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Irrigation Code of Practice PDF

The document is the Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development of Malawi in January 2018. It contains guidelines for designing, constructing, operating and maintaining irrigation systems in Malawi. The first part covers designing irrigation systems and includes chapters on introduction, definitions, key performance indicators, and the design process. It provides guidance on assessing site conditions, determining water requirements, selecting irrigation methods, and laying out system components like intake works, conveyance structures, and farm delivery systems. The document also addresses operating and maintaining systems, construction standards, and equipment standards to ensure irrigation systems in Malawi are designed, built and functioning properly. It aims to support the

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Irrigation Code of Practice PDF

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Gift Moloko

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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, IRRIGATION AND WATER DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION CODE OF PRACTICE AND EQUIPMENT STANDARDS

Design Operation & Maintenance

Construction Standards

January 2018
Note:

The Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards has been prepared under the
―Support to the implementation of the Agriculture Sector Wide Approach and Green Belt
Initiative, Component 2: Irrigation‖ fundedby The European Union under the 10th EDF. The
consortium AGRER - TYPSA provided consulting services to the Ministry of Agriculture,
Irrigation and Water Development.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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Table of contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................... 3
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................... 3
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
PART 1: DESIGNING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................. 5
PART 2: OPERATING AND MAINTAINING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ........................................................... 144
PART 3: CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 235
PART 4: IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT STANDARDS ....................................................................................... 301

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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List of abbreviations/acronyms
ASWAp Agriculture Sector Wide Approach
CSO Civil Society Organizations
DoI Department of Irrigation
EU European Union
GBI Green Belt Initiative
ICoP Irrigation Code of Practice
ID Inside Diameter
ISO International Organization for Standardization
MBS Malawi Bureau of Standards
MoAIWD Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development
NAO National Authorising Officer
NKE Non Key Expert
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OD Outside Diameter
STE Short Term Expert
TA Technical Assistance
TL Team Leader
ToR Terms of Reference
WD Working Day

List of tables
Table 1 Variation of vapour pressure with water temperature .............................................................. 27
Table 2 Performance loss at various elevation ..................................................................................... 27
Table 3 Recommended depth of water in open channels .................................................................... 29
Table 4 Recommended side slope for unlined canals .......................................................................... 29
Table 5 Recommended canal bank and field road width ...................................................................... 30
Table 6 Maximum water velocities in different earth materials ............................................................. 31
Table 7 Seepage losses in canals ........................................................................................................ 31
Table 8 Recommended thickness of lining in lined canals ................................................................... 32
Table 9 Other applicable permits and licenses ..................................................................................... 40
Table 10 Approximate values for the maximum basin width (m) .......................................................... 43
Table 11 Furrow lenghts in metres as related to soil type slope stream size and irrigation depth ....... 44
Table 12 Practical values of maximum furrow lenghts in metres depending on soil type slope, stream
size and irrigation depth for small scale irrigation ........................................................................ 44
Table 13 Discharge through siphons, depending on pipe diameter and head ..................................... 46
Table 14 Efficiency of pumping systems ............................................................................................... 51
Table 15 Farm turnouts characteristics ............................................................................................... 182
Table 16 Rates of discharge through spiles ........................................................................................ 187
Table 17 Discharge for iphons for different head and pipe diameter (l/sec) ....................................... 187
Table 18 Guidelines to determine when to stop the water supply onto a border strip........................ 188
Table 19 Maximum precipitation rates to use on level ground ........................................................... 189
Table 20 Precipitation rates reduction on sloping ground ................................................................... 189
Table 21 Suggested maximum sprinkler application rates for average soil, slope and tilth ............... 189

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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Table 22 Problems and suggested solutions in the operation of localized irrigation system ............. 190
Table 23 Sample maintenance management programme.................................................................. 199
Table 24 Pump problems, causes and corrections ............................................................................. 211
Table 25 Example of grouping by canal .............................................................................................. 215
Table 26 Machinery used for road maintenance and land grading .................................................... 219
Table 27 Key quality parameters for iirigation system components ................................................... 254
Table 28 Commonly used construction materials in irrigation ............................................................ 255
Table 29 Requirements for suitable fill material .................................................................................. 262
Table 30 Common concrete mix proportions ...................................................................................... 263
Table 31 Approximate time for handing concrete ............................................................................... 263
Table 32 Common mortar mixes by volume ....................................................................................... 265
Table 33 Sources of project data for performance review .................................................................. 281
Table 37 Pipes and fitting standards ................................................................................................... 304
Table 38 Pumps and fittings standards ............................................................................................... 309
Table 39 ISO Sprinkler standards ....................................................................................................... 311
Table 40 irrigation related Malawi Standards ...................................................................................... 312

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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PART 1: DESIGNING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGNING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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6.1. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................ 48
6.1.1. Classification of sprinkler systems ................................................................................................. 48
6.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages ..................................................................................................... 49
6.1.3. Suitable crops ................................................................................................................................ 50
6.1.4. Suitable slopes .............................................................................................................................. 50
6.1.5. Suitable soils.................................................................................................................................. 50
6.1.6. Suitable irrigation water ................................................................................................................. 50
6.1.7. Efficiency of pumping systems....................................................................................................... 51
6.1.8. Design practices ............................................................................................................................ 51
6.2. CENTRE PIVOT SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................ 52
6.2.1. Advantages and disadvantages ..................................................................................................... 53
6.2.2. Energy requirements ..................................................................................................................... 53
6.2.3. Water quality .................................................................................................................................. 53
6.2.4. Skill requirement ............................................................................................................................ 53
6.2.5. Planning considerations ................................................................................................................. 53
6.2.6. Land area ...................................................................................................................................... 53
6.2.7. Land shape .................................................................................................................................... 54
6.2.8. Land slope ..................................................................................................................................... 54
6.2.9. Soil type ......................................................................................................................................... 54
6.2.10. Water supply ............................................................................................................................. 54
6.2.11. Water quality ............................................................................................................................. 54
6.2.12. Design practices ....................................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 7: LOCALISED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS (DRIP OR TRICKLE)......................................................... 56
7.1 DRIP / TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 56
7.2 ADVANTAGES............................................................................................................................................. 56
7.3 SOIL TYPES ............................................................................................................................................... 56
7.4 PLANNING AND DESIGNING THE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 57
7.4.1 Planning the layout ........................................................................................................................ 57
7.4.2 Designing the system .................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 8: RIVER IMPROVEMENT ................................................................................................................. 60
8.1 OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................................. 60
8.2 PRINCIPAL METHODS .................................................................................................................................. 60
8.2.1 Groynes ......................................................................................................................................... 61
8.2.3 Training walls ................................................................................................................................. 62
8.3 FLOOD PROTECTION ................................................................................................................................... 62
8.4 BANK PROTECTION ..................................................................................................................................... 63
CHAPTER 9: DRAWINGS .................................................................................................................................... 66
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................................................. 68
ANNEX 1: KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS ASSOCIATED WITH IRRIGATION SCHEMES DEVELOPMENT ............................ 70
ANNEX 2: SOME OF THE INFORMATION TO BE OBTAINED FROM SITE VISITS .................................................................. 72
ANNEX 3: DATA TO BE COLLECTED DURING PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDIES ....................................................................... 74
ANNEX 4: SOME OF THE ISSUES TO BE ASSESSED DURING FEASIBILITY STUDIES .......................................................... 76
ANNEX 5: IWRM APPROACHES TO CONDUCTING FEASIBILITY STUDIES ..................................................................... 78
ANNEX 6: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT SCREENING FORM ..................................................... 82
ANNEX 7: SOME STEPS IN THE DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CANALS .................................................................................. 88
ANNEX 8: DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME MEASURING WEIRS ...................................................................... 90
ANNEX 9: HOW TO DETERMINE THE DRAINAGE MODULUS IN A RICE FIELD ................................................................... 96
ANNEX 10: PROCESS OF FORMATION AND APPROVING AN ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............... 98
ANNEX 11: EXAMPLE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (ESMP) ........................................ 100
ANNEX 12: STANDARD DRAWINGS OF MAJOR STRUCTURES................................................................................... 104
ANNEX 13: STANDARD BILLS OF QUANTITIES ........................................................................................................ 118
ANNEX 14: SOME SOFTWARE USED IN IRRIGATION DESIGN ..................................................................................... 140
ANNEX 15: BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 142

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Purpose of the Irrigation Design Code of Practice

1.1.1. The goal of developing irrigation systems is the efficient and
sustainable use of water, energy, labour and capital in the
irrigation industry.
1.1.2. This design code of practice shall provide the guidance on design
of irrigation systems in an economic and environmentally
sustainable manner, in order to achieve the irrigation industry‘s
expectation of acceptable levels of irrigation design practices to
irrigation designers, owners, and operators.
1.1.3. In some circumstances practices and equipment other than those
suggested in the code may be equally relevant in meeting
irrigation industry standards.
1.1.4. The code is mandatory, and is intended to draw authority from all
areas of legislative responsibility within the irrigation industry.

1.2. Context of Design Code of Practice

1.2.1. The Irrigation Design Code of Practice describes the procedures
that irrigation designers must follow to meet the required
performance standards.

1.3. Technical Standards

1.3.1. Standards from other Codes of Practice that are referenced within
this Code of Practice are overseen by the relevant issuing
authority.
1.3.2. The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has
responsibility for the International Standards published under its
name.

1.4. Registration
1.4.1. Requirements 1. No person shall be allowed to practice as an irrigation
engineer unless and only when registered with the Malawi
Irrigation Board and the Malawi Board of Engineers or
equivalent institution as a registered member, (Irrigation Act
2001, Articles 39 and 41; and Board of Engineers Act 1972,
Articles 38 and 40).
2. No firm, contractor, or consultant shall practice as specialised
in irrigation services unless and otherwise registered with the
National Construction Industry Council (NCIC) (NCIC Act
1996, Part VI, Article 20 (1 – 3).

1.4.2. Penalties 1. Any person, firm, contractor, consultant, or their employees

that shall contravene the requirements of registration as
stipulated in the relevant Acts described in Article 1.4.1 (a-b)
above shall be liable to penalties as provided for in the
particular Acts.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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1.4.3. 1. Irrigators shall have access to registers of registered
Access to registers engineers and firms that provide irrigation services,
maintained by the Irrigation Board, Board of Engineers and
NCIC towards implementing their intended irrigation services.

1.5. How the Code of Practice should be used

1.5.1. The Code of Practice includes practices that must be followed by
designers in the design of irrigation systems to ensure acceptable
performance standards. Specific technical data are provided to
help in this respect, with reference to other technical Standards.

1.6. Normative references

1. MS 4:1993 Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (upvc) Type 1, Pressure Pipes and

Fittings (for Cold Water Services) – Specification (Second edition)
2. MS 5:1993 Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (upvc) Pipes and Pipe Fittings for use
above ground in drainage installations – Specification (Second Edition)
3. MS 7:1980 Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (upvc) Pipes Installation – Code of
Practice
4. MS 785-1:2008 Steel for the Reinforcement of Concrete Part 1: Plain bars
5. MS 785-2:2008 Steel for the Reinforcement of Concrete Part 2: Ribbed bars
6. MS 785-3:2008 Steel for the Reinforcement of Concrete Part 3: Welded fabric
7. MS 838:2011 Concrete Works - Code of Practice for Minor Works (First edition)
8. IS0 8779:2010, Plastic piping systems – Polyethylene(PE) pipes for irrigation -
Specifications
9. MBS 324:1992, Black Polyethylene Pipes for the Conveyance of liquids –
Specification-Part 1: Low density polyethylene pressure pipes
10. MBS 617-3:1998, Pipes and Fittings made of unplasticized poly-vinly chrolide (PVC-
U) for water supply –Specification-Part 3: Fittings and joints
11. DMS 838:2009, Concrete works – Code of practice for minor works
12. ISO 21500:2012, Guidance on project management
13. SABS 0164-1:1980, Structural use of masonry - Part 1: unreinforced masonry walling
14. ASAE EP400.2T: 1997, Designing and Constructing Irrigation Wells
15. ASAE EP260.4: 1997, Design and Construction of Subsurface Drains in Humid Areas

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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CHAPTER 2: DEFINITIONS

2.1. Adequacy of irrigation: A measure of the proportion of the target area for
which the soil is restored to a level that equals or exceeds a set level, or
target soil water content

2.2. Application depth: The mean application depth (mm) applied by an

irrigation event during periods of peak irrigation demand. In some
applications, such as for annual crops, the system may be required to
meet a range of application depths to match progressive stages of crop
development

2.3. Application efficiency: The percentage of applied water that is retained

in the root zone, or in the target area, after an irrigation event

2.4. Application rate: The mean precipitation rate of the irrigation system,
expressed in millimetres depth of water applied per hour.

2.5. Application uniformity: The spatial variability of application, defined in a

variety of ways; the most common being distribution uniformity (DU),
coefficient of uniformity (CU) and emission uniformity (EU).

2.6. Available water holding capacity: The difference in moisture content

between field capacity and permanent wilting point, expressed in
millimetres depth of water over a specified depth of soil within the effective
root zone (usually equal to the expected effective root depth of a crop
during periods of maximum water demand).

2.7. Back flow preventer: A device or devices installed in a pipeline to prevent

water flowing in reverse through the system.

2.8. Capital cost: The overall system investment cost ($) or cost per unit area
($/ha) as total or annualised cost. For the purposes of economic analysis,
annualised capital cost may also be expressed as cost per unit volume
($/m3) based on mean annual irrigation demand.

2.9. Crop factor: The ratio of the water requirements of a particular crop to
that of a reference crop (usually average grass pasture).

2.10. Design area: The specific land area in hectares, which the supplier (or
designer) and the irrigation system purchaser mutually understand is to be
irrigated by the irrigation system.

2.11. Design system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare of
irrigated area used in the design of the system.

2.12. Distribution efficiency: A measure of how much of the water supplied to

the Property reaches the application system. It is a function of losses

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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incurred in the conveyance or distribution system, from the point of water
abstraction or entry to the Property (in the case of irrigation schemes) to
the application system.

2.13. Drainage depth: The potential drainage volume based on peak irrigation
demand. This is typically expressed as volume per unit area (m3/ha) or an
equivalent depth per unit area (mm/ha).

2.14. Effective root depth: The depth of soil profile that has enough rooting
density for extraction of available water, if needed. Roots may be found at
depths greater than this value but do not contribute significantly to water
extraction.

2.15. Evapotranspiration rate (ET): The rate of water loss from a combined
surface of vegetation and soil. It includes evaporation of water from the soil
surface, from free water on plants and transpiration by plants.

2.16. Field capacity: The soil water content of well-drained soils after drainage
from initially saturated soils has become negligible. The macro pores of the
soil are filled with air and the micro pores hold water by capillary action.

2.17. Headworks efficiency: A measure of the hydraulic performance of the

intake structure, pump and headworks (excluding pump pressure and
elevation differences) to indicate the extent of pressure loss in the water
supply system between the water supply point and the mainline entry.

2.18. Hydraulic efficiency: A measure of the system hydraulic performance; it

gives an indication of how much pressure is lost between the delivery
(mainline entry) and discharge points (machine entry, hydrant, or take-off
in drip-micro systems), excluding variations in elevation.

