Assignment: 01: Semester: Autumn 2019
Assignment: 01: Semester: Autumn 2019
Assignment : 01
Semester : Autumn 2019
For a definition of curriculum, people would say that the curriculum includes English,
Mathematics, Social Studies, Science, Music, Art……etc. However that would certainly tell very
little about the learning experiences you might be engaged in or what it is hoped you might
achieve as a result of these experiences.
These exists now a number of definitions of curriculum used by writers in the field you
may ask why it is necessary to worry about definitions, but you will immediately realize as you
read through the following examples that different definitions suggest different concerns in the
study of curriculum.
“All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or individually inside or outside the school”.
“……the curriculum …. Is really the entire program of the school’s work it is the essential
means of education it is everything that you and your teachers do, thus it is twofold in
nature, being made up of the activities, the things done and of the materials with which
they are done.
A close look at just these four definitions will reveal that the focus of our study of the
curriculum would be different in each case. If we accepted definition A , we might study the
planning of learning as well as what actually takes place both inside and outside the school.
Definition B would focus our attention on the things that teachers and you do and the materials
you use. Definition C would suggest that to study the curriculum we should have to study the
learning outcomes intended for you we certainly would not be looking at the learning activities
and what went on in the classroom, in definition D , Dough similar to B, the emphasis is on the
learning experiences, states the curriculum is the design of these experiences, rather than what
actually happens. Thus the focus of study would be the designs and perhaps our attention
might also be direct to an understanding of the social group who made the design.
Some writers use the word curriculum rather narrowly Bruner (1960, P.31) refers to the
“Curriculum” of a subject, He say that :
Stenhouse (1975, P.4) refers to the curriculum for which he bought in a bookshop in also
the curriculum for comprehensive school in Norway it is a 350 page book, “Master plan for
Grunnskolen”, it includes statements of aims and specifies the content to be covered for every
subject in each year of the school. It also gives guidance on methods to be used in teaching.
This views implies that curriculum is a written document prescribing what should go on in
school. Whilst no such overall document is used in Pakistan schools.
The idea of curriculum as merely a set of written intentions overlooks those things
which go on in school which are unplanned and unintended consequences of the experience as
students have in schools. For example the teacher’s intention might be to teach the student
certain mathematical operations but as a result of the experience the student comes to hate
mathematical. They dislike which the student has learned, has to be counted as part of the
curriculum, according to those who have a very wide ranging concept of the curriculum. A
greater understanding of the operation of the hidden evaluation stage, it is important that
possible unintended outcomes are monitored.
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a- Those which see the curriculum as a kind of blueprint or plan, a statement of intent.
(i) Stated in terms of expected outcomes.
(ii) Stated in terms of learning experiences or content to be veer.
b- Those which see the curriculum as what actually happen in the classroom.
A third view might embrace both Lawrence Stenhouse (1975, P.4) attempts to cast the
idea of a curriculum as a set of intended learning outcomes as problematic. He states :
“A curriculum is the means by which the experience of attempting to but and education
probable into practice is made publicly available, it involves both content and method and it is
widest application takes account of the problem of implementation in the institutions of the
education system”.
He, therefore, argues that a curriculum should at least provide “a basis for planning a
course studying it empirically and considering the grounds of its justification.”
He goes on to suggest what such a curriculum would, (i) For planning principle as basis
for select content, developing a teaching strategy and making decision about sequencing as
well as for diagnosing strength and weakness of individual students. (ii) For empirical study
principles by which to study and judge the progress of student schools or ever mint and which
different stores of student and informing about that variation or aim of the curriculum available
for scrutiny.
Similarly, Jenkies and Shimpman (1976 P.6) take a blond definition whereby curriculum
includes and outcomes:
Before leaving the subject of definition it is worth making the point that there is no
correct definition or curriculum and to scribe for on might not be a very Worthwhile Pastime
Schwad (1969, P.183) argues that the curriculum field is moribund because it is overly
preoccupied with argument about theoretical points such as the precise of “curriculum” it
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might be more useful to accept the idea that the definition which we adopt might vary with our
purposes.
Thus, for curriculum evaluation purposes the most useful definition would include the
experience which learners actually had, regardless of whether they were planned or not, if on
the other hand one was engaged in curriculum planning a definition which emphasized a design
or plan for action would be the most useful, that should serve to remind you to clarify the
meaning of the term curriculum before you use it and alert you to consider the meaning of the
word which is implied by various writers in the field.
