Name : Salma Manzoor

F. Name : M. Manzoor Alam

Roll # : BY650980

Assignment : 01
Semester : Autumn 2019

Course : Teaching Strategies in

Science Education.
(696)

Tutor Name : Abida Parveen

Address : R-11/12 Star Homes, ground floor, Nipa, Karachi.

E-mail : [email protected].
Q.No.1: What is nature of science ? What is the role of scientific method in
understanding of nature of science education ?

Ans:

Nature of Science:
Advocacy for student’s understanding of science and its nature can be traced back to
the early years of this century. Although at that time the phrase understanding the nature of
science was not clearly stated, some elements and characteristics of science were noted as
goals worth pursuing in science teaching. For example, Lederman, (1992) reported that the
central association of science and math teacher in strongly emphasized the scientific method
and process of science in science teaching. Hodson (1991) Cites Dewey’s 1916 argument that
understanding scientific method is more important than the acquisition of scientific knowledge.
Jaffe (1938) in his high school textbook New world of Chemistry listed nature of science
objection such as a willingness to swing judgment while experiment: are in progress, willingness
to abandon a theory in light of New evidence and knowledge that scientific laws may not be the
ultimate truth. In 1946 James Bryan Conant delivered his famous Terry Lectures at Yale
advocating a historical approach to science instruction. He suggested that all students must
understand tactics and strategies of science. It was not until the second half of this century that
the construct we now call nature of science was stated explicitly. As a major aim of science
teaching by the national society for the study of education, (1960).

There are two major aim of science-teaching one is knowledge and the other is
enterprise. From science courses, pupils should acquire a useful command of science concepts
and principles science is more than a collection of isol and assorted facts……. A student should
learn something about the character of scientific knowledge, how a student has been
developed and how it is used. (Hurd, 1960 P.34).

One of the prim any justifications for the inclusion of the nature of science in science
education comes from Schwab, (1964) who was both a philosopher and science educator. He
correctly observed that science is taught as an unmitigated rhetoric of conclusions in which the
current and temporal construction of scientific knowledge are conveyed as empirical, literal and
irrevocable truths. (P.24)

At the turn of the decade, several important books were published advocating and
defining elements of the nature of the science necessary for inclusion in school science
curricula. Robinson, (1968) in the nature of science and science teaching provided science
educators ready access to the philosophy of science for the first time. In his book, Robinson
provided an overview of the nature of physical reality, aspects of physical description including

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probability, certainty and causality and view of the nature of science in various science
disciplines. He concluded with considerations for the interplay between science instruction and
the nature of science in concepts of science education. A philosophical analysis, Martin (1972),
reiterated many of the arguments put forward by Robinson in supporting Nos in science
instruction. In addition, he reviewed many of the important concepts. From the philosophy of
science including the value of inquiry learning, the nature of explanation and the character of
observation both in science and in science learning. In the section on goals of science education
he specifically stated that student should acquire a range of scientific propensities.

The nature of Science in Science Education: A Rationale

The current state of student’s and teacher’s knowledge of nature of science.

A number of studies exist document student’s misconceptions concerning the nature of

science (Clough, 1995, Lederman, 1992, Rubba Horner & Smith, 1981), Ryan and Aikenhead
(1992) collected the responses of more than two-thousand upper secondary students,
concluded that they concluded that they confused science with technology and were
superficially aware of the private and public side of science and the effect that valise have on
scientific knowledge. Moreover, they reported that:

 46% help the view that science could rest on the assumption of a interfering deity.
 Only 17% were certain of the inventive-character of scientific knowledge.
 19% believed that models are actual copies of reality.
 Only 9% chose the contemporary view that scientists “use any method that might get
favorable results”. And
 64% of students expressed a simplistic hierarchical relationship in which hypotheses
become theories and theories become laws, depending on the amount of proof behind
the idea.