2.19. Infiltration rate: The rate at which the soil can absorb water, which
changes according to the wetness of the soil. Infiltration rate is usually
expressed in units of mm/hour.

2.20. Irrigation scheme types

2.20.1. Basin: Water is supplied in a field which has been subdivided into flat
areas of land surrounded by earth bunds. Water entering the basin is
ponded until it infiltrates into the soil.

2.20.2. Border strip: Resembles basin irrigation in that the land is divided into
strips by small earth bunds, however, the field usually slope uniformly
away from the field channel.

2.20.3. Centre Pivot and Lateral Move: These are self-propelled irrigation
systems which apply water to pasture or crop, generally from above the
canopy. They are anchored at one end and rotate around a fixed central
point. Lateral systems are not anchored and both ends of the machine

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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move at a constant speed up and down a paddock.
Centre Pivot and Lateral Move systems require an energy source to move
water from the source to the plant as well as energy to move the machine
on farm.

2.20.4. Dam: An irrigation scheme whose water source is a reservoir formed by

constructing a dam across a river, a stream, or a valley. Reservoirs can be
on-stream or off-stream depending upon their location.

2.20.5. Drip: Drip irrigation (low volume/micro-irrigation) is where water is

delivered on a slow, frequent and accurate basis directly to the root zone
of the plant. The root zone is kept moist but never saturated with water.
The end result is that the plant always maintains the ideal balance
between water and air.

2.20.6. Furrow: Irrigation water is confined to narrow channels (furrows) between

crop rows. The shape of the furrow depends upon soil type, stream size,
and crops being grown. This method is widely used irrigating row crops.

2.20.7. Gravity: An irrigation scheme in which water is supplied to the agricultural

land with gravity force only

2.20.8. Groundwater: An irrigation scheme in which the water source is a shallow

well, a borehole, or other groundwater storage. Water abstraction could be
by centrifugal pumps, submersible pump, treadle pump, solar powered
pump, or other pump mechanism.

2.20.9. Localised: This form of irrigation aims at applying water at the plant root
zone, using such devices as nozzles, micro-tubes, porous pipes, orifices.

2.20.10. Pump (lake/pond): An irrigation scheme whose water source is a lake or

pond and water is abstracted by pumping.

2.20.11. Pump (river): An irrigation scheme whose water source is a river and
water is abstracted by pumping.

2.20.12. Rainwater harvesting: An irrigation scheme that subsistence farmers

themselves have introduced using simple rainwater harvesting techniques
to artificially control the availability of water for crops. This type includes
flood recession schemes.

2.20.13. Sprinkler: This system comprises a network of pipes with sprinklers

attached for spraying water under pressure over the land surface. There
are three types of sprinkler systems: portable, semi-permanent, and
permanent. The systems are connected to a main line normally supplied
by a pumping unit.

2.20.14. Surface: These are schemes whereby water is applied onto the crops on

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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the ground surface and allowed to percolate to roots by gravitational
forces.

2.21. Irrigation system: This comprises all of the equipment required to transfer
water from the water source to the crops in the design area.

2.22. Irrigator: An individual, community, or institution that seeks to develop

agricultural land into an irrigation scheme.

2.23. Leaching: Removal of salts and loss of nutrients beyond the root zone of
plants due to deep percolation of water.

2.24. Mainline: A pipeline within the distribution system that transports water
from the water source to sub units or zone control valves in a system.

2.25. Maximum allowable deficit (MAD): The percentage of available water

that is accepted to be depleted before irrigation is required. Often known
as stress point or critical deficit.

2.26. Mean Annual Flood (MAF): The flood which is estimated to occur in a
river whose magnitude is based on a probability of occurrence or non-
exceedance. In case of ungauged rivers, the following parameters apply in
determining MAF: MAFug (ungauged river), MAFg (gauged river), MAFo
(observed).

2.27. Operating system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare the
system is able to provide the way it is being managed.

2.28. Permanent wilting point: The soil moisture content at which a plant will
die from drought stress. For practical purposes, it is the soil water content
at a soil tension of 15 bar (1500 kPa).

2.29. Planning stage: A period in the irrigation project development process

which covers activities related to the initiation of the project by the client or
irrigators under the guidance of professional registered irrigation services
providers.

2.30. Potential system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare the
system is able to provide in the time available.

2.31. Productivity: The marginal increase in income resulting from the irrigation
system. It is generally expressed as the increase based on mean annual
irrigation demand per unit area ($/ha, may also be expressed as $/mm/ha),
though for economic analysis, maximum and minimum values may also be
of interest.

2.32. Pump terminologies

2.32.1. Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour bubbles in the liquid.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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The reason is in most of the cases is a too low static suction head. The
suction valve should be submerged in the liquid to a depth greater than
the minimum recommended by manufacturers so that no air is sucked in
through vortices when the pump is in operation. Cavitation causes pitting
corrosion at the impeller, pressure drops resulting in a drop in pump
performance.
2.32.2. Diaphragm pumps use a positive displacement design and will deliver a
specific amount of flow per stroke, revolution or cycle. Engine-powered
versions are the most common.
2.32.3. Dynamic Discharge Head is the static discharge head plus the friction in
the discharge line. Also referred to as Total Discharge Head.
2.32.4. Dynamic Suction Head is the static suction lift plus the friction in the
suction line. Also referred to as Total Suction Head.
2.32.5. Head refers to gains or losses in pressure caused by gravity and friction
as water moves through the system. It is most commonly listed in metres
of water. Depending on how the measurement is taken suction lift and
head may also be referred to as static or dynamic head.
2.32.6. High-pressure centrifugal pumps are designed for high-discharge
pressures and low flows. Typically, these pumps will discharge around 10
litres per second and produce heads in excess of 90 metres. These
pumps by design are not capable of handling any types of solids or even
sandy water.
2.32.7. Maximum suction lift is the practical suction lift, at sea level, which is
specified by most pump manufacturer. It is set at 7.5 metres.
2.32.8. Net positive suction head (NPSH) is defined as absolute pressure
(rather than gauge pressure) that is required at the pump inlet for
satisfactory operation. The NPSH of the pump is determined by
measurements carried out on the suction and delivery side of the pump.
This value is to be read from the pump characteristic curve and is
indicated in meter (m). The NPSH of the pump is called NPSH required,
and that of the system is called NPSH available. The NPSHavl should be
greater than the NPSHreq in order to avoid cavitation. NPSH required
(NPSHR) depends on the design of a particular pump, and is specified by
the pump manufacturers. For safety reasons another 0.5 m should be
integrated into the calculation, i.e.: NPSHavl > NPSHreq + 0.5m
2.32.9. Performance of a pump is measured in volume as litres per second and
in pressure as head.
2.32.10. Required flow rate (Q) is equal to the design flow rate for the irrigation
system. In situations where there is more than one design flow rate, the
designer shall consider using a single or multiple pumps, or a variable
speed drive unit or other control methods.
2.32.11. Standard centrifugal pumps common models are in the 50 mm to 100
mm range with flows from 10 to 35 litres per second and heads in the
range of 25 to 35 metres, used in clear water applications only. They will
only pass spherical solids ¼ the diameter of the suction inlet.
2.32.12. Static Discharge Head is the vertical distance from the discharge outlet
to the point of discharge or liquid level when discharging into the bottom of
a water tank.
2.32.13. Static Suction Lift is the vertical distance from the water line to the

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

14
centreline of the impeller.
2.32.14. Submersible pumps have a compact and streamlined design which
makes them ideal for wells and other jobs where space is limited. They
work in the water source being pumped.
2.32.15. Total Dynamic Head is the head that the pump is required to impart to a
fluid in order to meet the head requirement of a particular system. The
total dynamic head is made up of static suction lift or static suction head,
static discharge head, total static head, required pressure head, friction
head and velocity head.
2.32.16. Trash centrifugal pumps can handle large amounts of debris and are
preferred by contractors for desilting at construction sites. The most
common sizes are in the 50 mm to 150 mm range producing flows from 15
to 120 litres per second and heads up to 380 m. They will generally handle
spherical solids up to ½ the diameter of the suction inlet, and up to 25%
suspended solids by volume.

2.33. Readily available water holding capacity: The difference in moisture

content between field capacity and the stress point (equal to a soil suction
of 200-500 kPa), expressed in millimetres depth of water over a specified
depth of soil (usually equal to the expected effective root depth of a crop
during periods of maximum water demand).

2.34. Readily system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare
required to meet the demands of the crop at Peak ET after accounting for
the duration that water is available.

2.35. Return interval: The interval between successive irrigation cycles during
periods of peak demand and no rainfall.

2.36. Return on water use: The marginal change in returns resulting from the
irrigation system. It is generally based on mean annual irrigation demand,
and incorporates cost and productivity elements above. Values can be
expressed as returns per unit area or volume of water ($/ha or $/m 3).
Values can be positive or negative, dependent on system costs,
productivity and crop returns.

2.37. Scheduling coefficient: A ratio to indicate how much additional water

above the mean application needs to be applied to adequately overcome
non-uniform applications.

2.38. Size of irrigation schemes:

≤ 10ha: Mini Irrigation Schemes
11 – 50 ha: Small Scale Schemes
51 – 500ha: Medium Scale Schemes
≥ 501ha: Large Scale Schemes

2.39. Soil texture: refers to the particle size or the relative amounts of sand, silt

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

15
and clay in the soil.

2.40. Surface runoff: An assessment of the potential surface runoff (volumetric)

proportion from the system operating during periods of peak irrigation
demand. Generally, such considerations are limited to surface irrigation
systems and some spray systems.

2.41. System capacity: A measure to assess the ability of a system to meet

total system requirements; crop irrigation demand and losses due to non-
uniformity of application and distribution losses.

2.42. Uniformity coefficient (Christiansens): A measure that defines the

variability of individual application depths from the mean and, therefore,
the impact of overall uniformity. It has most commonly been used in the
description of sprinkler application uniformity, but can be equally useful in
defining field and system uniformity.

2.43. Water holding capacity: The maximum amount of water that can be held
in the soils that is available for plant growth. For practical purposes, it is
the difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

16
CHAPTER 3: KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

3.1. Requirements
1. The designer shall provide quantifiable key performance indicators
which shall be the basis for the evaluation of the performance of the
system, for comparison with industry benchmarks and between
systems and system types.
2. The designer shall provide quantifiable key performance indicators
specific for each system, some of which shall be selected from the list
given in Annex 1.
3. The designer shall provide the following in the design report in order
to comply with this Code of Practice:
 Explicitly state what kpi values will be achieved using the
determined design, if the system is installed correctly; and
 Give sufficient details on what, where, and how to measure,
throughout the irrigation system, in order to verify that the
system is achieving the expected kpi values.
4. The following are some of the key performance indicators:
a. Water use efficiency: measurements of discharge at the
intake, at distribution boxes, and at the fields, determining
losses within the entire distribution system; measurement of
application rates, irrigation intervals in order to meet the crop
demand related to the maximum allowable deficit, flows into
drains, leakages, and all areas that relate to water from
abstraction to drainage from crop fields. This can also be
related to the crop yield.
b. Energy use efficiency: related to pumped irrigation systems,
measurements of energy consumption in providing the
designed discharges, cost of providing and maintaining the
required energy levels. These measurements can also be
related to crop yields.
c. Labour efficiency: related to use of labour for the operation
and maintenance services.
d. Capital efficiency: related to the profitability of the enterprise
as regards investment in management, construction,
operation, maintenance, and other infrastructure compared
to the output from the enterprise.
e. Environmental performance: which is related to the stream or
river yield from the catchment, the stream or river discharges
to sustain the planned and developed irrigation system,
drainage efficiency monitoring stagnation of water in places
and rise in groundwater levels that might result in
salinization.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

17
CHAPTER 4: DESIGN PROCESS

The design process can be conveniently divided into five key components:
a) Planning
b) Pre-feasibility studies
c) Feasibility studies
d) Detailed design

4.1. Planning Stage

4.1.1. Preparatory activities
1. The designer shall undertake several preparatory activities assessing
the needs of the irrigators and the adequacy of the land and water
resources, the environmental considerations, and any other issues
that need to be considered before significant resources are committed
to the project.
2. These activities shall apply to all sizes of irrigation schemes.
4.1.2. Site visit
1. The irrigator shall have a plan for the proposed irrigation development
which shall be the basis for further assessments.
2. The designer shall visit the site in order to confirm the suitability of the
site for the intended development.
3. The designer should prepare beforehand a checklist of issues to be
investigated. Some of the information to be obtained is given in Annex
2.
4. The designer shall hold discussions with the irrigators and land
owners to assess the proposed irrigation development with regard to
water source, land, crops and cropping pattern, livestock, markets,
value addition, organisation for operation and maintenance.
5. The irrigator shall provide all necessary information regarding the site
and the intended development.
6. Should there be several sites that offer options to the desired site, the
irrigator shall guide the designer to all the proposed sites to assess
their suitability for the intended purpose. The designer shall select out
of all the sites the best option for development, and this shall be
discussed with the irrigators.
4.1.3. Identification
1. The designer shall obtain consensus during all consultations with the
irrigators or clients to confirm the suitability of the site and
acceptability of the intended irrigation development. This shall form
the basis for further studies leading to the development of the project.
2. The designer shall conduct site visits as appropriate to obtain more
data and get more familiar with the site – catchment, water source,
proposed intake, irrigation land, the community, soils, crops,
topography.
3. The designer must not:
a. Promise something that cannot be delivered;
b. Force or coerce the client into making decisions;
c. Offer to design an irrigation system without visiting the
project area; nor
d. Attempt to design a system that clearly will not meet the
needs of the client.
4. The designer shall, jointly with irrigators, clients, and stakeholders,
prepare a plan of action for pre-feasibility and feasibility studies

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

18
leading to the preparation of the irrigation project on the agreed site,
once the proposal for irrigation development has been deemed
feasible.
5. The designer shall refer to all available land laws relevant to the
proposed irrigation development, and get consensus with the
developers before further action.

