The active
battery storage can be switched on at the dc side of PV inverter power from PV inverter operating at unity power factor and
as shown in Fig. 11. The power ratio of PV inverter operating at under low solar condition without battery support and additional
unity power factor can be expressed as in Eq. (3) [85].
active power injection from battery storage is shown in Figs. 12(a)
PO and 12(b) respectively. PO1 is the actual output power from PV
Power ratio of PV inverter (RPV) = (3)
PR only while PO2 is the additional output power from PV inverter
√
(with usage of battery)). Without battery storage, power ratio of
PO = output power of inverter in KVA = P 2PV + Q 2PV ;
PV inverter can be expressed as in Eq. (6)
QPV = 0, (PO = PPV ) (4)
√ P O1
PR = power rating of inverter in KVA = 2
PRPV 2
+ QRPV ; RPV = (6)
PR
10 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

Fig. 13. PV system with provision of reactive power control.

Fig. 11. PV system with integration of battery storage.

where QPV is the reactive power contribution from PV. The power
level of PV inverter without reactive power contribution and
with reactive power contribution is shown in Figs. 14(a) and
With the support of battery storage, power ratio of PV inverter 14(b) respectively. If PV inverters are allowed to generate reactive
is increased as presented in Eq. (7) power (kVAR) in addition to the active power (kW) generation, it
P O1+ P O2 is possible to maintain operation of PV inverters at high power
RPV = (7) mode (high power ratio (PO /PR )) during the low solar condition.
PR The flow chart of HMS for this particular scenario is explained as
(ii) Reactive power contribution from PV inverter: A typical below:
power network with integration of PV inverter along with re-
active power control is shown in Fig. 13. With reference to the • Evaluating inverter power ratio (Po/PR ): If the THD level
power ratio equation (3), if the PV inverter is considered to exceeds the standard limit, then the sequence of manage-
contribute reactive power, then the output power of PV inverter ment will evaluate the power ratio of PV inverters. Once the
and power rating of PV inverter can be expressed as in Eqs. (8) power ratio is evaluated as less than 50% (during low solar),
then the sequence of management will follow the control
and (9) [86] respectively.
√ layer to get further action.
PO = output power of inverter in kVA = 2
PPV 2
+ QPV ; • Executing the mitigation measures: During low power
mode of inverter operation (due to low solar), if the power
(Q = QPV ) (8) ratio is less than 50%, then the management will initiate
(PO is the vector sum of active (PPV ) and reactive power (QPV )) the control measures through the control layer with the
√ following functionalities: (i) Switch on the battery storage at
PR = power rating of inverter in kVA = 2
PRPV 2
+ QRPV ; dc side of PV inverter (to maintain full power ratio (Po/PR )
of PV inverter during low solar periods) which is operating
Q = QRPV (9) at unity power factor (or) (ii) initiate the reactive power
(kVAR) contribution from PV inverter during low power
If inverter is contributing reactive power, then PV inverter can
(kW) mode of inverter operation (to maintain full power
be operated at full apparent power capacity. During low solar
ratio (Po/PR ) of PV inverter during low solar periods). In
condition and without reactive power contribution, power ratio
case, if the PV inverters are operating at higher power mode
of PV inverter can be expressed as in Eq. (10):
with more than 60% power ratio (during peak solar), then
PPV the management will not apply any control measure and
RPV = (10)
PR proceed to check other scenario.
where PPV is the actual output power from PV. With reactive Mitigation method — Priority 2 (PV penetration %)
power contribution, power ratio of PV inverter can be expressed
as in Eq. (11) Influence of harmonics mainly depends on the penetration
P PV + Q PV level of PV generation in the network. The flowchart of HMS
RPV = (11) undergoes following sequence for this scenario:
PR

Fig. 12. (a) PV inverter power (without battery). (b) PV inverter power (with battery support) during low solar condition.
 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264 11

Fig. 14. (a) PV inverter power (without VAR) (b) PV inverter power (with VAR support).