The role of scientific method in understanding of nature

of science education:
While acknowledging that a number of out of school factors misrepresent the nature of
science, overwhelming evidence exists that school science is at least equally culpable. Almost
50 years ago Anderson (19 ) concluded that teachers were more concerned with imparting
science facts than helping student understand the processes of science – an indication that
something was awry regarding teacher’s nations of the nature of science. Miller, (19 ) after

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conducting on of the earliest and frequently – cited studies of teacher’s views of the image of
science concluded that many science teachers and their students failed to demonstrated
understanding of how science works. Several years later, Schmidt (1967), replicated Miller’s
study and made essentially the same conclusions Elkana (1670), claimed that teacher’s
understanding of the philosophy of science trailed developments in the philosophy of science
by some twenty to thirty years. In 1978 Cawthron and Rowell concluded that science teacher
take a naïve – realist position of science, maintain that scientists have particular characteristics
and employ scientific method to account for the achievement of science four years. In later
they argued (Rowell and Cawthron (1982) that many science teachers subscribe to an
inductivist – empiricist outlook of science. Brush (19 ) noted that science teachers are not
generally aware of the social and cultural construction of scientific thought. Before (19 ) in his
review of the history of science education states that the positivist view of the philosophy of
science from the last century still informs much classroom practice and pervades most available
curriculum materials. Melado (19 ), reports that while the preserves science teachers, in his
small study showed more multi – faceted. Nos views that a positivist empirical label implies,
they were insecure and contradictory in their statements and admitted they had never before
reflected on the epistemology of science. Tragically, too often science teachers simply do not
included nature of science issues in the design of the science learning plans (Bell et al. 1997,
King 1991: Lakin and Wellington 1994) likely because they lack knowledge of them.

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Q.No.2: Explain the need and importance of taxonomy of educational objectives for
science learning. Elaborate the role of psychomotor for science learning.

Need and importance of taxonomy of education

objectives for science learning.
It is customary to think of objectives in three aspects: Cognitive , affective and
psychomotor Bloom and others who developed Caxonomies of education objectives. Cognitive
objectives deal with intellectual results knowledge concepts and understanding. Affective
objectives include the feelings, interests attitudes and appreciations that may result from
science instruction. The psychomotor domain includes objectives that motor development,
muscular coordination and physical skills. Tradinonally cognitive objectives have received fro
more attention over the years than affective or psychomotor objective with increased attention
to behavioral objectives and performance competencies the cognitive area becomes fertile
ground fro writing objectives that performance in science knowledge and conceptual
understanding. Still science teachers should not omit important learning results in the affective
and psychomotor domains.

Your understanding of the three domains will be one of the most helpful aids in
formulating objectives for science teaching. We have used categories from the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains as the basis for tables summarizing instructional objective
in science (See tables 8.1 through 8.7). The tables are based on the original work of Bloom et
al……… Krathwohl et al…….. and Gronlund. The domains are arranged in a hierarchical order,
from simple to complex learning results. The cognitive domain starts with acquiring simple
knowledge about science and proceeds though increasingly more difficult level –
comprehension, application, analysis , synthesis and evaluation. The categories are inclusive in
that higher – level results.

Knowing
Knowledge represents the lowest level of science objectives. The definition of
knowledge for this level is remembering previously learning scientific material. The
requirement is to simple recall, Le ….. bring to mind appropriate information. The range of
information may vary from simple. Facts to complex theories, but all that is required is to
remember the information.

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 Comprehending
Comprehension is the first step beyond dimple recall. It is the first level demonstrating
and understanding of scientific information. It is the ability to apprehend, grasp and understand
the meaning of scientific material. Comprehension is shown in three ways: (1) translation of
scientific knowledge by reordering, (2) showing interrelationship and summarizing material and
(3) extrapolation and interpolation of science knowledge. Here the students can estimate or
predict future trends or infer conseavences between two points or item’s of date.

Applying
Application is the ability to show the pertinence of scientific principles to different
situations. At this level students may apply scientific concepts, methods, laws or theories to
accrual concrete problems.

Analyzing
Analysis requires more than knowledge, comprehension and application. It also requires
and understanding of the underlying structure of the material. Analysis is the ability to break
down material to its fundamental elements for better understanding of the organization.
Analysis may include identifying parts, clarifying relationship among parts and recognizing
organizational principles of scientific systems.