4.2. Pre-feasibility Stage

4.2.1. Data collection
1. The designer shall access all data that the client has on the intended
project.
2. The designer shall obtain data from other sources that shall include
and not be limited to the following:
(i) Maps of Malawi (1:250000 for project site location),
topographical maps (1:50000), aerial photographs and
GIS data – Department of Surveys
(ii) Hydrological and hydrogeological data – Department of
Water Resources
(iii) Soil classification, land classification and capability maps
– Department of Land Resources Conservation.
(iv) Climatological data – Department of Meteorology and
Climate Change
(v) Environment and Catchment Management –
Environmental Affairs Department.
(vi) Agronomic data – Department of Crops and Department
of Agricultural Extension Services.
(vii) Sociological data – National Statistics Office.
(viii) Water abstraction – Water Resources Board.
(ix) Land issues – The Department of Lands
3. Some of the data to be collected is proposed as in Annex 3.
4. Access to other sources of data shall be facilitated by the Department
of Irrigation.
5. Where water rights permits have been granted on the watercourse,
the designer shall obtain a copy of the permit and ensure that the
design takes into account all these existing permits before confirming
the availability of water for irrigation. The client should be encouraged
to obtain their own permit for the water to be abstracted to ensure
availability of water.
4.2.2. Assessments
1. Pre-feasibility, feasibility and detailed design, shall be done
dependent upon the size of the intended irrigation scheme. For mini
and small scale irrigation schemes, it would be sufficient to do pre-
feasibility studies leading to detailed design. However, for medium
scale and large irrigation schemes, all three stages must be done
because of the scale of the effects of development.
2. The designer shall carry out pre-feasibility studies on the agreed
project proposal in consultation with the client, irrigators, and other
stakeholders.
3. The designer shall prepare a checklist derived from the preparatory
stage that should guide the conduct of the assessments.
4. The designer shall collect and review all pertinent data on the project
from various sources in the process of designing the project. The
designer shall resort to other methods of generating data where such
data is not available. The methods of generating such data shall be
clearly described.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

19
1
5. In the case of irrigation development where the water resources are
from ungauged rivers and therefore no river flow data is available, the
designer shall determine hydrological data by using an analogue
catchment to modify the MAF whose selection is based on the
following criteria:
(i) Catchment characteristics should be comparable
(ii) Catchment areas should differ by less than a factor of 5
(iii) The distance between the centroids of the catchments
should be less than 50 km
(iv) At least 10 years of annual maximum flood data available
The procedure for adjusting the MAF at the ungauged site if annual
maximum flood data are available from a suitable analogue catchment
is as follows:
(i) Apply the appropriate regional MAF equation to estimate
the MAF at the ungauged site (MAFug)
(ii) Apply the same regional MAF equation to estimate the MAF
at the gauged site (MAFg)
(iii) Analyze the annual maximum flood series at the gauged
site to determine the observed MAF (MAFo)
(iv) Adjust MAFug by the ratio MAFo/MAFg
6. The designer shall conduct an environmental screening of the
proposed project and identify all environmental and social impact
issues, and propose remedial measures. The outcome of the
screening shall be a recommendation of whether or not to go into a
full environmental and social impact assessment.
7. The designer shall assess the project and provide options on the
development of the project. The options shall provide details of pros
and cons of development approaches and strategies, and costs and
benefit analyses that will be presented to and discussed with the
client, irrigators, stakeholders to decide on the best option that will be
subject to further investigations (feasibility studies).
8. Further assessments on the proposed area for development into an
irrigation scheme shall cease when the pre-feasibility study deems the
site unsuitable for development.
4.3. Feasibility Stage
2
The feasibility study goes into more detail of the aspects investigated during the pre-
feasibility stage, and results in options of development out of which the most viable one
would be selected for detailed design leading to eventual implementation.
4.3.1. Data collection
1. The designer shall collect and review data as required in addition to
that already collected during pre-feasibility studies, in order to fill in
the identified data gaps.
4.3.2. Assessments
1. The designer shall conduct feasibility studies as an integral part of
project preparation, examining the social, technical, financial, and

1
More details can be obtained from the publication ―Hydrological Design of Small Earth Dams in Malawi, Volume
1 – Guidelines for Flood Assessment and Estimation of Reservoir Yield for Small Ungauged Catchments‖
(February, 1999)
2
Additional details on the contents and conduct of feasibility studies for irrigation projects can be obtained in the
publication FAO Irrigation Manual Vol. 1, Module 1: Irrigation Development: a Multifaceted Process

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

20
environmental feasibility of the project, to enable irrigators and
financiers make an investment decision. Some of the issues to be
assessed are presented in Annex 4.
2. The designer shall conduct feasibility studies on the option selected
and agreed upon by the client, irrigators, and stakeholders, as the
most viable during the pre-feasibility studies.
3. The designer shall conduct feasibility studies utilising the integrated
water resources management (IWRM) approaches. More
information on steps of IWRM approaches is presented in Annex 5.
4. Feasibility and detailed design, shall be done dependent upon the
size of the intended irrigation scheme. For mini and small scale
irrigation schemes, it would be sufficient to do feasibility studies
leading to detailed design. However, for medium scale and large
irrigation schemes, all three stages must be done because of the
scale of the effects of development.
5. The designer shall present several options on approach and
strategies of implementing the project selected and agreed during
the pre-feasibility stage. The options shall provide details of pros
and cons of development approaches and strategies, and costs and
benefit analyses that will be presented to and discussed with the
client, irrigators, stakeholders to decide on the best option that will
be subject to further investigations (detailed design studies).
6. The designer or an independent specialist shall conduct a full
environmental and social impact screening in order to assess the
magnitude of the impacts whether or not a full environmental and
social impact assessment would be required in compliance with the
Malawi Environmental Management Act 1996 and the Water
Resources Act 2013, Articles 4(b) and 6. The screening form is
presented as Annex 6.

4.3.3. Irrigation Scheme Layout Design 3

Design 1. The designer shall prepare designs of the irrigation system
process consisting of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a
conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application
system, and a drainage system (Figure 1), taking into consideration
the topography and topographical features of the land.

3
Some software that can be used in irrigation system design is presented in Annex 14.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

21
Figure 1 Example of an irrigation system

2. The designer shall design the layout of the irrigation system with the
objective of minimising the construction cost of the scheme.
3. The designer shall provide a complementary drainage network to
remove excess surface water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation),
and, if necessary, a field drainage network to control the ground
water levels.
4. The designer shall provide for flood protection measures where the
irrigation infrastructure is likely to be inundated by floods.
5. The designer shall provide for a field application system based on
crops, topography, soil characteristics, and efficiency of application.

4.3.4. Main Intake Structure Design

Design 1. The designer shall provide for a main intake of a type depending
process upon the source of water and method of abstraction (river diversion,
pumping, tubewell, shallow well, or reservoir). A perfect offtake
structure should have the following characteristics:
(i) Deliver the water a farmer needs to meet the water
requirements of a cropping pattern;
(ii) Deliver accurately the amount of water required (within
5%);
(iii) Minimal hydraulic losses;
(iv) Water delivery which is independent from fluctuations in
the upstream and/or downstream water levels in the
tertiary canal;
(v) Practical and economical;
(vi) Easy to adjust for varied discharges; and
(vii) Sturdy and tamper proof, not possible to adjust it illegally.
2. The designer shall provide for a direct run-of-the-river abstraction
mechanism on rivers with a stable base flow and a high enough
water level throughout the year in relation to the bed level of the
intake canal.
3. For run-of-the-river abstraction, the designer shall locate the intake
structure at a straight reach of the river, placed on the outside of a

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

22
bend, in order to minimise silt intake. Bank protection shall be
provided for where the river channel banks are unstable.
4. Where the base flow water level fluctuates greatly over the year and
the water level gets below the gate opening to the offtake structure,
the designer shall consider the following options:
(i) Select an offtake site further upstream, mindful of the
costs due to the increased length of the canal and site
conditions.
(ii) Construct a cheap temporary earthen dam and temporary
diversion structure, where high expenses for a permanent
structure are not warranted because of the danger of the
river changing its course.
(iii) Construct a permanent diversion dam or structure (weir or
gate) across the river, where the design elevation of the
weir should relate to the design water level in the
conveyance canal.
5. In the case of a weir, the designer shall locate the weir in a stable
part of the river where the river is unlikely to change its course. The
designer shall observe the following:
(i) The weir should be kept as low as possible but high
enough to fulfil command requirements.
(ii) The selected location should have firm, well defined banks
to prevent wash-away during floods. Where possible, the
site should have good bed conditions, such as rock
outcrops.
(iii) The weir height shall match the design water level in the
conveyance canal, and the weir length shall allow the
design flood to safely discharge over the weir.
(iv) The design flood, which is the maximum flood for which
the weir has to be designed, shall be determined. If data
are available, a flood with a return period of 50 or 100
years could be selected, depending upon the size of the
river. If sufficient data are not available, the designer shall
either generate data using approved hydrological
methods, or check flood marks, upon which the cross-
sectional area can be determined and used, together with
the gradient of the river, to calculate the flood discharge.
The general equation for all weir types is:

Q  C1  C2  B  H 3 / 2
where:
Q = Discharge (m3/sec)
C1 = Coefficient related to condition of submergence and
crest shape
C2 = Coefficient related to crest shape
B = Weir length, i.e. the weir dimension across the river
or stream (m)

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

23
H = Head of water over the weir crest (m)
For values of the coefficients, refer to FAO Irrigation Manual
Module 7 Volume II: Planning, Development, Monitoring and
Evaluation of Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer Participation.
(v) The designer shall provide for protection of the
downstream side of the weir by using a stilling basin to
dissipate the energy of the dropping water. The
parameters used in the design of a stilling basin are
shown in Figure .2

Figure 2 General parameters of a stilling bassin

The empirical formulae to use for the design of a stilling

basin (apron) are:


D  q2 g  z3  Ld
z
 4.30  D 0.27

L j  6.9 xd2  d1 
d1 d2
 0.54  D 0.425  1.66  D 0.27
z z
Where:
D = Drop number (no limit)
q = Discharge per metre length of the weir (m2/sec)
g = Gravitational force (9.81 m/sec2)
z = Drop (m)
Ld = Length of apron from the drop to the point where the
lowest water level d1 will occur (hydraulic jump) (m)
d1 = Lowest water level after the drop (m)
d2 = Design water level after the apron (m)
Lj = Length of apron from the point of lowest water level to
the end of the apron (m)
The apron floor shall have sufficient thickness to
counterbalance the uplift hydrostatic pressure and shall be
sufficiently long to prevent piping action.
6. The designer shall incorporate in the intake as well as in the main
conveyance system appropriate sediment extraction systems to
minimise sediments being transported into the field conveyance
system.
7. In the case of the intake being a pumping station, the designer

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

24
shall observe the following:
(i) Firstly, the designer should confirm the reliability of the
river flow or, in case of a reservoir, whether the amount of
water stored is enough to fulfil the annual irrigation
requirements for the proposed cropping programme.
(ii) Secondly, in the case of river abstraction the designer
shall check the maximum flood level of the river and locate
the pumping station outside the flood level, using either a
portable pumping station or a permanent pumping station,
depending upon the reliability and variability of the river
flows.
(iii) Thirdly, the abstraction point shall not be located in a river
bend where sand and silt deposition is predominant, to
prevent clogging of both the suction pipe and pump.
(iv) Fourthly, where water is to be pumped from a dam or weir,
the abstraction site shall be located outside the full supply
level in case of upstream abstraction, and shall neither be
too close to nor in line with the spillway in the case of
downstream abstraction.
(v) Finally, as a rule, before a final decision is made on the
location of the pumping station, the designer shall visit the
site to verify the acceptability of the site, with the help of
the local people, taking into consideration the above
requirements.
(vi) The designer shall select a pump that that is most efficient
and matches the design.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

25
4.3.5. Pump Selection
Design 1. When selecting a pump, the designer shall observe the following:
process (i) By looking at the various manufacturers‘ pump curves the
designer shall identify a pump that can provide the
discharge and head required at the highest possible
efficiency.
(ii) The designer shall not select a pump when the required Q
and H combination falls outside the performance curve or
when it falls at the fringes of the performance curve.
(iii) The designer shall also take into consideration motor
efficiencies of the various pumps, which are in the range of
0.88 - 0.92. Motors of 7.5 kW or less have motor
efficiencies usually below 0.88. For motors of 75 kW or
larger the efficiency is 0.9 - 0.92. Hence, the tendency is to
use 0.88 for motor efficiency in small size irrigation
schemes.
(iv) The designer shall also consider the speed of the pump in
order to determine the type of drive employed (e.g. direct
coupled electric, belt drive).
(v) If the required Q and H combination falls between two
impeller sizes, the designer shall prefer to use the larger
impeller, but may have to have it trimmed down by the
manufacturers so that it matches the required Q and H.
(vi) The designer shall consider all dependent factors when
determining allowable suction lift, (such as atmospheric
pressure, water vapour pressure, pressure losses, the
required inlet pressure of the particular pump, elevation
(height above sea level) and water temperature).
(vii) For centrifugal pumps, the designer should consider the
following:
a. Suction lift should be kept to a realistic minimum;
b. Actual net positive suction head (NPSH) should be
calculated and be less than the required NPSH
recommended by the pump manufacturer; and
c. The system must be designed in accordance with
manufacturers‘ performance guidelines.
(viii) The designer shall consider the net positive suction head
(NPSH) of the pump provided in the manufacturers‘ pump
characteristic curves and is indicated in meter (m). The
NPSH of the pump is called NPSH required, and that of the
system is called NPSH available. The NPSHavl should be
greater than the NPSHreq in order to avoid cavitation. The
absolute pressure available at the inlet is determined by
adding up the available pressure and subtracting any
pressure used up by losses prior to water arriving at the
pump inlet, i.e. NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure +/- any
static head – friction head (Including minor losses) –
Velocity head – vapour pressure of water at operating
temperature

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

26
Table 1 Variation of vapour pressure with water temperature
Temp. 0C 0 5 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0
Vapour 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1.
press. Of 0 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 7 9 2
water (m) 6 9 3 7 4 2 3 8 6 9 8

(ix) The designer shall note that pump performance

diminishes with higher elevations, whereby atmospheric
pressure is decreased reducing suction lift. For this
reason, the pump should be located as close to the water
source as possible. At high altitudes, atmospheric
pressure is less than at sea level, practical suction limit
decreases by 1 m for every 1000 m of altitude.
(x) The designer shall also note that higher elevations affect
engine performance as well. A rule of thumb is that
gasoline and diesel engines will lose 3% of their power for
every 300 metres of elevation. This is due to the ―thinner
air‖ or lack of oxygen at higher altitudes. The reduced
engine speed results in reduced flow and head.
Table 2 Performance loss at various elevation
Altitude Discharge Flow Discharge Head
Sea Level 100% 100%
610 m 97% 95%
1,220 m 95% 91%
1,830 m 93% 87%
2,440 m 91% 83%
3,048 m 88% 78%
4.3.6. Solar pump systems design
Design 1. A typical solar powered pumping system contains the following
process equipment: a solar array, which converts sunlight into electricity;
system controllers, which control the array and the pump; an electric
motor, which drives the pump; and a water pump, which moves the
water from a source to its delivery point, as shown in Figure .3.