Walton (1976, P.6) has proposed another way of organizing the numerous definition of
curriculum in to a more manageable form. He has devised a simple typology of into which all
definitions of curriculum will fit. He points out that definition of curriculum have become more
inclusive with regard to areas to be included.
He used these two criteria in organizing the definition of curriculum as the figure below
indicates.
The type of curriculum which teaches the content (meaning facts, ideas outlines) of a
specific subject with no consideration of the process or learner would belong in the first box in
the first column. At the other extreme, in the last box in the last column, would be the type of
curriculum related to environmental involvement and which would be responsive to the needs
of learners.
“The curriculum types suggested in the foregoing typology themselves reflect a stance
taken by their supporters related to a number of variable, viz, stance knowledge process and
child. These variable themselves are subject to change figure, I whilst indicating certain general
interpretations of the curriculum that can be made does not indicate the other interpretations
that are associated with those boxes labelled (criteria of selection). These interpretations tend
to chagn over time as new knowledge and new incite appear. Goodland has observed and
wonders how in the field that curriculum is defined in such variety. He maintains that the
questions asked and the problem tackled by these workers are essentially the same even those
defining curriculum in the broadest sense. In terms of that actually happens to learner are still
concerned with problems of design and development.
Be that as it may, it is essential that is taking about curriculum you attempt to define
what you have taken the word to mean as this may well affect the scope of issues you need to
consider. In this unit, the definition of curriculum which we favour is that of Stenhouse (1975)
we are mainly concerned with curriculum plans and justifications and the principles behind
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them. Many of the considerations about implementation are more fully dealt with in curriculum
development.
The following diagram attempts to provide an overview of the relation between some of
the concepts.
Curriculum Development:
(Total Process)
Includes Leading to
Curriculum Development:
Curriculum development refers to the total process of designing implementing and
evaluating a curriculum it includes decisions about who will be involved and evaluating and the
procedures to be used obviously, curriculum development include the process of curriculum
construction. However it might also embrace decisions to set up parent meeting and attempt to
carry out what also Skilebeck refers to as a situation analysis, (including for example, an effort
to systematically collect date about the population and are which the school to serves and an
analysis of the constraints and strength within the school itself).
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Curriculum Construction:
This term has traditionally bee used to cover all the processes involved in curriculum
making. It is often used synonymously with the term curriculum development. However, it can
be argued that while curriculum development refers to the entire process of designing and
constructing a curriculum construction refers to a part of that process in which decisions are
actually made about the elements of the curriculum design.
Curriculum Implementation:
Curriculum implementation is a term over which there is probably more agreement
about its meaning than any other it means, quite literally, implementing the curriculum which
has been produced through the processes of curriculum development and construction it is the
process of putting the curriculum design into practice in the classroom whilst this stage is
usually thought to follow curriculum development it is sometimes the case that a curriculum is
being developed and implemented almost concurrently. Thus an early draft or part of a
programme may be implemented. This provides the potential for collecting evaluation data to
provide some evaluative ‘feedback’ (to the curriculum developers) which can guide future
curriculum development and construction processes.
Curriculum Design:
This term is applied to the arrangement of the elements of the curriculum (it is often
used interchangeably with the term “curriculum organization”). The elements usually included
in a curriculum are : (1) The aims or intentions, the learning activities and (2) The evaluation
procedures. The nature of these elements and the way in which they are organized to form a
curriculum constitute a “curriculum design”.
Curriculum Foundations:
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Curriculum foundations are generally referred to as the basic forces or ideas which
influence and shape the curriculum. It is usually considered that these include philosophical
ideas about the nature of education and knowledge, the influence of society and culture and
views about the person (or child) and how he or she learns. The influence of these foundation
areas are dealt with in more detail, later in this guide the foundation of the curriculum are
sometimes called the ‘sources’ of the curriculum. Tyler refers to the three sources of the
curriculum i.e the learners contemporary life and the subjects. These, he says are ‘screened’
through the disciplines of philosophy and psychology.
Curriculum implications for realizing the objectives are the introduction of work experience,
socially useful productive work and vacationalization of education.
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whole we have to cultivate a spirit of large hearted tolerance, of mutual give and take of the
appreciation of ways in which people differ from one another, our citizens must, therefore,
(i) Be imbued with love for motherland and a commitment to the values she stands for;
(ii) Appreciate the richness of her varied culture;
(iii) Have faith in the that runs through apparent diversity;
(iv) Make, by example and endeavour, such unity a reality;
(v) Learn to respect every faith;
(vi) Grow in themselves a deeper concern for moral and spiritual values in life.
(i) A loosening of the bonds of dogmatism and dispelling of fear, superstition, fatalism and
passive resignation.