Synthesizing
Synthesis requires the formulation of new understandings of scientific systems. If
analysis stresses the parts synthesis stresses the whole. Components of scientific systems may
be reorganized into new patterns and new wholes, a bringing together of scientific ideas to
form a unique idea, place or pattern could be a learning result at this level.

Evaluating
Evaluation is the highest level of learning results in the hierarchy. It includes all the
other levels plus the ability to make value judgments based on internal evidence and
consistency and / or clearly defined external criteria.

Table 8 – 2
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 Affective domain for science teaching.

Receiving
Receiving or attending to stimuli related to science is the lowest level of learning result
in the affective domain. Receiving means that students are aware of the existence of and willing
to attend to scientific phenomena. When students are paying attention in science class, they
are probably behaving at this level. There are three levels of receiving: (1) awareness that
science related topic and issues exist. (2) Willingness to receive information about science and
(3) Selective attention to science topics.

Responding
Responding means that the learner does something with or about scientific phenomena.
The student not only attends but reacts to science related materials. Learning results can have
three levels of responses: (1) acquiescence, meaning that the student does what is assigned or
required, (2) Willingness, meaning that the student does science study above and beyond
requirements and (3) Satisfaction, meaning that the student studies science for pleasure and
enjoyment.

Valuing
Valuing refers to consistent behavior which indicates the students preference for
science. The valuing level is based on internalized values related to science. Again there are
three levels: (1) Acceptance of scientific values. (2) Preface for scientific values and (3)
Commitment to scientific values. Instructional objectives related to attitudes and appreciation
would be included at this level of the affective hierarchy.

Organizing
Organizing means that the student brings together different scientific values and builds
a consistent value system. Learning result include the conceptualization of scientific values and
the organization of a personal value system based on science. The student is organizing a
philosophy of life based on scientific values.

Characterizing
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 Characterizing means that, in affect the individual has developed a life style based on
the preferred value system, in this case science, the individual’s behavior is learning results
related to general patterns of behavior would be aligned with this level.

Moving
The first level is generally referred to as gross body actions or movement. In its most
basic form, moving is muscular response to sensory stimuli. There are movements of either
upper or lower limbs and coordination of movements involving two or more large parts (limbs,
head , torso ) of the body. Learning results include physical coordination and smooth
movements while in the science classroom.

Manipulating
Manipulating can include movement but adds fine body movements. Here the activity
includes coordinated patterns of movements involving body parts such as eyes , ears , hands
and fingers. Again there are movements of body parts such as hands, feet , fingers:
coordination of movements involving two or more body parts, for example, hand – finger , hand
– eye , ear – eye – hand: and finally, there is the combination of coordinated sequences of
actions involving both moving and manipulation. Learning results include setting up laboratory
equipment and handing and adjusting microscopes.

Communicating
Communicating is activity that makes ides and feelings known to other persons or
conversely makes the need for information’s known. This level is based on movement and
manipulation and extends these levels in that something that is known, felt, or needed as a
result of movement or manipulation is communicated to others, at the most basic level there
are signals involving nonverbal messages through facial expression, gestures, or body
movement: speech, the verbal communication , staring with sounds and progressing to word –
gesture coordinations: and finally, symbolic communication through the use of pantomime
writing , pictures and other abstract forms science teachers are usually interested in learning
results at this level.

Creating

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 Creating is the process and performance that results in new ideas. Creative products in
science or the arts usually requires some combination of moving manipulating and
communicating in the generation of new and unique products here the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor are coordinated in efforts to solve problems and create new idea. If brachiopods
and trilobites can be found in a local limestone quarry, use that resource to teach about fossils
rather than discussing firms that can found only as pictures in books or in exotic collections
from laboratory supply houses. Selection of content is very important. Try to find content that
is both appropriate to your objectives and personally meaningful to your students. An example
related to the first step could be: Each student has predator – prey problem.