Figure 3 Configuration of solar power system

Source: Solar-powered Pumping in Agriculture: A guide to System
Selection and Design, NSW Farmers, Aug, 2014

2. The designer shall follow the following sequence when designing

solar powered systems:

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

27
Figure 4 The steps involved in designing a solar pumping system
Source: Solar-powered Pumping in Agriculture: A guide to System
Selection and Design, NSW Farmers, Aug, 2014

4.3.7. Irrigation canal network design

Design 1. The designer shall consider all the head losses that occur in the
process system starting from the tail of the field canals to the source of
irrigation water. The minimum acceptable difference between water
level in the field canals and the field level, is usually between 15 to
20 cm. This should be valid at both the head and tail of the field
canals.
2. The designer shall start by determining the minimum required water
level in the field canals, proceed progressively to the tertiaries,
secondary and main canals, and finally determine the minimum
required water level at the canal head regulator. Further steps in
design are described in Annex 7.
3. The designer shall calculate channel dimensions and longitudinal
slope, whether for irrigation or drainage, through iterations with the
Manning‘s formula or other similar formulae.
4. The designer shall define a trapezoidal channel as the preferred
channel geometry, with side slopes set at 45 or 60 degrees. Other
channel geometry types can be used depending upon the prevailing
site conditions.
5. The designer shall provide embankment width such that they are
stable enough against slope failure and that seepage line is kept
well within the embankment. A recommended relationship between
the bed width and water depth in earth canals for discharges up to
15 m3/s is:
Both B and D are in metres
For discharges greater than 15m3 /s, Varsheny recommends the
relationship given in Table 3
.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

28
Table 3 Recommended depth of water in open channels
Q (m3/s) D (m)
15 1.70
30 1.85 D = 1.103Q 0.175
75 2.30 R = 0.93
150 2.60
300 3.00

The same author has constructed a curve to relate B/D to the canal
discharge, Q. Its regression yields the following equation with a
regression coefficient r = 0.98.
B/D = 3.92 Q 0.272
6. The designer shall define canal side slopes based on soil stability,
as is the usual practice. The indicative side slopes to be used are
given in Table 4
Table 4 Recommended side slope for unlined canals
Type of soil Side slopes (H:V)
1. Very light loose sand to average 1.5:1 to 2:1 in cut
sandy soil 2:1 to 3:1 in fill
2. Sandy loam, black cotton soil and 1:1 to 1.5:1 in cut
similar soils 2:1 in fill
3. Sandy soil or gravel 1:1 to 2:1
4. Hard soil 0.75:1 to 1.5:1
5. Rock 0.25:1 to 0.5:1
Source: Irrigation Design and Practice by Bruce Withers and Stanley
Vipond

7. The designer shall determine canal freeboard in small and medium

sized earth canals from the following relationship:

where F = freeboard in metres

D = water depth in metres
C = a coefficient defined below
C = 0.46 for Q = 0.60 m3/s
C = 0.8 for discharges of up to 0.5 m3/sec
C = 0.76 for Q = 0.85 m3/s
C = 1.35 for discharges up to 80 m3/sec
or
4
F = 0.20 + 0.15 Q1/3

4 0.35
F should be within 50 – 60% of water depth, with a minimum of 0.15 m. For lined canals, F=0.15*Q , whereby
3 3
F ranges from 0.40 m for discharges less than 0.5 m /sec up to 1.20 m for discharges of 50 m /s or more. For
3
very small lined canals, with discharges of less than 0.5 m /sec, the freeboard depths could be reduced to
between 0.05-0.30 m.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

29
where, the freeboard F is in metres and discharge Q in m3/s.
Q (m3/sec) 0.70 0.7 – 1.4 1.4 – 8.5 ˃ 8.5
F (m) 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.92

The width of the canal berm should not be less than 0.5 m.

8. The designer shall prescribe the recommended road widths

presented in Table 5 where canal banks shall incorporate roads for
operation and maintenance services and crop extraction. However,
under no circumstances shall canal embankments be less than 0.50
m wide, and the minimum cover over the saturated line should not
be less than 0.50 m. The water line is assumed to have a gradient of
1:4 to 1:6.
Table 5 Recommended canal bank and field road width
3
Q (m /sec) ˃ 30 -10 10 - 5 5-1 1 – 0.30 ˂ 0.30
30
Bank width (m) 5 3.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.6
Road width (m) 6 5 3.5 3.5 1.5 if 1.5 if
needed needed
Depth of cover 1.0 0.75 0.5 0.50 0.5 0.5
over saturation
line (m)

9. The designer shall ensure that the maximum permissible velocity in

earthen channels shall not cause erosion of bottom and side slopes,
neither induce settlement of sediment, nor allow weed growth. The
average and range of suggested maximum velocities for different
soil types and materials are presented in Table 6.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

30
Table 6 Maximum water velocities in different earth materials
Earth material Velocity (m/s)
Sand 0.5 (0.3 – 0.7)
Sandy loam 0.6 (0.5 – 0.7)
Clay loam 0.75 (0.6 – 0.9)
Alluvial silt 0.8
Loam 0.9
Clay 1.2 (0.9 – 1.5
Gravel 1.2 (0.9 – 1.5)
Concrete cast-in-place 2.0 (1.5 – 2.5)
Concrete precast 1.75 (1.5 – 2.0)
5
Bricks 1.5 (1.2 – 1.8)
Source: Surface Irrigation by L.J. Booher, FAO, 1974

10. The designer shall take into account seepage losses in channels
when determining field water requirements. Normally, the discharge
is increased to compensate for these losses by dividing it by the
conveyance efficiency. Indicative seepage loss values given in Table
7 can be used in the absence of more accurate data.
11.
Table 7 Seepage losses in canals
Type of soil Losses in m3/m2 of
wetted
perimeter/day
1. Impervious clay loam 0.07 – 0.10
2. Medium clay loam with impervious 0.10 – 0.15
layer below not exceeding 900mm
in depth
3. Clay loam, silty soil 0.15 – 0.23
4. Clay loam with gravel, sandy clay 0.23 – 0.30
loam
5. Sandy loam 0.30 – 0.45
6. Sandy soil 0.45 – 0.55
7. Sandy soil with gravel 0.55 – 0.75
8. Pervious gravelly soil 0.75 – 0.90
9. Gravel with some earth 0.90 – 1.80
Source: Irrigation Design and Practice by Bruce Withers and Stanley
Vipond

12. The designer shall take into account losses at canal structures in
order to achieve the command over the agricultural area. For

5
The bricks referred to for lining of channels shall be not be of baked clay. Use should be made of other types of
bricks such as soil-stabilised (SSB) or cement bricks.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

31
preliminary design the following values can be adopted, but for the
final design the assumed values must be verified
 Canal offtake: 10 – 15 cm
 Diversion box: 5 – 15 cm for quaternary canals
10 cm for tertiary canals
5 cm for large boxes
 Culvert: 5 cm
 The water level in the quaternary canals must be between
15 and 30 cm higher than ground level for most of the
canal length
 The water level in the canal at 70% of the design
discharge should command the cultivated area

13. The designer shall determine a non-scouring, non-silting velocity for

the terrain through which the canal is constructed when designing
the longitudinal profile of an earth canal. The gradient in main earth
canals usually ranges between 7.5 to 15 cm/km, and in secondary
canals between 12 to 25 cm/km. The recommended maximum slope
for field canals is 1:300.
14. In the event that the earth channels have to be lined, the designer
shall refer to the recommended thickness of lining as given in Table
8.
Table 8 Recommended thickness of lining in lined canals
Velocity (m/s) Thickness of lining (mm)
V ˂ 2.5 70
2.5 ˂ V ˂ 2.75 80
2.75 ˂ V ˂ 3.10 100
V ˃ 3.10 Reinforced concrete t = 1.10 mm
Source: Irrigation Design and Practice by Bruce Withers and Stanley
Vipond

Some of the different types of lining are: clay, stone masonry,

concrete, brick, and sand-cement. The selection of a lining method
depends mainly on the availability of materials, the availability of
equipment, the costs and availability of labour for construction.

4.3.8. Closed conduits design

Design 1. The designer should consider the following when designing
process pipelines: friction losses, flow velocities, soil conditions for buried
pipelines, environmental conditions for surface pipelines, scheme or
pipeline longevity, capital and system operating costs.
2. The designer shall consider friction losses of the outlet pipe and the
conveyance pipe that they shall not exceed the difference in
elevation between the lowest drawdown level and the top of the
scheme or the block of fields. The friction losses (HL) through a pipe
can be calculated using the Hazen-Williams equation:

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

32
Where:
Hf100 = Friction losses over a 100 m distance (m)
K = Constant 1.22 x 1 012, for metric units
Q = Flow (l/s)
D = Inside diameter (mm)
6
C = Coefficient of retardation
3. When both canal and drain meet more or less at the same level, the
designer may consider passing the drain through an aqueduct
(Figure 5) or inverted siphon underneath the canal. Silt ejectors and
trash racks shall be incorporated at the upstream to minimise siting
and deposition of floating debris in the aqueduct. The velocity of
water through the aqueduct should be at least twice the canal
velocity to discourage deposition of sediment, but generally should
not exceed 3.0 m/s.

Figure 5 An aqueduct

4. An inverted siphon (Figure .6) shall be designed for a low head loss.
Normally, the velocity in the siphon should be at least twice the
normal canal velocity and, not less than 1.5 m/s. Maximum velocity
should not exceed 3 m/s. The depth of submergence of the siphon
entrance depends on the slope and the size of the barrel, and can
be taken at 1.5 times of the entrance loss, with a minimum of 0.15m.
The level at siphon exit should be below the entrance level. 'Trash
racks' have to be installed at the entrance of siphons as to avoid the
involuntary entrance by persons or animals and to avoid clogging by
floating debris.

6
The values of ―C‖ are based on the pipe material as follows: (C = 120, 130, and 140 for galvanized steel, cast
iron, and new asbestos cement respectively, and 140 – 150 for uPVC)

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

33
Figure 6 An inverted siphon

5. The designer may opt for the use of siphons to convey irrigation
water by gravity and under pressure over an obstacle or canal bank
into the field. The discharge through a siphon is determined by the
following relationship:

Where:
Q = discharge in m3/s,
h = the energy loss over the siphon,
C = discharge coefficient (is approximately 0.5)
The head (h), is approximately equal to the drop in water level
between the upstream and downstream level.

6. The designer may opt for the use of a culvert where a canal crosses
a natural channel with a skew (Figure 7). The design of culverts is
based on the head loss calculation for tail water control. The velocity
in the wet cross sectional area of the culvert may range from 0.5 to
2.0 m/s, and determines the head loss over the structure. The
designer should also note the following:
(i) S1 should be much steeper than critical slope.
(ii) S2 is usually 0.005 to facilitate dissipation of energy by
hydraulic jump in the pipe without being flat enough to
permit sedimentation in the pipe. The pipe should be under
canal prism with at least 600 mm below the invert of an
earth section canal, and at least 150 mm below the lining of
concrete lined canal.

Figure 7 Section of a culvert of siphon

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

34
4.3.10. Drop structures
1. The designer shall incorporate appropriate drop structures, including
chutes, in steep channels to dissipate energy and to avoid damage
of unlined canals.

4.3.11. Tail-end structures

1. The designer should provide a tail-end structure at the end of the
canal so that excess water can flow safely into the drain.

4.3.12. 7Discharge measurement structures

1. The designer shall incorporate discharge measurement structures in
the water conveyance system for the purpose of maintaining proper
delivery schedules, determining amount of water to be delivered into
channels or fields, detecting origin and quantity of water losses, and
to ensure efficient water distribution.
2. 8The designer shall determine the type of measuring structure
appropriate for the size of canal and discharge from a selection
including weirs (sharp- and broad-crested, Romijn, and Cipoletti,
rectangular contracted, and v-notch), and flumes (Parshall Flume).

4.3.13. Design capacity of canals

1. The designer shall design the tertiary canals for continuous flow for
economic reasons, and design the quaternary canals on a rotation
basis, since most farmers do not irrigate more than 8 - 10 hrs a day.
Where irrigation is restricted to daytime only, the designer shall
incorporate night storage in order to avoid losing night-time water.
2. Whenever possible, the designer shall ensure that irrigation canals
and drains do not run adjacent to each other. Canals and drains
should always be sufficiently far apart to keep the hydraulic gradient
below 1:4.
3. The designer shall locate secondary canals on a ridge, irrigating
areas on both sides of the canal, as far as the bordering drainage
channels.
4. As much as possible, the designer shall avoid irrigating directly from
the main canal.

4.3.14. Drainage system and flood control

1. The designer shall provide for a drainage system to dispose of
excess irrigation water or rainfall, and where the water table is high,
to control the groundwater level. The designer shall thus determine
the amount excess rainfall that needs to be drained per unit area of
land, known as the drainage modulus. Annex 9 shows an example

7
More details on the Romijn weir and other weirs and canal structures can be found in FAO Irrigation Manual
Module 7 Volume II: Planning, Development, Monitoring and Evaluation of Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer
Participation.
8
For discharge characteristics, refer to Annex 8.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

35
of determining the drainage modulus in a rice field.
2. The designer shall be guided by the following probability
percentages of non-exceedance when designing flood control
structures.
Component % T
Top abutment of headworks 0.1 1000
Headworks and nearby works 1 100
Road bridges 2 50
Cross drainage work, river diversion 4 25
Internal project drainage work 20 5
Where the primary irrigation canal could be
damaged by a river flood, the probability ˂ 4%
percentage of non-exceedance should be ˂
4%, sometimes down to 1%

3. The designer shall prepare a Flood Control Plan from the basin-wide
view point, and requires proper coordination with the other plans
such as Irrigation development plan, Road network/bridge plan, and
Environmental management plan.
4. The designer shall consider the effect/influence of other
development plans in the formulation of flood control plan. For
example, the height of levee will affect the design height of bridge.
Likewise, the design riverbed profile will affect the design of the
irrigation intake/canal and other related facilities.

4.3.15. Irrigation scheme selection

1. 9To select an irrigation method, the designer as well as the user
must know the advantages and disadvantages of the various
methods, and which method suits the local conditions best.

4.3.16. Soil - Crop - Water Relationships

1. 10When choosing and designing an irrigation system, the designer
should obtain the necessary soil, crop, and climate data to ensure
that the irrigation system can be designed to match appropriate soil-
crop conditions within the prevailing climatic environment.
2. The designer can also use computer software such as CROPWAT,
CLIMWAT, AQUACROP, in determining soil-crop-water
relationships.
3. The designer shall determine soil water holding capacities following
these steps:
 Obtain local expert advice from institutions that have specific
knowledge about the soils on the property; or
 Refer to GIS soil maps or other soil maps of the region; or

9
More information can be obtained in the FAO Irrigation Manual, Vol.II, Module 7, Surface Irrigation Systems
Planning, Design, Operation and Maintenance.
10
More details can be accessed in the FAO Irrigation Manual Module 4, Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation
Scheduling

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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 Take soil samples and measure water holding capacities
(standard techniques such as oven drying can be used); or
 If no specific information is available, use the estimated soil
water holding capacities of various soils given below:
Soil class WHC (mm/m)
Clay loam 175-190
Silt loam, no stones or gravel 155-165
Silt loams, approx. 30% gravel by volume 110-120
Sandy loam 65-110
Sand 45-55
Source: NZ Irrigation Code of Practice
4. The designer shall ensure that the depth of soil over which water
holding capacity has been determined is known and adjusted for
effective crop rooting depths.
11
5. The designer shall access information on the effective root zone
depths of various crops in order to determine the depths of water
application to facilitate scheduling of water application. As a rule, for
most field corps 40% of the water uptake takes place from the first
quarter of the total rooting depth, 30% from the second quarters,
20% from the third quarter and 10% from the fourth quarters (FAO,
1984).