(ii) Promoting the capacity to think, to enquire and judge for himself and contribute to the
stock of human knowledge.
(i) Learn to take a justifiable pride in Pakistan’s rich cultural heritage and carry on the good
tradition and Islamic values.
(ii) Cultivate taste and an appreciation for truth and beauty in every aspect of life.
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In this approach, a comprehensive and through analysis of all relevant factors in the
production of a master plan for the school curriculum is done. As you are aware that the school
curriculum represents a selection of knowledge or experiences thought to, he worthwhile for
children at a certain place and time.
As changes occur in a society, the curriculum of its schools may be liable to change. Any
curriculum is based on views such as;
In Lawton (1978, P.5) model, the situation analysis can be explained on the basis of
philosophical theories and sociological theories. A selection from culture, psychological theories
and organization of curriculum in terms of sequence and stages.
In philosophical theories, there will be philosophical ideas about the aims of education
and the structure of knowledge which lies behind any curriculum design. These are not always
made explicit, therefore, we may have to examine the curriculum carefully to see what is
implied.
The sociologists of knowledge have something to say about the aims of education and
the structure to knowledge. In addition sociologists also have to say about the nature of society
and issues of social, technological and ideological change. Thus sociological factor will also
influence the curriculum design.
Likewise, the curriculum designer makes some selection from the culture, a choice is
made about what children ought to learn. It may be determined that there is some common
core of knowledge. Skills and values which all children ought to study.
Having decided what students ideally learn, the curriculum designer consults the
psychologists to reconsider the ideal in terms of theories of learning. Different theorists may
offer a range of issues to consider in terms of structuring and sequencing the programme to
suit their notions about the child’s developmental stages or learning processes. Theories of
learning are insufficient without complementary theories of teaching.
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human and material are required to teach it. To work through a curriculum, one has to think
like a philosopher, a sociologist, a psychologist and a curriculum designer. The value of using
different ways of thinking about curriculum situation analysis is that one can obtain a variety of
different perspectives and gain a range of insights about the process of curriculum.
Formulation of Objectives:
Some of the critics of a curriculum theory which admits the importance of objectives in
curriculum design. Much of their criticism on the nation that the objective model is a product of
a society that values technical efficiency modeled on a production line mentality. They inder
that the advocates of objectives model treat children like products on an assembly line in a
factor. In some instances we would agree that this may very well be the case those curriculum
workers of the late sixties and even early seventies who thought that programmed learning was
the best design could typify this extreme view of users of an objectives model.
However, to label everyone who might suggest that objectives should form a vital
element of curriculum design. It is interesting to mention here that many of such critics usually
propose alternatives that are quit obviously not short an objectives.
The important point we wish to make here is that whenever you design a programme
you are going to stamp this design with values. In some instances these values are derived from
the society or community in which we live. In other instances these values are personal and
reflect our current views of education.
In fact, Hughes indicates that there are normally for sources of inputs through which
curriculum developers go for objectives. There are society, knowledge, learner and learning
process. Curriculum developers at the central level use research findings and opinions of
sociologists, philosophers, subject specialists and psychologists as inputs for their design. The
selection of objectives is based on their collective value position which is supposed to be the
representative of society because the composition of the committee is meant to reflect this.
Needless to say this does not always work. The important point to get is that values from a big
part in curriculum decision making at the central level.
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On the other hand, at the school level or the classroom level, the intrusion of values
cannot be dismissed. For example, many teachers prefer one subject area to another. Many
teachers have prefer in respect to particular teaching approaches or materials. All of these
involve particular value positions. Values become problematic when they dominate rationally,
we are not saying that decision-making can be value-free. This is not possible what we say is
that values should not take over and include people towards a doctrinaire position.
Classification of Objectives:
Bloom (1956) Krathwohl (1964) have stated that there is considerable value in thinking
about objectives particularly in behavioral levels. Bloom express these level as ranging from
simple recall or memorization of content to evaluating principle and hypothesis. Krathworl’s
taxonomy ranges from “receiving” to characterization”.
To facilitate the formulation of statements of specific objectives within the frame works
proposed by Bloom and Krathwohl (1956) has included the following two tables which contain
the taxonomic classifications, appropriate infinitives, which one might use in writing objectives.
He also mentioned the terms which might be useful in relating the behavioral components to
particular subject areas. These are merely ideas for you to contemplate in developing objective.
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Curriculum Design in Term:
There are as many interpretations of curriculum design as the definitions of curriculum.