Write general statements describing how the student should perform. Begin these
statements with a verb knows, defines, responds (calibrates etc) and then state what it is you
intend to accomplish. It is helpful to write these statements in terms of learning result for the
students. Be sure you have stated only one learning result per objective. Three or four general
objectives should be sufficient for any lesson and six to eight for sets of lesson or units. When
the general objectives are completed, you should be able to relate them to general goals of
science education and to identify and instructional plan or sequence for your lesson. ( See the
first column to table 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7). Following is another example: understands the process of
scientific inquiry.

Write specific objective under the general statements. Again the objective should start
with a verb and state a learning result that is related to the general objective. Usually two or
three specific objectives will be sufficient to describe the specific learning results. You may wish
to change general and or specific objectives after the closer analysis provided by this step. (See
the second and third columns of tables 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7). Following is an example using the
general objective stated in step 3. Understands the process of scientific inquiry.

1- Applies the process to her own problem.

2- Summarizes the process in here on words.
3- Identifies correct and incorrect problem solving procedures in the work of other.

Note that the conditions for good objectives are clear in the example, that is, both the
general and specific objective are clear, since they use a verb and they define observable
learning results. Satisfactory performance of the task can be shown by the student’s ability to
apply the inquiry process to her own problem to summarize the process and to identify correct
and incorrect procedures in the work of other students. Certainly there could be other learning
results for this problem, but this one should serve as example.

Review and evaluate objectives in terms of their comprehensiveness, coherence and

contribution of the science lesson unit or program. The evaluation should identify and

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imbalance between levels of objectives at the lower levels of the cognitive domain we hope
not. Use table 8.5 , 8.6 and 8.7 to help in the review.

Moving
The first level is generally referred to as gross body movement. It involves the
coordination of physical actions or movements. In its most basic form, moving is a muscular
response to sensory stimuli. There are movements of either upper or lower limbs and
coordination of movements involving two or more large parts (limbs, head , torso ) of the body.
Learning results include physical coordination and smooth movements while in the science
classroom.

Manipulating
Manipulating can include movement but adds fine body movements, here the activity
includes coordinated patterns of movement involving body parts such as eyes, ears, hand and
fingers. Again there are movements of body parts such as hands, feet , fingers, coordination of
movements involving two or more body parts, for example hand – finger, hand – eye – hand
and finally there is the combination of coordinated sequences of actions involving both moving
and manipulating learning results include setting up laboratory equipment and handling and
adjusting microscopes.

Communicating
Communication is activing that makes ideas and feelings known to other person or
conversely, makes the need for information known. This level is based on movement and
manipulation and extends these level in that some things that is known , felt or needed as a
result of movement or manipulation is communicated to others. At the most basic level there
are signals involving nonverbal messages through facial expression, gestures or body
movements: speech the verbal communication, starting with sounds and progressing to word-
gesture coordinations and finally, symbolic communication through the from. Science teachers
are usually interested in learning results at this level.

Creating
Creating is process and performance that results in new ideas. Creative products in
science or the arts usually require some combination of moving, manipulating and
communicating in the generation of new and unique products, here the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor are coordinated in efforts to solve problems and create new ideas. Ing to local

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situations. If brachiopods and trilobites can be found in a local limestone quarry, use that
resource to teach about fossils rather than discussing firms that can found only as pictures in
books or in exotic collections from laboratory supply houses. Selection of content is very
important. Try to find content that is both appropriate to your objectives and personally
meaningful to your students. An example related to the first step could be: Each student has
predator – prey problem.

Write general statements describing how the student should perform. Begin these
statements with a verb knows, defines, responds (calibrates etc) and then state what it is you
intend to accomplish. It is helpful to write these statements in terms of learning result for the
students. Be sure you have stated only one learning result per objective. Three or four general
objectives should be sufficient for any lesson and six to eight for sets of lesson or units. When
the general objectives are completed, you should be able to relate them to general goals of
science education and to identify and instructional plan or sequence for your lesson. ( See the
first column to table 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7). Following is another example: understands the process of
scientific inquiry.

Write specific objective under the general statements. Again the objective should start
with a verb and state a learning result that is related to the general objective. Usually two or
three specific objectives will be sufficient to describe the specific learning results. You may wish
to change general and or specific objectives after the closer analysis provided by this step. (See
the second and third columns of tables 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7). Following is an example using the
general objective stated in step 3. Understands the process of scientific inquiry.