Rainbird International provides the following guide for the position of

the majority of plant feeder roots of several plants, the effective root
zone depths. Thus, knowing the crop water requirements, the type of
soil and the root zone depth, the designer shall calculate the readily
available moisture for the crop, which is the amount of water that
can be extracted by the crop in the root zone without suffering water
stress.
Crop RZD Crop RZD Crop RZD
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Banana 50 Grain 60-75 Strawberry 30-45
Bean 60 Sorghum 75 Sugarcane 150
Beet 60-90 Nuts 90-180 Sweet 90
potato
Cabbag 45-60 Onion 45 Tobacco 75
e
Carrot 45-60 Groundn 45 Tomato 30-60
ut
Cassav 50 Pea 75 Soybean 60
a
Maize 75 Potato 60 Citrus, 90-150
peach,
Cotton 125 Safflower 150 pear, etc.
Source: Rainbird International

11
Information on effective root zone depths and allowable soil water depletion of various soils can be obtained
from FAO Irrigation Manual Module 4, Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

37
6. The designer shall determine the design flow of the irrigation
system, by taking into consideration the available moisture, the root
zone depth, the allowable moisture depletion, the net peak water
requirements, the irrigation frequency and cycle, and the irrigation
efficiencies.
7. The designer shall determine the net depth of water application
(dnet), which is the amount of water in millimetres that needs to be
supplied to the soil in order to bring it back to field capacity, from this
relationship:
dnet = (FC - PWP) x RZD x P
Where:
dnet = Net depth of water application per irrigation for the
selected crop (mm)
FC = Soil moisture at field capacity mm/m)
PWP = Soil moisture at the permanent wilting point
(mm/m)
RZD = The depth of soil that the roots exploit effectively
(m)
P = The allowable soil water depletion
8. The designer shall determine the Gross depth of water application
(dgross) per irrigation using the following relationship:
dgross = dnet/E
where E is the application efficiency
9. The designer shall determine the volume of water to be delivered
per farm per turn based on the area of the farm and the depth of
water to be supplied, Vol = 10 * Af *dgross. The designer shall then
calculate the design flow of the irrigation system by dividing the
volume of water with irrigation duration.

4.4. Detailed design stage

4.4.1. Investigations
1. The designer shall conduct a thorough and detailed assessment of
the parameters investigated during the feasibility study stage, on the
selected and approved option, culminating in final designs and
construction drawings, final cost estimates of the project expressed
in the bills of quantities, preparation of bidding and tender
documents to facilitate financing and construction of the project.
2. The designer shall include in the investigations, but not be limited to,
the following:
a. Assessment of the proposed irrigation area, including
description, prevailing land use, land tenure, cultural
practices
b. Assessment of available resources, including hydrological
investigations, water quality, abstraction permits, catchment
conditions, human resources, construction materials
c. Topography
d. Soil investigations for agricultural use and construction
e. Detailed design of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure,

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

38
including cropping pattern and crop water requirements,
irrigation system operation and maintenance, all structures
from the intake to the field, conveyance structures, water
application system, drainage and flood control
f. Institutional set up and capacity to operate and maintain the
irrigation infrastructure and cropping system including
disposal of produce
g. Preparation of bidding and contract documents for
construction and supervision of construction respectively
h. Preparation of costs estimates, normally known as
engineering estimates of the project
3. The designer shall prepare the Operation and Maintenance Manual
for the irrigation scheme, which shall be the basis for capacity
building of the operation and maintenance service providers.

4.4.2. Environmental and social impact assessment

1. 12An independent Environmental and social impact assessment shall
be conducted as an integral part of the investigations being done by
the designer. Mitigation measures shall be incorporated into the
technical design of the scheme. The process of conducting and
approving an environmental and social impact assessment is
presented in Annex 10.
2. The designer or an independent specialist shall prepare an
environmental and social management and monitoring plan (ESMP),
a resettlement policy framework (RPF), and/or a resettlement action
plan (RAP) (where necessary) which shall provide the guidelines for
monitoring the implementation of the recommendations from the
environmental and social impact assessment. An example of the
environmental and social management plan (ESMP) is shown in
Annex 11.

12
For complete details of how to conduct the environmental and social impact assessment, refer to National
Environment Management Act, No. 23 of 1996, the National Environmental Policy 1996, and the EIA Guidelines
for Irrigation and Drainage Projects published by the Environmental Affairs Department.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

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4.4.4. Permits and licenses applicable to irrigation development projects
1. The developer is required to obtain an EIA Certificate before any
development operations can commence on the land.
2. The designer shall ensure that consultations have been made with
the relevant authorities as regards permits and licenses that might
have an effect on the design of the irrigation project. Table 9 shows
some of the applicable permits and licenses, depending on the
nature of the activities included in the irrigation development project.

Table 9 Other applicable permits and licenses

Act, Permit or Requirements Implementing
Regulation Licence Agency
or Byelaw
Water Water Permit is required to National Water
Resources Right use and/or abstract Resources
Act water, build dams Authority: Water
CAP72.03 Abstraction
Control Sub-
committee
Environment Air Licence is required EAD
Management Pollution to emit any gas or
Act, No 23 of Licence other pollutants into
1996, s.42 the atmosphere
Environment Waste A licence is required EAD
Management Licence to handle, store,
Act, No 23 of transport, classify or
1996, s.38 destroy waste other
than domestic
waste, or operate a
waste disposal site

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

40
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
41
CHAPTER 5: DESIGN PRACTICES FOR SURFACE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

5.1. Basin irrigation systems

Description 1. A basin is a horizontal area of land surrounded by earthen bunds
and totally flooded during irrigation. Flooding should be done using a
large stream size that advances quickly in order for water to spread
rapidly over the basin. The advance time should not exceed a
quarter of the contact time, so as to reduce difference in contact time
on the different sections of the basin

5.1.1. Soils
1. It may be used on a wide variety of soil textures; though fine-
textured soils are preferred. As the area near the water inlet is
always longer in contact with the water, there will be some
percolation losses, assuming the entire root zone depth is filled at
the bottom of the field. Coarse sands are not generally
recommended for basin irrigation as high percolation losses are
expected at the areas close to water intake

5.1.2. Land slope

1. The soil surface within each basin should be horizontal. Basins can
be as large as the stream size and soil type can allow on level land.
On steep slopes, the removal of the topsoil and the associated land
levelling costs may be limiting factors for the basin size

5.1.3. Basin size

1. The size of basin is critical in the design of this irrigation method and
depends on the following factors: Soil type, Stream size, Irrigation
depth, Field size and shape, Land slope, and Farming practices

2. The following criteria are generally used for determining basin size:
Criteria Basin size small Basin size
large
Soil type Sandy Clay
Stream size Small Large
Irrigation Small Large
depth
Land slope Steep Gentle or flat
Field Hand or animal Mechanized
preparation traction
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual 1992

5.1.4. Basin width

1. Typically, terrace width varies from about 2 m for 4% land slopes up
to 150 m for 0.1 % land slopes. Table 10 below provides some
guidelines on the possible width of a basin, in relation to the land
slope

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

42
Table 10 Approximate values for the maximum basin width (m)
Slope (%) Maximum width (m)
Average Range
0.2 45 35-55
0.3 37 30-45
0.4 32 25-40
0.5 28 20-35
0.6 25 20-30
0.8 22 15-30
1.0 20 15-25
1.2 17 10-20
1.5 13 10-20
2.0 10 5-15
3.0 7 5-10
4.0 5 3-8
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual 1992

5.1.5. Field size and shape

1. Basins are best adapted to regular field shapes (square or
rectangular). Irregular field shapes necessitate adapting basins.
2. Although a regular shape is favourable, basins can be shaped to
follow contours. These are contour basins or terraces, which are
seen mainly on steep slopes used for rice.

5.1.6. Efficiency of basin irrigation systems

1. It is possible to achieve field application efficiencies of 80% on
properly designed and managed basins, although a more common
figure used for planning varies between 60 – 65%.

5.2. Furrow irrigation systems

5.2.1. Field size and shape

1. For the system to operate at the level of efficiency earmarked by the
designer, the field shape of each farmer‘s plot should be regular and
the length of run uniform for all farmers. This would facilitate uniform
water delivery throughout the field and scheme
5.2.2. Furrow lengths
1. Table 11 summarizes the main factors affecting the furrow length
and the suggested practical allowable furrow lengths. The data given
in this table are appropriate for large-scale and fully mechanized
conditions.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

43
Table 11 Furrow lengths in metres as related to soil type slope stream size and
irrigation depth
Soil type Clay Loam Sand
Average irrigation depth (mm)
Furrow Maximum 75 150 50 100 150 50 75 100
slope stream
(%) size
(l/sec)
0.05 3.0 300 400 120 270 400 60 90 150
0.10 3.0 340 440 180 340 440 90 120 190
0.20 2.5 370 470 220 370 470 120 190 250
0.30 2.0 400 500 280 400 500 150 220 280
0.50 1.2 400 500 280 370 470 120 190 250
1.00 0.6 280 400 250 300 370 90 150 220
1.50 0.5 250 340 220 280 340 80 120 190
2.00 0.3 220 270 180 250 300 60 90 150
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual 1992

2. Table 12 provides more realistic data for smallholder irrigation. The

soil variability in most smallholders‘ schemes, combined with the
small size of holdings, makes the scheme more manageable when
shorter furrows are used. The figures in both tables should only be
used as a guide in situations where it is not possible to carry out field
tests.
Table 12 Practical values of maximum furrow lenghts in metres depending on soil
type slope, stream size and irrigation depth for small scale irrigation
Soil type Clay Loam Sand
Net irrigation requirements
(mm)
Furrow Maximum 50 75 50 75 50 75
slope stream
(%) size per
furrow
(l/sec)
0.0 3.0 100 150 60 90 30 45
0.1 3.0 120 170 90 125 45 60
0.2 2.5 130 180 110 150 60 95
0.3 2.0 150 200 130 170 75 110
0.5 1.2 150 200 130 170 75 110
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual 1992

5.2.3. Furrow shape

1. The furrows are generally V-shaped or U-shaped in cross-section
and are 15-30 cm deep and 25-40 cm wide at the top. The shape of
the furrow depends on the soil type and the stream size.
2. Soils with low infiltration rates have usually shallow wide parabolic or
U-shaped furrows to reduce water velocity and to obtain a large
wetted perimeter to encourage infiltration.
3. Sandy soils, on the other hand, require more or less V-shaped

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

44
furrows to reduce the wetted perimeter through which water
infiltrates.

5.2.4. Furrow spacing

1. The spacing between furrows depends on the water movement in
the soil, on the crop agronomic requirements as well as on the type
of equipment used in the construction of furrows.
2. When water is applied to a furrow, it moves vertically under the
influence of gravity and laterally by capillarity. Clay soils have more
lateral movement of water than sandy soils because of their small
pores, which favour capillary action. In this regard, larger spacing
can be used in heavier soils than in light soils.
3. In general, a spacing of 0.3 m and 0.6 m has been proposed for
coarse soils and fine soils respectively. For heavy clay soils up to
1.2 m has been recommended.

5.2.5. Furrow slope

1. Furrows should be put on proper gradients that allow water to flow
along them and at the same time allow some water to infiltrate into
the soil.
2. Furrows put on steeper slopes can be longer because water moves
more rapidly. However, with slopes steeper than 0.5% (0.5 m drop
per 100 m length), the stream sizes should normally be reduced to
avoid erosion, thus shorter furrows have to be used.
3. Under smallholder conditions the maximum slope of 0.5% should not
be exceeded.

5.2.6. Stream size

1. In order to wet the root zone as uniformly as possible and to have
minimum percolation losses at the top end of the field and minimum
runoff at the bottom end of the field an appropriate stream size has
to be chosen.
2. Usually the advance is slower than the recession because water
infiltrates quicker in dry soil. Therefore, the top end of the field
usually receives more water than the bottom end of the field and
water will be lost through deep percolation.
3. The stream size should not exceed the maximum non-erosive
stream size. The following equation provides guidance in selecting
stream sizes for field trials.
Qmax =
Where:
Qmax = Maximum non-erosive stream size (l/min)
So = Furrow slope in the direction of flow (%)
K = Unit constant (= 40)
4. Furrow stream sizes are sometimes selected on the basis of the
one-quarter rule. This rule states that the time required for water to
advance through a furrow till the end should be one quarter of the
total irrigation time (contact time).

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45
5.2.7. Discharge through siphons
1. The discharge through siphons depends on the diameter of the
siphon and the head, refer to Table 13
2. For drowned or submerged discharge, the head is the difference
between the water level in the canal and the water level in the field.
3. For free discharge, the head is the difference between the water
level in the canal from where the siphon takes the water and the
outlet from the siphon.
4. Discharge can be altered by a change in pipe diameter or a change
in the head.
Table 13 Discharge through siphons, depending on pipe diameter and head
Pipe Head (cm)
diameter 5 10 15 20
(cm)
2 0.19 0.26 0.32 0.73
3 0.42 0.59 0.73 0.84
4 0.75 1.06 1.29 1.49
5 1.17 1.65 2.02 2.33

5.2.8. Efficiency of furrow irrigation systems

1. Furrow irrigation could reach a field application efficiency of 65%
when it is properly designed, constructed and managed. The value
ranges from 50-70%.
2. Losses will occur through deep percolation at the top end of the field
and runoff at the bottom end.

5.3. Border strip irrigation systems

Characteristics 1. Border strips are strips of land with a downward slope but are as
horizontal as possible in cross-section. A horizontal cross-section
facilitates an even rate of water advance down the longitudinal
slope. Border strips can vary from 3-30 m in width and from 60-800
m in length. They are separated by parallel dykes or border ridges
(levées).
2. Normally water is let onto the border strip from the canal through
intakes, which can be constructed with gates on the wall of the canal
or, when unlined canals are used, by temporarily making an opening
in the canal wall. The latter is not recommended since it weakens
the walls of the canal, leading to easy breakage.
3. Other means used for the same purpose is the insertion of short
PVC pipes (spiles) through the canal wall. The short pipes are
usually equipped with an end cup, which is removed when irrigation
is practiced. Some farmers use cloth or plastic sheet to close and
open the pipe.
4. The most appropriate method of supplying water from the canal to
the field, however, is the use of siphons.

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46
5.5. Surface irrigation systems and types of crops

Surface Basin Furrow Border strip

irrigation
system
Type of a) Rice grown on a) Row crops such a) Close
crops flat lands or in as maize, growing
terraces on sunflower, crops such
hillsides. sugarcane, as pasture
b) Trees, where soybean; or alfalfa
one tree is b) Crops that are
usually located would be preferred
in the middle of damaged by
a small basin, inundation, such
e.g. citrus, as tomatoes,
banana; vegetables,
c) Crops which are potatoes,
broadcast, such beans;
as cereals c) Fruit trees such
d) Pastures, e.g. as citrus, grape;
alfalfa, clover d) In general, this
e) To some extent system is
row crops such suitable for all
as tobacco. row crops and
f) In general, this for crops that
system is cannot stand in
suitable for water for long
crops that are periods.
not affected by
standing in
water for long
periods.

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

47
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PRACTICES FOR OVERHEAD IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

6.1. Sprinkler irrigation systems

Description 1. Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is
similar to natural rainfall.
2. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It
is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up
into small water drops which fall to the ground.
3. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must
be designed to enable a uniform application of water.