One of the most widely accepted is the one developed by Taba, H. (1962, 421) who maintains
that;
(i) Objectives
(ii) Content
(iii) Learning experiences
(iv) Teaching strategies
(v) Evaluation
The way in which the elements mentioned by Taba are related to each other which
quite often specifies the kind of curriculum design that is port yard. For example the type of
design that is dominated by content consisting of predominantly factual information is quite
often characterized by teaching strategies that are largely expository in nature, learning
experiences which depict the learner as a passive receiver, objectives which emphasize a
narrow cognitive perspective and evaluation procedures which are formal testing procedures.
Such type of design is often referred to as a subject centered design, on the other hand
the children centered design-portrays the relationship between the elements in a terms of a
single principle. Such as child-centeredness or subject-centeredness is according to Taba. H,
(1962) an over simplification. It is a point worth stressing. It is not sufficient to enter the
rational for a design on some single criterion or principle as a curriculum has to do with
reaching something to somebody. It can be neither entirely content centered nor child
centered in the sense of neglecting either the nature of the learning or the nature of content.
In this regard, several curriculum theorists have constructed set of criteria that might be
use for an analysis. Human R.T. (1973, P.10) has indicated that:
“……Curriculum workers must establish the criteria they will follow they can accept a set
of criteria proposed by someone else. Formulate their won criteria independently, or accept
parts of various sets of criteria combined with their own formulation”.
Two sets of criteria are presented: (a) by Taba (1962) and (b ) by Hodgkinson (1975).
These should be studied carefully as they will be useful in your curriculum development
exercise.
(i) Curriculum content is valid and significant to the extent that it reflects the
contemporary scientific knowledge. Perhaps the more important question about
validity of content is how fundamental the knowledge is.
(ii) If the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for learning. Its content and the
outcomes, it pursues need to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of time.
Applied to the selection of content, this criterion further selects from the
scientifically valid and fundamental knowledge which is also significant.
(iii) Curriculum should provide for the achievement of a wide range of objective. An
effective curriculum provides for increasingly more effective acquisition of significant
new knowledge and for the development of increasing more effective ways of
thinking, desirable attitudes, interests and appropriate habits and skills.
(iv) Curriculum content should be learn and adaptable to students experiences. One
factor in learn ability is the adjustment of the curriculum content and of the
learners. The problem of making the curriculum learn able involves also the task of
translating the social heritage into experiences which help each student.
(v) The curriculum should be appropriate to the needs and interests of the learners.
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(b) Criteria proposed by Hodgkinson (1975):
Curriculum design is a scheme for planning and providing learning experiences. The
scheme is as under:
(i) It must contain strategies for dealing with curriculum inputs from the society,
the individual, learning theory and knowledge.
(ii) It should include the elements of design namely, objective, learning
experiences, content selection and evaluation.
(iii) It should be based on the principles of design such as balance, rationality,
consistency, flexibility, diversity, practicality and responsibility.
The child of today is the builder of tomorrow, it is only through a well designed and
effectively implemented curriculum that the child could be equipped to realize his inner
potential and to contribute meaningfully to national development. Curriculum is basic to the
aesthetic, emotional, ethical, intellectual, physical, social, spiritual and vocational development
of the child.
David Jenkins and Marten D, Shipman (1981) have very rightly observed: “If the teacher
is the guide the curriculum is the path. A good curriculum marks the points of significance so
that the student does not wander aimlessly over the terrain, dependent solely on chance to
discover the landmarks of human achievement”.
However, the school curriculum is designed so that pupils are helped to understand the
environment they see round them, whilst being presented with a vision of what life could be.
Their present experience and understanding is the starting point for the school programme.
Moreover, the curriculum ought to be one which lays the basis for increasing the ability
of as many students as possible to become active, participating adults. By active participation it
is meant that students learn some real skills, knowledge and attitudes values which allow them
to take part in adding to the general social- both materially and spiritually. It also provides the
basis for making judgments about undesirable social directions.
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Formal education has become a necessity not only because an individual cannot acquire
all the knowledge he needs through informal means but also due to the vastness and
complexity of knowledge that mankind has come to accumulate and its continued expansion,
the increasing demands made on its continued expansion, the increasing demands made on the
modern man for a high degree of knowledge and skills. Thus, the challenge of selecting from
this vast fund of human knowledge and of organizing its suitability to facilitate smooth and
efficient transmission has to be accepted.
Q.No.5: Different individuals need different types of learning experiences for self
development support this.
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Different individuals need different types of learning
experiences for self development:
These are the following types of curriculum learning in school in general, is formally
organized so content and learning experiences may achieve the objectives. For this logical and
psychological requirement may be interwoven.