1- Applies the process to her own problem.

2- Summarizes the process in here on words.
3- Identifies correct and incorrect problem solving procedures in the work of other.

Cooperative Learning Model for Science Education.

David Johnson, Roger Johnson and their colleagues have developed a substantial
research base for the use of a cooperative learning model. Over the years the Johnsons have
also developed the practical instructional approach based on their modal. The discussion in this
section is based on their recent book circles of learning cooperation in the classroom.

There are four basic elements that must be included in cooperative learning models to
be truly cooperative small groups must be structured for positive interdependence, face-to-face
interactions, individual accountability and use of interpersonal and small group skills.

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Advantages
There are the following advantages.
Students get positive and interdependent relationship.

Positive interdependence is established when students perceive that they are in positive and
interdependent relationships with other members of their group. There are several ways of
achieving positive interdependence. You can establish mutual goals for the groups a division of
labor for a mutual task: dividing materials, resources or information so group members will
have to cooperate to achieve their task: assign students different roles such as recorder,
researcher, organizer etc: or joint rewords for the group can be given.

Face to face interaction give confidence :

Face-to-face interactions among students is a central aspect of cooperative learning.
Cooperative work and verbal exchanges among students from the learning experience.

Students Learning the Social Skills of Collaboration:

Students have to learn to use interpersonal and small group skills, students are not
naturally skilled cooperative learning. They must be taught the social skills of collaboration,
they must be given time and experience in collaboration and they must be taught to analyze
the group process to see if affective working relationship have been maintained.

Students Learn the Skill of Cooperation:

Science teachers will have to teach students the skills of cooperation. This statement
leads to the obvious questions, what skills need to be taught ? and how does one teach these
skills ?

We refer again to circles of learning cooperation in the classroom.

(1) Forming Skills:

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 That is the basic skills needed to organize a group and establish norms of behavior for
cooperative interaction into without undue noise and unnecessary interaction with other
students.

(i) Students should stay in their group.

(ii) Students should speak softly.
(iii) Students should encourage each other to participate.
(iv) Students names and look at each other during discussions. Students avoid sarcastic
remarks or put down of other people.

(2) Group Functioning:

Group functioning is the second skill level that will need to be developed. Here the lessons
involve those skills that will maintain the group and facilitate affective working relationships
some important skills of group maintenance are:

 Students should understand the purpose, time allotment and most affective procedures
to complete their work.
 Students support for each other ideas and work should be expressed.
 Students should feel to ask for help, information or clarification from other group
members or the science teacher.
 Students might learn how to paraphrase and or summarize on other student’s ideas.
 Students as appropriate, student should learn how to express their feelings about the
assignment and or group process.

(3) Formulating understanding of the concepts,

processes and skills of the assigned lesson:
The next phase described by Johnson et at. is that of formulating understanding of the concepts
processes and skills of the assigned lesson. The skills are designed to maximize each students
earning here some suggestion:

 Each student should summarize aloud – the important ideas contained in the material
assigned.
 Other students should correct and clarify summaries.
 Students should elaborate on each other’s summary.
 Students can give hints about ways to remember ideas.
 As all group member to participate in the discussion.

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Fermenting:
The last stage is that of fermenting the point here is to have students develop skills that
will help reconceptualize and extend ideas. At this level there is already a firmly developed
group. Structure, so if it is possible to introduce challenges confect and controversy. Because of
the skills already developed situations that challenge have the possibility of bringing about
deeper thinking, more synthesis of ideas, gathering of more information and constructive
arguments about conclusions , decisions and solutions in this case the science teacher may be
person who bring about the extension of ideas, it is possible even desirable for students to
function at this level the teacher will have to decide about the degree of group development
and level of interaction as this level is reached. Skills that facilitate this stage include:

 Students criticize ideas not other students.