6.1.1. Classification of sprinkler systems

General 1. Sprinkler systems can be classified in such ways as portability, field
layout, equipment used, and type of system being irrigated.
2. Some researchers have found portability as a useful criterion for
describing the available sprinkler irrigation systems. Under this
classification, a system is fully portable when all of the system
components can be moved and fully permanent when none of them
can be moved.
Solid-set 3. Solid-Set System is a sprinkler system which remains in a single
system location during an irrigation season and supplied by a fixed network
of pipes.
4. There are two basic types of pipe components - aluminium and
plastic. Aluminium piping is laid along the ground surface and
collected to provide access for cultivation farming practices. Plastic
pipes, usually uPVC, are always buried permanently because
sunlight deteriorates the pipe. If LDPE pipes are used instead of
uPVC pipes, they can be installed on the surface.
5. Solid-set systems irrigate the entire field with a single set of
components and are, therefore, costlier than most other sprinkler
systems.
6. Labour and maintenance requirements are minimal, but cultural
operations such as cultivation, spraying, planting and harvesting
may be restricted. As a result, solid-set systems are mostly
applicable for crops with minimum cultural practices requirements.

Move-stop 7. Move-stop System is a system whose lateral pipelines are designed

system to move from set to set in order to reduce equipment needs and
minimise interference with other farming operations.
8. The movement itself can take on any form, from the hand-moved
lateral to the tractor-towed lateral to the motor-moved lateral; hence,
the common use of names like hand move, end tow and side-roll
sprinkler systems.
9. The drag-hose sprinkler system falls within this category. Main and
laterals are buried uPVC pipes: one lateral covers three positions.
Sprinklers on risers carried by skids are attached to the laterals
through hoses (similar to garden sprinklers). Only the skid with the
sprinkler has to be moved from one position to another, which is an

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easy task.
10. Move-stop systems require more labour and maintenance than
solid-set systems, but are less expensive to purchase and install.
Energy requirements are approximately equivalent.
11. The major disadvantage is the need to move the system from wet to
dry areas which not only increases the necessary capacity of the
network but also tends to reduce crop yields by damaging the crops

Continuous- 12. Continuous-Move System is a sprinkler system that covers the

move system irrigated area by continuously moving, thus reducing labour,
maintenance, and down-time problems experienced with move-stop
systems.
13. Centre-pivot, linear move, and big gun systems are typical examples
of the continuous move concept.
14. Although the equipment must be automated and made mobile, some
reduction in pipe lengths and pipe sizes are possible to offset higher
equipment costs.
15. The major advantage of the continuous-move system is
laboursaving. On a smaller scale, the sweeping action tends to
improve irrigation uniformities.
16. One major problem is high precipitation rates leading to excessive
field runoff and high energy requirements. Nevertheless, the
continuous move systems are the most popular and most widely
used sprinkler systems in agricultural applications.

6.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages 1. Sprinkler irrigation systems are recommended and used on
practically all types of soils, topographic conditions, and on almost
all kinds of crops.
2. It is flexible and efficient in water control and therefore can be
applied on a wider range of soils that are suited to surface water
application methods.
3. In instances where usually there is no rain at exactly the right time in
the required quantity, sprinkler irrigation has been used to provide
supplemental irrigation. A timely irrigation at a critical crop growth
stage, applying only a few centimetres of water, can more than
double the yield.
4. On some saline soils, sprinklers are recommended for better
leaching and crop germination.
5. Sprinklers are especially desirable where soils have a high
permeability and/or low water holding capacity. However, they have
been used effectively in dense soils with low permeability.
6. In areas where labour and water costs are high, sprinklers can be
the most economical way to apply water.
7. Sprinklers have been shown to increase yield, such as in the fresh
vegetables and fruit market where colour and quality are very
important.
8. Sprinklers can be used for irrigation, crop cooling, frost control, and

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the application of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers.
9. In modern farming practices which require large equipment and
large fields for economical farming operations, sprinklers have been
used with no reduction in efficiency.

Disadvantages 1. Damage to some crops has been observed when poor quality
irrigation water is applied to the foliage by sprinklers.
2. Poor quality water can leave undesirable deposits or colouring on
the leaves or fruit of the crop.
3. Sprinklers are also capable of increasing the incidence of certain
crop diseases such as fire blight in pears, fungi or foliar bacteria.
4. A major disadvantage of sprinklers is the relatively high cost,
especially for solid-set systems, in comparison to surface irrigation
methods.
5. When gravity cannot supply sufficient head to operate the system,
sprinklers can require large amount of energy to supply the
necessary pressure.

6.1.3. Suitable crops

1. Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and
water can be sprayed over or under the crop canopy.
2. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation of
delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops
produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop.

6.1.4. Suitable slopes

1. Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether
uniform or undulating.
2. The lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be
laid out along the land contour whenever possible. This will minimize
the pressure changes at the sprinklers and provide a uniform
irrigation.

6.1.5. Suitable soils

1. Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates
although they are adaptable to most soils.
2. Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If
sprinkler irrigation is the only method available, then light fine sprays
should be used. The larger sprinklers producing larger water
droplets are to be avoided.
3. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is
always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil so
that surface ponding and runoff can be avoided.

6.1.6. Suitable irrigation water

1. A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is
required to avoid problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling
the crop by coating it with sediment.

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6.1.7. Efficiency of pumping systems
1. The efficiency of a pumping system depends on number of factors
such as:
a) The pipe being too small in diameter or having many bends
in the conveyance manifold.
b) Putting the discharge of water considerably above the
necessary level.
c) The drive or coupling between pump and prime mover may
not be an efficient unit.
d) Mismatch of power requirement between a pump and prime
mover. Correct matching of pump, motor/engine and drive is
very important for efficient utilization of energy, thus bringing
down the irrigation operational costs.
2. Efficiency will also be reduced by elevation, temperature,
accessories, and continuous operation. The details of efficiency
estimated for design purpose are as indicated in Table 14.
Table 14 Efficiency of pumping systems
Parameters Decrease in
Efficiency
(%)
Elevation from sea level, 3% for each 300 4.5
meters, assuming elevation of 450 meters.
For each 6º operating air temperature 5.0
above 16ºC, decrease of 1% is
encountered; assuming 45ºC maximum
temperature.
For accessories, using heat exchangers. 5.0
For continuous load operation 20.0
Drive losses (0-15 %) 5.0 for motor
10.0 for
engine
Radiator, fan 5.0
Source: Handbook of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems in Pakistan

3. The overall efficiency for pumping systems recommended for

sprinkler irrigation is:
 Electric motor operated systems = 60 %
 Diesel engine operated systems = 50 %

6.1.8. Design practices

1. For comprehensive information on the design of overhead systems,
please refer to the FAO Publication Irrigation Manual Module 8 –
Sprinkler Irrigation Systems Planning, Design, Operation and
Maintenance.
2. Comprehensive design guide can also be obtained from the
Technical Handbook on Pressurised Irrigation Techniques by A.
Phocaides, published by FAO. The manual and handbook also
contain design information for centre pivot systems.

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3. The computer programme EPANET 2.0 can be used for design and
dimensioning of pipes (pipeline systems).

6.2. Centre pivot systems

General 1. Centre Pivot and Lateral Move systems are self-propelled
description continuous move type of sprinkler irrigation systems which apply
water to pasture or crop, generally from above the canopy.
2. Centre Pivot systems are anchored at one end and rotate around a
fixed central point. However, Lateral Move systems are not
anchored, but both ends of the machine move at a constant speed
up and down a paddock.
3. Centre Pivot and Lateral Move systems require an energy source to
move water from the source to the plant as well as energy to move
the machine on farm.
Components 4. Centre Pivot or Lateral Move systems consist of the following
components:
a) A span, which is the pipe and framework between two
towers
b) A tower supports the spans and contains drive mechanisms
and wheels
c) Outlets are the points at which water exits the main pipes
d) Emitters are attached at outlets either directly or on rigid or
flexible droppers. Water is applied to the plants through
emitters
e) Droppers are rigid or flexible small diameter pipes that allow
emitters to be placed closer to the ground
5. Lateral Move systems share similar technology to pivots and are
suited to large rectangular areas - up to 200 ha.

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6.2.1. Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages 1. Precise application: The systems are able to apply a prescribed
volume of water to match crop water requirements. It reduces the
opportunity for surface runoff or deep percolation if the system is
designed to match soil infiltration characteristics.
2. Reduced variability: The reported application efficiencies for new
well designed machines are generally in the 80-95% range,
compared to 50-90% for surface irrigation systems.
3. Lower labour requirements: Labour requirements are generally
lower than surface irrigation but depends on the system and\ or the
degree of automation of the machine.
4. Opportunities for fertigation: Fertigation allows the targeted
application of small quantities of nutrients, with a reasonable
uniformity of application and less risk of nutrient losses. The
irrigation system may also be used to apply herbicides and
pesticides.
5. Less landforming: The system can work on rolling topography.
However, there might be a need for some landforming for surface
drainage or rainfall induced runoff.
Disadvantages 6. Cost: The systems have a relatively high capital cost compared to
surface irrigation systems, unless substantial landforming is required
for optimum performance of the surface system. The running costs
can also be significant and need to be evaluated during the design
process.

6.2.2. Energy requirements

1. These systems require some form of energy source (electric or
diesel) to operate.

6.2.3. Water quality

1. Water may need to be filtered before use to prevent system
blockages with sediments. Poor water quality can affect longevity of
irrigation infrastructure.

6.2.4. Skill requirement

1. Operation and maintenance of these systems will require different
skills to those required for surface irrigation systems.

6.2.5. Planning considerations

1. The following aspects need to be considered at the planning stage:
a) Physical location (area, shape, topography, soil type)
b) Water supply (flow rate, supply location, quality and quantity)
c) Irrigable area (area to be developed, system capacity)

6.2.6. Land area

1. A typical centre pivot system has a span of 300 to 400 meters long
and irrigates 28 to 50 ha. However, they can be as short as a single-
span 35-metre unit or as long as 800 metres with 18 to 20 towers

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irrigating approximately 200 ha.
2. The large systems have high average application rates at the
outside of the circle that may exceed the infiltration rate of the soil
and consequently cause run-off.

6.2.7. Land shape

1. Centre Pivot systems irrigate a circle, which covers 78% of a square.
2. End guns used on Centre Pivots to irrigate square properties are not
recommended.
3. Lateral Move systems can be an option to irrigate rectangular areas.

6.2.8. Land slope

1. Centre Pivots can irrigate significantly undulating land.
2. Some minor earthmoving may be needed to connect depression
areas and provide drainage for run-off from rainfall events.

6.2.9. Soil type

1. Centre Pivots are able to irrigate any soil type. However, sprinklers
should be selected to suit soil infiltration characteristics, as
excessive average application rates can cause runoff.
2. It is desirable the pivot irrigates one soil type or soil types with
similar infiltration characteristics.
6.2.10. Water supply
1. These systems often require more frequent, but lower flow rates
over a longer period of time.
2. The designer should note that the distance from the water source to
the Centre Pivot may impact on capital and running costs.

6.2.11. Water quality

1. The physical, chemical and biological characteristics of irrigation
water can affect pivot performance.
2. Filtration may be required to prevent nozzle blockage.

6.2.12. Design practices

1. The designer should refer to system manufacturers who will advise
what data to provide in order for the manufacturers to design and
deliver the system. Possible suppliers are:
a) Valley Irrigation, USA (valleyirrigation.com)
b) Nelson Irrigation Corporation (nelsonirrigation.com)
2. Each supplier has their own design software and design data sheets
for inputting into their computer programmes.

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Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
55
CHAPTER 7: LOCALISED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS (DRIP OR TRICKLE)

7.1 Drip / Trickle irrigation systems

Description 1. Drip Irrigation, also commonly referred to as micro-irrigation, trickle
irrigation, low volume irrigation or xerigation, is a method of irrigation
which efficiently delivers water to the soil surface or the root zone by
having water drip slowly from emission devices, most commonly
called ―drip emitters‖ or ―drippers‖.

7.2 Advantages
Advantages 1. Water Conservation - Drip irrigation allows efficient watering by
supplying water where it is needed – at the very roots of the plants.
This significantly reduces the chances for evaporation and run off.
2. Reduce Weed Growth - Since drip irrigation applies water to the
root zone of plants, the spaces in between plants remain dry. This
greatly inhibits weed seed germination.
3. Reduce Plant Stress - When plants get deep, consistent watering,
they thrive, promoting healthy growth and disease resistance in
plants. Inefficient, shallow watering can contribute to plant stress.
4. Extremely Flexible Application - It is a versatile watering system
which can easily be installed on hillsides or flat terrains. Drip is the
perfect irrigation method for oddly shaped landscapes and windy
areas. Drip systems are also suitable for crops grown under
greenhouses, where drip and spray nozzles can be used.
5. Save Money - Drip irrigation systems use less water to irrigate.
Automation eliminates the need for a large labour force. With the
reduction of plant disease and unwanted weeds, maintenance costs
drop considerably

7.3 Soil types

1. Clay soils have densely packed particles that have
little space for water or air. Water is absorbed very
slowly and runoff can occur if water is applied too
quickly. When wet, water tends to move outward, away
from the drip emitter. Clay soils will hold water very well
and can stay wet for several days. Drip emitter spacing tends to be
further apart.
2. Sandy soils are very loose and have plenty of
space for water or air. Water is absorbed very quickly
and runoff usually doesn‘t occur. When wet, water tends
to move straight down through the soil. Sandy soils do
not hold water very well and can dry out very quickly.
Drip emitter spacing tends to be closer together.

3. Loam soils are an ideal in-between mix of clay and

sandy soils. The absorption rate is greater than that of
clay soil but not as fast as sandy soil. When wet, water
will move outward and down more evenly. Loam soils

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will hold water well and dry out at a medium rate.

7.4 Planning and Designing the system

7.4.1 Planning the layout
1. The designer shall start by making a sketch of the areas that need
to be irrigated. Include and label all plant types, including shrubs,
trees, ground cover, flower beds, vegetable gardens and containers.
Identify all the site watering sources, what type they are, and any
existing connections.
2. The designer shall draw out each run of drip mainline tubing and
any laterals that will be needed to supply water to each planting
area. For plants that are away from the mainline, draw out runs of
micro tubing to cover each plant. Working from a good plan will help
when making a materials list and is essential in designing an
efficient drip irrigation system.
3. The designer shall group plant types of similar sizes and growth
habits, which generally have water requirements that are much the
same. Always try to group watering zones by plant moisture needs
and local climate conditions (shade, partial shade, full sun).
Consider the following:
a) Plants that need frequent, shallow watering, like annual
flowers and ground cover, should be grouped separately
from those needing less frequent, deep watering, like trees.
b) Seasonal plantings like crops or vegetable gardens should
be kept separate from permanent plantings like shrubs.
Install inexpensive flow control valves to shut off these
areas when not in use.
c) Create separate zones for plants in the shade versus hot,
sunny spots.
4. The designer shall ensure that container plants are watered
separately from plants in the ground. They have confined root
systems and may dry out more quickly.

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7.4.2 Designing the system
1. 13Design parameters include the following:7.1.2
a) Area to be irrigated, type of plants, plant spacing and
number of plants per unit area
b) Peak water requirement of crop or plant
c) Selection of emitter type, number of emitter per plant and
amount of water discharge per hour through each emitter
d) Water required to be pumped from the source. If the source
is a well, apart from crop water requirements, yield of the
well also could be a limiting factor.
e) Layout of the system considering topography, field shape
and location of the water source
f) Calculating sectional flow based on number of emission
devices and their discharge against known pressure
g) Design of main and lateral drip lines. This depends upon
friction head losses
h) Selection of filters and other equipment
i) Energy specification of the pump set. This depends on
discharge and the total head including friction losses over
which water is to be lifted/pumped
2. Figure 8 shows a typical drip irrigation installation. However,
installation differ depending upon water source, size of land to be
irrigated, incorporation of fertigation and pest control, availability of
resources, and other factors.