Doll (1982, P.127) has enlisted practical hints for preparing and stating learning
experiences as:
Objectives:
After study of this unit, you will be able t:
Selection of Content:
Translating characteristics, needs, and tasks into meaningful concepts to be used in
curriculum development is special but a difficult task. Curriculum planners must give carful
thought to what a particular characteristics, need or task means for school programme. Some
need immediate inferences, physical capabilities as they relate to learning experiences. Content
and curriculum materials can be prepared in such a way that all growth and developmental
characteristics of learners show through them. After this, materials are likely to list a wide
range of experiences for learners. But some times a particular view of human growth and
development proves especially adaptable to the curriculum planners. Developmental task
emerge from a combination of factors: maturation culture and nature of individual so it is
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interdisciplinary which originates from psychology, human growth and development and
sociology. Teachers and curriculum planners who use date about learners should:
a) Establish objectives for helping learners in finding their identities and make
attainment of goals possible.
b) Teach with the needs, interests and developmental levels of learners.
c) Make the school a personal and social institution.
d) Help learners to establish roles associated with achieving adulthood and practicing
good citizenship.
Curriculum content is the subject matter of teaching learning process. This includes
knowledge, skills and values associated with that subject. Knowledge contains facts, concepts,
generalizations principles and so forth, process or skills includes “(i.e, reading , writing,
calculating, daring, critical thinking, decision making, communicating) and values (i.e, the beliefs
about matters concerned with good and bad, right and wrong beautiful and ugly).” (Print,
1993, P.14) while selection of the content is one of the most difficult tasks. Content should
meet the educational aims, goals and objectives. Content selection approach varies between
two extreme approaches 1) subject knowledge approach and 2) process approach. Subject
approach claims that content has its own intrinsic value which is based on human knowledge
determined by academic disciplines, process approach is of view that process really is the
content and knowledge is simply a fabric place over the frame work of skills (process).
Selection of content is ideological process which serves the interest of particular social
group and classes. While selecting content for a particular curriculum the developers have to
follow some guidelines so that appropriate selection can be made. Smith et al (1957) has
developed these five standards for subject-matter selection:
Curriculum developers may use these principles with the consideration which is of prime
value. Content selection is the result of practical judgment and scientific investigation, it is a
fact that content selection is highly “political” activity as curriculum developers argue,
negotiate, debate and meet the other concerned personal to control the content.
There are several criteria for selecting appropriate content. Doll (1982) has outlined the
following criteria:
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the validity and significance of the content as disciplined knowledge.
The balance that is being maintained between content for survey content for study in
depth.
The appropriateness of the content fo pupil needs and interest.
The durability or lasting quality of the elements of content to main ideas and concepts.
The learnbility of the content.
The possibility of illuminating the content with data from other fields of knowledge.
(PP123-124)
Moreover, selection criteria should also include value education. This is not end, most
important is that content should contribute towards achievement of wide range of objectives.
Learning experiences, learning activities, teaching learning strategies methods are used
interchangeably. These are all what a teacher does to facilitate the learning within the student.
These activities are integrate related with the content. These activities should have a wide
variety because of:
Not all students learn equally when same strategies are applied.
Certain technology models have more applicability to others what applied to
particular situation / content.
No single method is superior in terms of students in all learning situation (Print.
1993, P.166).
These can act as basis for planning a school programme. It is obvious that education is
an organized attempt to bring change in the behaviour by presenting content and certain
experiences. Learning takes place in “cultural matrix” which has many complications. School
being a social unit itself, has formal and informal structures relationship which have their
particular role. (Wheeler, 1967, P.129) so principles of learning are derived from psychology
wheeler has listed the following twelve principles :
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(i) Learning is an active process and the learner must be involved.
(ii) Learning proceeds more effectively if the learner is an active participant.
(iii) Learning is affected by individual goals, motives and derives.
(iv) Frequent repetition of responses is necessary.
(v) Learning is reinforced by immediate reinforcement.
(vi) For generalization and discrimination wide range of experiences should be
presented.
(vii) Behaviour is function of learners perceptions.
(viii) Similar situation may elicit different responses from different learners.
(ix) Likeness between situations and possibilities may be specified for transfer of
learner.
(x) Group atmosphere affects learning and satisfaction.
(xi) Individual different count towards learning.
(xii) Learning is multiple but focus can be placed on a single objective, other learning
may take place take simultaneously. (P.130).
While making selection of learning experiences, curriculum developers may consider the
principles of validity comprehensiveness, variety, suitability pattern relevance and pupil
participation.
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