 Students clarify disagreements within the group.
 Students synthesize different ideas into a single statement.
 Students ask other students to justify their conclusions.
 Students ask probing, clarifying questions.
 Students generate several answer or conclusions and select the best for the given
situation.
 Students understand to need for group skills.
 Students understand to skill and when to use it.
 Students have time and situations when they can practice the skills.
 Students have the opportunity and procedures for discussing their use of group skills.
 Students continue using the skills until they are a natural part of group work.

Disadvantages :
Locking in individual accountability for learning:
Though they work in groups. Students must still be individually accountable for learning
the assigned materials cooperative learning is not having one person do a report for two or
three others. The aim is for all students to learn the material. In order to accomplish this , it is
necessary to determine the level of mastery of students and then assign groups to maximize
achievement.

Time Taking:
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 In this method it takes time as making groups of student assign work to each group then
individual student.

Dependent on group work:

As in this method we work in groups so there is still a time and place required for
individual and competitive learning.

Extra effort is required:

This method requires extra effort as a teacher have to careful to individual student
learning and space is required to get the individual and competitive learning.

Q.No.4: How discussion techniques are helpful for conceptual clarity ?

Enlist rules for learning discussion ?

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How discussion techniques are helpful for conceptual
clarify:
The classroom discussion is one of the most powerful strategies that a teacher can use
to facilitate cognitive and affective gains in students. This approach can be used to provide
students with opportunities to clarify their own values and make informed decisions with
regard to everyday social decisions problems. I can also be used to promote inquiry and
develop problem-solving skills.

There is a strong agreement among science educations that contemporary social issues
must context the discussion method provides ways to facilitate the exchange of ideas on social
issues and topics that require the students to make judgments and clarify their own values.
Though the discussion the students will come to understand the issue with increased depth and
comprehension. By listening to the positions of others and by presenting here position, the
students will be able to clarify their own values as well as gain insight and understanding other.
In short , discussion of social issues will facilitate students understanding of each other and
their ability to make informed decisions about science – related societal issues, the science
teacher can also use the discussion method to promote inquiry through discussion the teacher
can challenge the students to discover things for themselves by setting up situations that can
stimulate and prompt them to ask questions, assimilate and analyze information and draw their
own conclusions. The discussion method provides an opportunity to involve student in
discovering new knowledge for themselves the advocates of the discovery method draw
support from cognitive psychologists Piaget and Bruner. Bruner in particular, who has been a
great proponent of this method states that the emphasis on discovery indeed helps the child to
learn the rarities of problem solving of transforming information for better use, help him to go
about the very task of learning (1966, 9.87).

The teacher who knows how to ask good questions that motivate students to learn,
think and discover will be able to conduct fruitful discussion sessions where students will be
able to understand a topic in depth and with clarity teaching, according to Bruner (1962, P. 83),
must provide the intellectual potency to simulate students to find things out for themselves
and thus gain knowledge on their own. This can occur through discussions, but students also
learn the procedures to discover this knowledge and through discussions the teacher can show
them ways to understand generalizations in order to gain further insights about the topic under
consideration.

The experiences a student gains through classroom discussion are valuable at many
levels, open discussion among student tends to enhance mutual respect. Self – esteem,

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cooperation and communication skills in addition discussions that are directed toward the
solution to a problem facilitate cognitive gains such as critical thinking, inquiry , process skills
and overall achievement.

Once a student learns that she can produce knowledge on her own by being an
independent thinker, she will be able to use these methods throughout her whole life during
adulthood when there will not be a teacher to lead and prompt her. In short, the discussion
helps students become independent thinkers and consequently, good citizens in a democratic
society, where freedom of thought and expression are highly regarded and cherished.

Rule for leading discussion:

These are the following rules.

To handle many different situation:

The teacher who leads a discussion must be able to handle my different situations with
tact. It is the teacher’s task to select the participate who wishes to speak when several students
want the floor at the same time. The teacher must be patient as he listens to rambling and
irrelevant comments. He must be able to end them as promptly as possible without being
discourteous and then direct attention back to the subject under consideration.