Figure 8 Typical layout for drip irrigation system

13
The designer shall refer to the following publications which contain comprehensive information: FAO Irrigation
Manual Module 9: Planning, Design, and Operation and Maintenance of Localised Irrigation Systems. Other
references are: Design of Drip Irrigation Systems by Dr. Muhammad Ashraf of International Centre for Agricultural
Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA), and drip irrigation systems manufacturers, such as Irrigation Direct
(irrigationdirect.com), Agrifim of NDS Inc. (agrifimusa.com), and Sprinkler Warehouse (sprinklerwarehouse.com).
For irrigation equipment for pressurised systems, the designer should refer to FAO Manual Module 10.

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Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
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CHAPTER 8: RIVER IMPROVEMENT

8.1 Objectives
Objectives 1. The objectives of river improvement works are to aid navigation, to
prevent flooding, to reclaim or protect land or to provide water supply
for irrigation, hydropower development or domestic and industrial
use.
2. The design of river improvements works in general should be based
on fluvial geomorphology and wider river engineering aims.
3. It is extremely important in river training to adopt a holistic approach
and to incorporate environmental impact assessment and socio-
economic considerations in any design.

8.2 Principal methods

Principal 1. River improvement works include river regulation and dredging.
methods Flow improvement is done by reservoir construction and operation.
2. In planning river improvement works, both the upstream situation
and historical factors have to be taken into account; a good design
should assess this evolution even if the purpose of the improvement
works is to stabilize the situation at least over the life of the design.
3. In river regulation or training the river may be encouraged to
pursue its natural course or it may be straightened; the latter
requires great sensitivity and should be used only with caution and
due regard to environmental constraints.
4. In the upstream reaches the main problem is the short-term and
seasonal variation of flow, high velocity, channel instability and shoal
formation.
5. In the middle and lower reaches, it is often necessary to raise river
banks and carry out works reducing the channel width, e.g. groynes,
longitudinal training walls etc.
6. Dredging, using mechanical or suction dredgers, is the most
effective means of estuarine river regulation, but its impact is often
only temporary.
7. An efficient river training system will try to maintain and improve the
natural sequence of bends of a meandering river, while preserving
sufficient depth (e.g. for navigation) at low flows and suppressing
unduly sharp bends and excessive velocities. This is mainly
achieved by groynes, jetties, longitudinal dykes, and embankments
and ground sills.
8. In designing works to fulfil this function, the designer must ensure
that:
a. The impact on surrounding lands, properties and
communities is minimised
b. In particular, that problems of flooding are not introduced
upstream of the works
c. The condition of the natural channel downstream of the
works is unaffected by the operation of the works.
9. It is the responsibility of the designer to assess the nature of
sediment regime of the watercourse concerned. The hydraulic

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design must ensure that there will be no long term problems of
sedimentation or erosion that affect the performance of the structure
or in some way present a risk to the integrity of the area or facility
being protected.
10. The arrangements must be properly interfaced with flood control
measures. Where the introduction of new infrastructure leads to the
need for additional flood control measures in such communities
these works shall be properly identified.
11. The hydraulic design must be based upon adequate topographic
data. The topographic survey conducted must be consistent the
needs of the hydraulic design.

8.2.1 Groynes
1. Groynes are small jetties, solid or permeable, constructed of timber,
sheet piling, vegetation, and stone rubble, etc. (Figure 9). They
usually project into the stream perpendicularly to the bank, but
sometimes are inclined in the upstream or downstream direction.
2. The main purpose of groynes is to reduce channel width and to
remove the danger of scour from the banks; their ends in the stream
are liable to scour, with sediment accumulation between them.
3. As their effect is mainly local, the spacing between groynes should
not exceed about five groyne lengths. A spacing of about two
lengths results in a well-defined channel for navigation; the larger
the ratio of groyne spacing to river width, the stronger the local
acceleration and retardation, and thus the greater the hindrance to
shipping.

Figure 9 River training by groynes

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8.2.3 Training walls
1. Longitudinal dykes (training walls) (Figure 10) are usually more
economical than groynes and – if properly positioned – equally or
even more effective. The material used is again rubble, stone, or
fascine work (on soft river beds).
2. Training walls may be single – on one side of the channel, or double
– on both sides of the channel.

Figure 10 River training with groynes and training wall

8.3 Flood protection14

1. Flood protection works include high-water river training (mainly by
dykes), diversion and flood-relief channels with or without control
structures, and flood-control reservoirs.
2. Flood protection schemes require a careful cost–benefit analysis to
determine a suitable design discharge which depends on the type of
land, structures and property to be protected and the processes
involved.
3. The return period of the design discharge may range from 1 to 100
years and in very special cases (large settlements, ancient historic
monuments, nuclear installations, etc.) may be substantially higher.
4. The designer shall have a basic understanding and follow these
basic steps for planning of flood embankments:
a) Classification – An embankment is designated as low,
medium or major (according to its height above natural
surface level (NSL),
b) Data for planning of an embankment – Topographical
data, Hydrological data, History of past floods,
c) Degree of protection – The degree of protection which
gives the optimum Benefit Cost Ratio shall be adopted for
embankments for predominantly agricultural areas, and for
townships or areas having industrial installations
d) Alignment & spacing of embankment – Aligning the

14
More information on th design of dykes/flood embankments can be accessed in the publication Handbook for
Flood Protection, Anti-erosion, & River Training Works by Sh K.N. Keshri et al, Flood Management Organisation,
Central Water Commission, Government of India, June 2012.

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embankment on the natural bank of the river, where land is
high and soil available for the construction of embankments,
and spacing the embankment with respect to its vulnerability
to the river and the rise of high flood levels on account of
reduction in flood plain storage by construction of the
embankment.
e) Types – whether homogenous, zoned or diaphragm type.
f) Design High Flood Level – which can be obtained from
gauge discharge relationships, or from flood frequency
analysis for corresponding return period.
g) Free board – The top of the embankment should be so fixed
that there is no danger of overtopping, even with the intense
wave wash or any other unexpected rise in water level due to
sudden change in river course or aggradations of river bed or
settlement of embankment.
h) Top width – which should be sufficient enough to
accommodate the vehicular traffic.
i) Hydraulic gradient – the line of seepage which can be
determined from the following guidelines: Clayey soil: 4H:1V;
Clayey sand: 5H:1V; Sandy soil: 6H:1V
j) Side slope – dependent upon the material and height of the
embankment. The side slope should be flatter than the angle
of repose of the material of the embankment. The river side
(R/S) slope should be flatter than the under-water angle of
repose of the material. The country side slope should be
2H:1V from the top up to the point where the cover over HGL
is 0.6 m after which a berm of suitable width, with country
side slope of 2H:1V from the end of the berm up to the
ground level should be provided.
k) For drainage purposes, longitudinal drains on the berm and
cross drains at suitable places should be provided to drain
out the water.
l) In order to provide communication from one side of
embankment to another side, ramps in a slope of 40H:1V at
suitable places and all village paths should be provided as
per requirement.

8.4 Bank protection

1. Bank protection is carried out by planting, mattresses, rubble, stone
pitching, gabions, bagged concrete, concrete slabs, asphalt slabs,
prefabricated concrete interlocking units with or without vegetation,
articulated concrete mattresses, soil–cement blocks, asphalt and
asphaltic concrete, geotextiles (woven and non-woven fabrics,
meshes, grids, strips, sheets and composites of different shapes and
constituents), used tyres, etc., all used with or without membrane
linings (e.g. nylon, rubber, polythene, etc.).
2. The choice of material is influenced by the extent of the area to be
protected, hydraulic conditions, material availability, material and
labour costs, access to the site, available mechanization, soil
conditions, design life, required impermeability, robustness,
flexibility, roughness, durability, environmental requirements, among
other effects.

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3. Figure 11 shows an example of bank protection using gabion
baskets and mattresses.

Figure 11 Bank protection with gabions, dimensions in metres

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Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
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CHAPTER 9: DRAWINGS
15
1. The designer shall provide drawings with appropriate notations,
symbols, orthogonal views, in appropriate scales and paper sizes for
each component of the irrigation system (layouts, profiles, and
structures).
2. Standard drawings for major structures are presented in Annex 12.
3. Standard Bills of Quantities for all systems are presented in Annex
13.

15
Comprehensive information on drawings can be obtained from the FAO publication Irrigation Manual Module 6:
Guidelines for Preparation of Technical Drawings.

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Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
67
ANNEXES

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Annex 1: Key Performance indicators associated with irrigation schemes development

Key performance Unit(s) Associated information

indicator
Water Use Efficiency
Irrigation crop demand mm/d m3/ha/week  Crop type, crop factors, soil type
 Climate (rainfall and evapotranspiration)
 Level of risk of not meeting soil water
deficits
System capacity ℓ/s/ha  Flow rate of irrigation system
(based on 24 hours) mm/day  Irrigated area
 Actual hours of pumping per day
Maximum allowable mm  Soil water holding capacity in root zone
deficit (MAD) % during peak design period
 % of available water that is accepted to
be depleted before recharge (irrigation) is
required
Application depth mm  Gross depth of water applied
Return interval days  For larger systems
hours  For some mini/small scale irrigation
systems
Application rate mm/hr  Gross depth of water applied
 Time (hours) taken to apply water
Infiltration rate mm/hr  Soil infiltration rate characteristics
 Slope
 Crop cover
 Time to apply water
Adequacy of irrigation  The ratio of the mean low quarter depth
applied, to the mean target depth
required across the field as a whole.
Potential application %  The single event potential application
efficiency efficiency is estimated from field
distribution uniformity and surface losses
due to runoff and leakages.
Distribution efficiency %  Water supplied to the scheme
 Water discharged from application
system
Headwork efficiency %  Pressure loss through headworks
components net of elevation differences
 Actual abstraction compared with
expected abstraction
Supply reliability days  The number of days when supplies will
not be available in a 1:5 or a 1: 10 year
drought
Energy Use Efficiency
System energy rating kW  Size of pumps in kW
System pumping %  Energy consumed to (volume of water
efficiency moved and pressure increase)
3
Energy per unit volume kWh/m  Seasonal volume of water pumped
(based on meter  Seasonal kWh of energy used
readings)
Labour Efficiency
Hours per hectare per hr/ha  Time spend on operating irrigation
year used for operation system

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Key performance Unit(s) Associated information
indicator

Effective area irrigated
Hours per hectare per hr/ha 
Time spend on maintaining irrigation
year used for system
maintenance  Effective area irrigated
Hours per mm applied hr/mm  Time spend on operating and maintaining
irrigation system
 Seasonal depth of water applied
Capital Efficiency
Capital cost per hectare $/ha  Total cost of irrigation system
 Effective area irrigated
Operating cost/volume $/mm/ha  All running costs of irrigation system
applied $/ML  Effective area irrigated
 Effective depth of water applied
Annual operating cost $/ha  All running costs of irrigation system
per hectare  Effective area irrigated
Total annual cost per $/ha  Capital cost per hectare
hectare  Annual cost per hectare
 Cost of finance (rate, term)
Environmental Performance
Average system %  Water supplied to the property
efficiency  Water beneficially used
Drainage index m3/ha/yr  Volume of water draining through profile
 Area irrigated (ha)
Redistribution index m3/ha/yr  Volume of water reaching target area
 Total volume of water applied

Explanation of the components forming these indicators is given in the Definitions section
(Section 2).

Although most of the KPI‘s are generic in that they apply to all types of irrigation systems,
some are not. Where they apply, they should be included. Where they don‘t, they can be left
out.

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Annex 2: Some of the information to be obtained from site visits

Item Description
Site layout/shape Fixed boundaries, permanent features, roads, other obstructions
Map Can a copy of a site map be obtained? Include map of Malawi and
area map to define location of site
Design area What area is intended to be irrigated? Is there a priority?
Demography, number of beneficiaries. Proximity to villages.
Elevation Elevations, slope, hills, gulleys, flood risk.
Topology Catchment health, trees, streams, water races, buildings, power
pylons, obstructions.
Land restrictions Protected areas, covenants on titles. Land rights. Availability of
land for the intended purpose
Shelter What natural or artificial wind breaks will be present or required?
Animals What and how many stock will be grazed in the irrigated area?
Proximity to game reserves should be indicated
Fencing What fencing arrangement will be used, how will it affect shifting?
How will it affect animals?
Water supply location Is it fixed, or will it be determined in the design?
Water quantity What is available or approximately what will be required? Existing
abstraction rights, other uses.
Water supply What restrictions could the supply be subjected to? Is storage
reliability needed? Storage on-farm, in the catchment, or both? What is the
risk imposed by other users of the catchment and catchment
degradation?
Water Is the quality physically and chemically suitable for the proposed
quality/chemistry irrigation system?
Soil water holding What are the soil type, plant available water and readily available
capacity water?
Soil infiltration How quickly will the soil absorb water? Are there any soil pans? Is
capacity soil erosion likely to be a problem?
Drainage Potential drainage problems. Existing natural drainage. Flood risk
Crops What crops are to be grown short-term and long-term? Any
markets or potential for value addition before sales?
Contracts What conditions do crop contracts impose with respect to
irrigation?
Other needs Is water required for other purposes (e.g. tobacco/tree nursery
germination, domestic, leaching of salts, animal watering)?
Risk preference How much risk of not meeting demand is the client prepared to
accept? What are the other risks to development, management,
operation and maintenance?
Precipitation (Rainfall) Are rainfall records available? If not, where is the nearest record?
Any other meteorological data source and availability
Evapotranspiration Where is the nearest record?
Wind Which is the prevailing wind? When does it blow, and at what
strength? Who keeps records?
System ‗catchup‘ What requirements for ―catching up‖ after restrictions will be

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Item Description
16
ability needed?
Energy source If power is required, where is it going to come from? What supply
limitations are there? Power options: grid or solar
Future flexibility Is there a need to consider a future change in method? Additional
development that will need more abstraction from the water
source, and the associated requirements
Labour What labour and skill level is available to operate and maintain the
system?
Management, How has the irrigator organised management of all operations of
operation and the scheme? Capacity and skills for management functions.
maintenance Willingness to pay fees.
Health & safety What health and safety issues could arise? Sanitation and
hygiene issues? Disease vectors?
Price limits How much money is the client prepared to spend and how? How
much contribution in-kind shall be made?
Delivery When does the system have to be operational?
Personal preferences Does the client have any personal preferences for systems?
Restrictions Are there any restrictions regarding installing and operating the
system (e.g. dependence on subcontractors)?
Resource Have the necessary consents been obtained and under what
Management Acts conditions? (e.g. water abstraction rights, user rights, land leases,
EIA)
Special conditions Are there any special conditions relating to the taking and using of
land, water and other resources?
Vandalism What is the likelihood of vandalism?
Other Any other issues relevant to the client?
Adapted from the New Zealand Code of Practice

16
Water supply may also be subject to seasonal restrictions, whether they are due to changing stream flows or
changing groundwater levels. Due account should be taken of possible changes in water availability or restrictions
in determining irrigation system capacities, irrigation components, area irrigated and risk of shortfalls. It may be
necessary to increase overall system capacity to provide a ‗catchup‘ ability to minimise the effect of shortfalls or
build in extra capacity in pumps to lift water from greater depths.