• THD level analysis: The voltage and current measurement

data at PCC are passed through the analyzing layer for THD
analysis. The THD level is determined and compared against
the THD standard [87] to determine any violation.
• Evaluating the PV penetration level: In case of any vi-
olation of THD level as per the standard, the percentage
of PV penetration is evaluated based on the ratio between
actual power generation of PV system either with respect
to the given load or the power rating of transformer. The Fig. 15. LCL filter configuration in PV integrated network.
percentage of PV penetration level can be expressed with
respect to type of load connected in network or transformer
power rating as equations below [22,23].
5 to 4%; and a step of 6% corresponds to a resonance frequency
PPV around harmonic 4. As harmonics 5 and 7 are the dominating
PV penetration (%) = × 100 or
PNL ones at distribution level, any voltage step of 2% or higher due
Ppv to capacitor switching introduces a serious risk of high distor-
PV penetration (%) = × 100 (12) tion due to resonance [36]. The sequence of operation for the
PTX
particular scenario is as follows:
where PPV is the actual PV power generation, PNL is the total
power of linear and non-linear load, PTX is the power rating • Evaluating resonant frequency condition: If the THD level
of transformer. is violating the standard limit (based on the output from
• Executing the mitigation measures: In case of PV pen- the analysis layer), the sequence will go to evaluation mode.
etration > 70%, appropriate mitigation measures are ini- As per Eq. (13), once the condition for the resonance fre-
tiated through the control layer of HMS. The mitigation quency is confirmed, then the management will evaluate the
measures are executed to bring the THD level down within occurrence of harmonic resonance in a particular order of
the standard limit through the following functionalities: (i) frequency range (odd harmonics).
Switching off some PV units to reduce PV generation to • Executing the control measures: Once the current or volt-
the appropriate level (or) (ii) switching-on some additional age harmonics levels are identified in particular frequency
load like charging of battery to use the excessive PV power range of odd harmonics, then the management will take
generated. If the PV penetration level is less than 70%, no appropriate mitigation measures with the following func-
action can be executed from the control layer and HMS will tionalities: (i) Apply active damping technique [64]. Zero
proceed as per the flowchart algorithm. impedance offered by LCL filter during resonance condi-
tion brings instability in the current loop of the PV circuit.
Mitigation method– Priority 3: (Network resonance) This instability may be in the form of excessive damping
or insufficient damping. The proper damping of dynam-
The harmonic resonance takes place in PV integrated power ics can be achieved by modifying the filter configuration
network due to the effect of dynamic interaction between output incorporating passive element like resistance. However, pas-
impedance of PV inverters and impedance of grid network. Based sive damping is inefficient method due to associated losses.
on the configuration of network and location of harmonic inject- Active damping techniques involves selectively modifying
ing devices, there is a possibility of series and parallel resonance controller parameters to reduce the resonance peaks and/or
occurring in the network. In case of large number of PV inverters providing phase lead around the resonance frequency range.
integrated in a network, the possibility of occurring resonance One of the specific example is to implement virtual resis-
frequency can be expressed as in Eq. (13) [88]. tance in the current loop emulating the presence of real
2
( ) resistance connected to the filter. Alternate configuration
ZLC L1 + L2 + Lg ]−1
ω2
, 2 of higher order filters can also be implemented as the ac-
[
res = ZLC = (Lg + L2 )Cf (13)
L1 tive damping technique. (ii) Apply a detuning method in
where L 1 , L 2 and C f are the inductive and capacitive elements of filter circuit of PV inverter (using inductance in series with
LCL filter used in PV inverter, L g is the inductance of grid network capacitive element of PV inverter).
and ZLC is the impedance of the system as shown in Fig. 15. There In case, if there is no confirmation about resonance fre-
is a strong relation between the resonance frequency f res and quency condition and harmonic resonance level, no action
the voltage step ∆V due to switching. A resonance frequency at will be executed from the control layer and HMS will pro-
harmonic 7 corresponds to a voltage step of about 2%, harmonic ceed to check other scenario as per the algorithm.
12 A. Vinayagam, A. Aziz, Balasubramaniyam PM et al. / Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 20 (2019) 100264

Mitigation method – Priority 4: (Location of PV integration in net- at various scenarios. To limit the excessive harmonics in network
work) more efficiently, the proposed harmonic management initiates
appropriate control measures based on the analysis of THD levels
The current and voltage THD in network also vary according for a particular scenario. This will help to maintain the THD level
to the location of integration of PV power system in network. in network within standard limit during the various scenarios,
The percentage of THD will have the inverse relationship with ensuring the quality of energy supply for the communities.
network short circuit (Nsc) level, as expressed in Eq. (14). The
short circuit level in network will be high at beginning of the Declaration of competing interest
feeder (nearby transformer), whereas the short circuit level will
be low at far end feeder (far away from transformer) [22,46,47]. The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
Hence the THD level will be high at far end feeder where the PV cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
generation exists as compared to beginning of the feeder. to influence the work reported in this paper.
1
THD (%) = (14)
Nsc References
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