The topic has must to do with the success of a discussion:

The topic has must to do with the success of a discussion some topics are not
appropriate for class discussion others are very suitable. First to topic must be one about which
students have knowledge, only then it is possible for them to do more than speculate idly.
Controversial issues on which students take a stand also can make excellent subjects for
discussion these issues may deal with matters of current interest such as the abortion issue, the
current versus-evolution controversy , drugs and others. They may deal with topics centered
around questions, that require problem-solving skills to answer, for example, statements such
as: some feel that all complex behavior are learned , while others believe that many behaviors
are inherited which position do you support and why sedimentary rocks can be distinguished
from classes of rocks on the basis of bedding, color, fossils, ease of breakage and porosity which
do you feel are the poorest criteria to use as distinguishing characteristics and why excellent
discussion often center around confecting laboratory data.

Topic that are concerned with indisputable facts:

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 Topic that are concerned with indisputable facts do not lend themselves to discussion
unless students are uncertain about the possible for instance, to discuss the properties of air if
the students in a class already know these properties. The only discussion possible in such a
case would involve a review of the properties of air.

Participate in future discussion if the practice continues:

A teacher is frequently faced with the problem of dealing with students who contribute
irrelevant and facetious remarks. In such a case it is good practice to treat all remarks as serious
ones. Sometimes students blurt out statements that seem irrelevant to the discussion. Courtesy
demands that het teacher recognize the student and perhaps with a brief comment indicate to
her why the point that was made does not have relevance. If the student is serious, she will
understand why the comment did not fit the discussion. The student who continuously
interjects facetious remarks can be dealt with in a private conference at the end of the class
period, during which the teacher can explain that the student will not be given an opportunity
to participate in future discussion if the practice continues.

Teacher should not try to answer all question:

Teachers should not try to answer all question that arise during the discussion. There
are only a few teachers who have the background necessary to respond to all questions. With
care and accuracy more important, when a teacher answers a questions, it tends to during to
an end the intellectual activity that initiated the question. If a student asks, will this piece of ice
float in kerosene and the teacher responds by saying “Yes” there is nothing more to say or do.
But if the student is told, why don’t you try it and find out the teacher is initiating a real learning
situation.

To set the stage for problems can be solved by the class:

Relevant questions can be used to set the stage for problem to be solved by the class, by
groups and by individuals. Sometimes interested students can be detached from the rest of the
class and assigned to group to work on a problem, more often, the teacher must explain why a
particular question cannot be dealt with during the class but that it would be possible to make
attunements for the student to follow up her interest at a later date. Much depends on the
nature of the question and the teachers ability to see if the question has potential for future
discussion.

To be unusually stimulating to maintain students:

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 A class discussion generally wanes after several minutes of interaction most students
have difficult giving their undivided attention to discuss that last an entire period, because, in
reality only one student can actively participate at a time, others sit trying to listen intently to
what is being said. The larger the discussion group, the less often a student can participate
actively. The topic would have to be unusually stimulating to maintain student’s attention on
one topic for a significant amount of time.

The teacher must take care to avoid boredom:

What happens in many situations involving discussion is that a few students dominate
the discussion while others sit and contribute little on nothing, the teacher must take care to
avoid boredom, which may result in discipline problems. Short discussion periods are generally
more effective than long ones and avoid the possibility of students, mischievousness and other
activities that can degenerate into discipline problems.

Q.No.5: Define demonstration strategy. Write different steps for planning

demonstration of a scientific concept ?

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Demonstration Strategy:
A demonstration has been define as the process of showing something to another
person or groups. Clearly, there are several ways in which things can be shown. You can hold up
an object such as a piece of sulfur and say, this is sulfur or you can state sulfur burns light some
sulfur and shown that it burns, showing in this way mainly involves observation or verification.
Mr. O’Brien’s use of demonstration was of this type, a demonstration can also be given
inductively by the instructor asking several questions but seldom giving answer, an inductive
demonstration has the advantage of stressing inquiry, which encourages students to analyze
and make hypotheses based on their knowledge, their motivation is high because they like
riddles and in an inductive demonstration they are constantly confronted with riddles. The
strength of this motivation becomes apparent if your strength of this motivation becomes
apparent if you consider the popularity of puzzles. Inviting students to inquire why something
occurs, taxes their minds and require them to think, thinking is an active mental process. The
only way in which students learn to think is by having opportunities to do so an inductive
demonstration provides this opportunity because student’s answers to the instructor’s
questions act as feedback. The teacher has a better understanding of the student’s
comprehension of the demonstration. The feedback acts as a guide for future questioning until
the students discover the concepts and principles involved in the demonstration and the
teacher is sure the know its meaning and purpose.

Demonstrations, in addition to serving as simple observation of material and verification

of a process, may also be experimental in nature a demonstration can become an experiment if
it involves a problem for which the class, students particularly like experimental demonstrations
because they usually have more action. Students enjoy action not words! They love to watch
something happening before their eyes.

Demonstration versus Individual Experimentation:

Educators have stressed the importance of self-in-struction and less reliance on large-
group or class instruction education should be preparation for life and part of that preparation
must be to ensure that the individual continues to learn long after formal education ends, it is
important that the school reinforce habits and patterns of learning which will prepare the
individual to continue his education many years after he leaves organized instructions
laboratory work, because it involves the individual directly in the learning process, as well as
imparting working skills, is thought to be superior to teaching by demonstration a person
working on a laboratory problem has learned far more than just the answer to the problem. He

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may learn to be efficient, self-reliant and analytical to observe, manipulate , measure and
reason to use apparatus and most importantly, to learn on his own individual laboratory
experimentation helps to attain these goals better than demonstrations, for this reason
demonstrations should play a lesser role in science instruction, with individual student
investigation receiving top priority.

Steps for planning demonstration of a scientific concept:

To plan an efficient and effective demonstration requires extensive organization and
consideration of the following points.:

1- The first step is to identify the concept and principles you wish to teach. Divide the
design of the entire demonstration to their attainment.
2- If the principle you wish teach is complex, break it down into concepts and give several
examples for each concept, for example, photosynthesis involves understanding
concepts of radiant energy chlorophyll, carbon dioxide glucose, water temperature, a
chemical change and gases, a student’s memorizing that green plants can make sugar in
light with water results in little understanding if he does not know the meaning of these
concepts.
3- Choose an activity that with show the concepts you wish to teach consult the sources at
the end of sources at the for action activities.
4- Design the activity so that each student becomes as involved as possible.
5- Gather and assemble the necessary equipment.
6- Go through the demonstration at least once before class begins.
7- Outline the questions you will ask during the demonstration. This procedure is especially
important in doing an inquiry-oriented demonstration.
8- Consider how you will use visual aids, especially the overhead projector, to supplement
the demonstration.
9- Decide on the evaluation technique to use.
Write techniques:
(a) Essay have students take notes and record date during the demonstration and then
have them write a summary of the demonstration.
(b) Quiz, have students write answer to questions or prepare diagrams to see if they
really understood the demonstration stress application of principles.

Verbal techniques:

(a) Ask students to summarize the purpose of the demonstration.

(b) Give them problems in which they will have to apply these principles they have learned.

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 10- Consider the time demonstration will take. Try to more it rapidly enough to keep
students attentive prolonged or complicated demonstration are generally undesirable
because they don’t hold students’ attention.

When you plan a demonstration, do it well, with the intention that you will probably use if
for several years. It will then take less time to prepare in the future. Evaluate it to
demonstration immediately after giving it to determine its weaknesses and strengths. Add any
questions which will contribute to the inquiry presentation when you use the demonstration
again.

Ways to present a demonstration:

Of the several ways in which a demonstration is seldom the given a teacher-centered
demonstration is seldom the best way because it does not provide enough student involvement
when students participate actively in giving a demonstration they are more interested and
consequently, learn more.

Planning a demonstration:
A demonstration is a performance and many factors must be considered before the
even takes place, one of the first things a teacher has to decide is whether the strategy is the
best way to handle a particular topic. After this has been decided then factors such as gathering
suitable equipment, visibility, audibility student participation contrasts and climates have to be
well planned by the teacher in order to have a successful demonstration.

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