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Annex 3: Data to be collected during pre-feasibility studies

The designer shall source maps and data required for the technical planning and design of
the irrigation system that shall include the following:
 Map of Malawi (1:1000 000) and area maps (1:250 000) to define the location of the
irrigation project site. Map of the entire project area;
 The physical, environmental, economic and human conditions to such a scale/detail
that the actual situation and future changes can be studied to a sufficient extent;
 Administrative data: organisations, laws (water abstraction rights, environmental, land
tenure arrangements);
 Topographical maps and/or aerial photographs and /or GIS data, on a scale
according to level of needed detail;
 Aerial maps: scale 1:50,000
 Soil maps and/or land classification and land capability maps to appropriate scales;
information on soil properties and soil conservation;
 Climatological data: rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind and radiation are the more
important ones;
 Hydrologic data: quantity and quality; floods events,
 Sociological data such as available labour and experience, and available
management at the various levels;
 Construction conditions and materials in the project area;
 Agronomic data: actual and possible crops and cropping patterns; crop water,
irrigation and drainage requirements;
 Information to support financing arrangements; and
 Economic and financial data: expected costs and benefits at all levels.

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Annex 4: Some of the issues to be assessed during feasibility studies

a) Natural conditions: topography, meteorology, hydrology, geology, soil mechanics,

soil science and type of vegetation
b) Land use conditions: land use pattern and land ownership
c) Accessibility of the project to utilities (roads, electricity & water)
d) Agricultural practices: current situation and projected: cropping patterns & rotation
e) Availability of markets
f) Selection of irrigation method
g) Determination of possible crop production economic gains
h) Crop and Irrigation water requirements
i) Topographical Surveys
j) Geotechnical Surveys
k) Soil Surveys
l) Water Resources Surveys, including availability of water abstraction rights
m) Environmental and Social Impacts (ESIA/ESMP), which involve considering
(i) National Regulations (Environmental Affairs Department)
(ii) International Regulations (WB, AfDB, EU)
(iii) Environmental Scoping
(iv) Environmental Assessments
(v) Environmental Assessment Requirements
(vi) Environmental Safeguards
(vii) Catchment Conservation
(viii) Social Aspects of Environmental Conservation
n) Socio-economic Surveys
o) Community/Owner Participation
p) Determination of the most viable option through financial and economic analyses
q) Preliminary design and cost estimates

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Annex 5: IWRM Approaches to conducting Feasibility Studies

IWRM is a participatory planning and implementation process, based on sound science,

which brings together stakeholders to determine how to meet society‘s long-term needs for
water and coastal resources while maintaining essential ecological services and economic
benefits. The method emphasizes the key concepts of Integration, Decentralization,
Participation, and Economic and Financial Sustainability.

Integration - a holistic approach that emphasizes the three goals of economic development,
social welfare, and environmental protection and that integrates management of all horizontal
and vertical sectors that use and/or affect water (Figure 1). IWRM advocates creating and
empowering basin-level organizations to direct water resource management efforts in a
hydrological boundary.

Decentralization - places responsibility for water resource management at the lowest

effective administrative level, seeking to strike a balance between top-down and bottom-up
management.

Participation – aims at strengthening community-based organizations, water user

associations, and other stakeholders to enable them to take a greater role in management
decisions. IWRM emphasizes broad-based capacity building and support for the formation of
user groups and representative associations.

Economic and Financial Sustainability – emphasises on giving proper attention to the

economic value of water. To achieve long-term economic sustainability, water must be
priced at its full cost, accounting for the cost of withdrawing and delivering the water, as well
as the opportunity cost and both economic and environmental externalities associated with
using that water. To achieve financial sustainability of water service delivery, user fees
should at a minimum cover O&M costs of service provision.

SADC has also developed guidelines for local level IWRM which require an integrated and
demand-driven development approach that supports and emphasises participatory planning
processes by local government, multi-sectoral government line agencies, Non-Governmental
Organizations, Community-Based Organizations and private firms and contractors, who
together form the ‗supportive environment‘ to improve the livelihoods of their constituencies.

There are three conditions for applying these guidelines. With sufficient decentralization of
decision-making on the allocation of financial, technical and institutional resources, local
structures can usually meet these conditions. Otherwise, these conditions need to be
negotiated gradually within government and the donor community.
 the aim of improving livelihoods, especially for the vulnerable members of the
community, using water as a catalyst for development;
 the ability to provide a range of potential appropriate technologies and
interventions, varying from individual technologies to small dams and reservoirs,
and interventions to augment the benefits from water use.
 funding and time conditions of the specific project (or ‗loop‘) that allow for a
participatory planning phase during which communities can partake in the detailed

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project design and budgeting, and a phase in which selected activities are
implemented.

The guidelines assume that the local authority has basic demographic, social and water
resource availability information.

Figure 1: Overview of responsibilities, phases and steps

The guidelines, which are summarized in Figure 2, consist of two parts. The first part
concerns the creation of a sustainable supportive environment for local-level IWRM. This is
the responsibility of the local authorities and the intermediate and national level tiers of their
organizations, as well as of collaborating government line agencies, private service providers
and NGOs and CBOs. This supportive environment should allow for implementing
community-based water resource management.

The second part of these guidelines concerns a particular community and the step-wise
participatory process in that community. This consists of five steps: three) understanding the
community and building capacity; four) creating a vision and selecting activities; five)
compiling action plans; six) implementing the action plans; and seven) participatory
monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment. The last ‗step‘ is continuous. The steps
concern one ‗loop‘ or one cycle of improvements. Any next intervention can build on the
improvements realized and the lessons learned. Thus, community-based water resource
development and management becomes a continuous process, which can be oral or written
as ‗village water development plans‘.

The steps and their components in the guidelines are more or less chronological and not
rigid at all. Every step has a value and purpose and none of these steps should be skipped.
For example, once sites of new infrastructure have been selected, the potential beneficiaries
have also largely been determined. However, for other issues, such as the technical
feasibility assessment, it may well be necessary to go back to earlier steps once or twice or
even more often to adjust the process because of unforeseen events and new information.
Also, the different activities in one project are often staggered and in different phases. Early
implementation of some smaller ‗successes‘ can encourage in pursuing the planning process
of a complex, longer-term activity.

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Figure 2: Project steps in local-level IWRM

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Annex 6: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Screening Form

PART A: GENERAL INFORMATION

Project Name Estimated Cost (MK)

Project Site Funding Agency

Project Objectives Proposed Main Project Activities:

Name of Evaluator Date of Field Appraisal

PART B: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ACTIVITIES

Provide information on the type and scale of the construction/rehabilitation activity (e.g. area,
land required and approximate size of structures).

Provide information on the construction activities including support/ancillary structures and

activities required to build them, e.g. need to quarry or excavate borrow materials, water
source, access roads etc.
Describe how the construction/rehabilitation activities will be carried out. Include description
of support/activities and resources required for the construction/rehabilitation.

PART C: ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE INFORMATION OF THE PROJECT SITE

CATEGORY OF BASELINE INFORMATION BRIEF DESCRIPTION

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
a. Name of the Area (District, T/A, Village)
b. Proposed location of the project (Include a site
map of at least 1:10,000 scale)
LAND RESOURCES
a. Topography and Geology of the area
b. Soils of the area
c. Main land uses and economic activities
WATER RESOURCES
a. Surface water resources (e.g. rivers, lakes, etc)
quantity and quality
b. Ground water resources quantity and quality
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
a. Flora (include threatened/endangered/endemic
species)
b. Fauna (include threatened/endangered/endemic
species)
c. Sensitive habitats including protected areas e.g.
national parks and forest reserves
CLIMATE
a. Temperature
b. Rainfall

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PART D: SCREENING CRITERIA

AREAS OF IMPACT IMPACT EVALUATION POTENTIAL

MITIGATION
MEASURES
Extent or coverage Significance
(on site, within 3km - (Low, Medium, High)
5km or beyond 5km)

1. Is the project site/activity within and/ or will it affect the following environmentally
sensitive areas?
No Yes On Within Beyond Low Medium Hig
Site 3-5 km 5km h
1.1 National parks,
Wildlife and
game reserve
1.2 Wet-lands
1.3 Productive
agricultural
/grazing lands
1.5 Areas with rare
or endangered
flora or fauna
1.6 Areas with
outstanding
scenery/tourist
site
1.7 Within steep
slopes/mountai
ns
1.8 Dry tropical
forest s such as
Brachsystegia
woodland
1.9 Along lakes ,
along beaches,
riverine
1.10 Near industrial
sites
1.11 Near human
settlements
1.12 Near cultural
heritage sites
1.13 Within prime
ground water
recharge area
1.14 Within prime
surface run off

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SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPACTS DURING IMPLEMENTATION AND OPERATION
2.0 Will the implementation and operations of the project activities within the selected site
generate the following externalities /costs /impacts?
No Yes On Within Beyond Low Medium High
Site 3-5 km 5km
2.1 Deforestation
2.2 Soil erosion and
siltation
2.3 Siltation of
watercourses,
dams
2.4 Damage of wildlife
species and
habitat
2.5 Increased
exposure to agro-
chemical pollutants
2.6 Nuisance - smell
or noise
2.7 Reduced water
quality
2.8 Increase in costs
of water treatment
2.9 Soil contamination
2.10 Loss of soil fertility
2.11 Stalinization or
alkalinisation of
soils
2.12 Reduced flow and
availability of water
2.13 Long term
depletion of water
resource
2.14 Incidence of
flooding
2.15 Changes in
migration patterns
of animals
2.16 Introduce alien
plants and animals
2.17 Increased
incidence of plant
and animal
diseases

SCREENING CRITERIA FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS

3.0 Will the implementation and operation of the project activities within the selected site
generate the following socio-economic costs/impacts?
No Yes On Within Beyon Low Mediu High
Site 3-5 km d m
5km
3.1 Loss of land for
human settlement,
farming, grazing

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3.2 Loss of property-
houses
,agricultural
produce etc.
3.3 Loss of cultural
sites, graveyards,
monuments
3.4 Disruption of social
fabric
3.5 Interference in
marriages for local
people by workers
3.6 Spread of STIs
and HIV and AIDS,
due to migrant
workers
3.7 Increased
incidence of
communicable
diseases
3.8 Health hazards to
workers and
communities
3.9 Changes in human
settlement patterns
3.10 Conflicts over use
of natural
resources e.g.
water, land, etc.
3.11 Conflicts on land
ownership
3.12 Disruption of
important
pathways, roads
3.13 Increased
population influx
3.14 Loss of cultural
identity
3.15 Loss of income
generating
capacity

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OVERALL EVALUATION OF THE SCREENING PROCESS ON THE SITE AND PROJECT
ACTIVITY

The result of the screening process would be either: (a) the proposed project would be
permitted to proceed on the site or (b) the proposed project would need an EIA. The basis of
these options is listed in the table below:

The Proposed Project Activity Can Be The Proposed Project Activity Needs
Exempted From EIA and/or RAP Further Compliance With EIA
Requirements On The Following. Requirements On The Following
Observations.
a. Screening indicates that the site of the a. Field appraisals indicate that the project
project will not be within site is within environmentally –sensitive
environmentally–sensitive areas .e.g. areas, protected areas.
protected areas
b. No families will be displaced from the site b. Cause adverse socio-economic impacts
c. Identified impacts are minor, marginal c. Significant number of people, families will
and of little significance be displaced from site
d. Mitigation measures for the identified d. Some of the predicted impacts will be
impacts are well understood and long term, complicated, extensive
practiced in the area
e. The stakeholders have adequate e. Appropriate mitigation measures for some
practical experiences in natural resource predicted impacts are not well known in
conservation and management. the area

Completion by Environmental District Completion by Director of

Officer Environmental Affairs
Is This Project Likely YES/ NO Date Received
To Need An EIA from District
Assembly:
List A/B Paragraph Dated Reviewed:
Numbers
Date Exempted Date of
Submission of
Project Brief
Date Forwarded To Date of
DEA Head Office Submission of EIA
Reports
Name & Signature of Date of
EDO Approval/Rejection
NOTES:

 Once the Environmental and Social Screening Form is completed it is analysed by

experts from the District Environmental Sub-Committee who will classify it into the
appropriate category based on a predetermined criteria and the information provided
in the form.
 All projects‘ proponents exempted from further impact assessment must be informed
to proceed with other necessary procedures.
 All projects recommended for further impact assessment will have to follow
procedures outlined in section 24 and 25 of the Environmental Management Act, and
the Malawi Government‘s Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment Appendix
C, page 32

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Annex 7: Some steps in the design of irrigation canals

Figure 1: Typical layout of an irrigation canal network

Figure 1 shows a typical layout of a canal network with the main components of an irrigation
project. To design such a system, the designer should implement the following steps:

Step 1
On the contour map of the proposed irrigation project try to locate the best alignment for the
canals, taking into consideration the following factors.
1. The canal gradient is down the slope, to allow for gravity flow.
2. The canals should be aligned on high ground to command the greatest irrigable area.
3. Main canals crossing the contours at right angles should be avoided to reduce
excavation and earthwork.
4. The management of the system must be considered, when the canal network is
designed. For example, a block which is served by a tertiary canal should command
an area which is manageable, and can be administered by the farmers‘ irrigation
committee. A tertiary block will usually be about 25 to 30 ha. in area.
5. To avoid excessive losses by seepage in the field canals, it is recommended that the
field canals should not be longer than one kilometre. The maximum area irrigated by
a field canal should generally not exceed 7.5 ha.

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Step 2
Determine the minimum acceptable water level at the tail and head of the field canals by
adding about 20 cm to the field level at these two locations. The ground level and the
minimum acceptable water level (mwlf) is then drawn. The line which connects mwlf at the
head and the tail of a canal should represent the water surface, if the gradient is acceptable.
The acceptable gradient is the gradient which gives a flow velocity in the canal less than the
maximum permissible velocity. If the gradient of the assumed water surface is too steep,
drop structures can be introduced as necessary along the canal.

Step 3
The same procedure as given in Step 2 is repeated for other field canals and the minimum
acceptable water level in the tertiary canals (mwlt) at the location of the field canals is
calculated. The mwlt is equal to the mwlf plus head losses through the turnout, which is
about 5 cm for a simple gate to about 10 cm for short pipes. For the preliminary design,
these figures can be adopted, but they should be checked later once the structure type has
been decided. The water surface in the tertiary canals must be at or higher than the mwlt at
the location of the field canals. At this stage the need for drop structures will become
apparent.

Step 4
1. Calculate the water level at the head of the tertiaries and add the head losses through
the turnouts to obtain the minimum water level in the secondary canals (mwls).
2. The water surface in the secondary canals must be at or higher than the mwls.
Introduce drop structures as needed to fulfil the design hydraulic criteria, as explained
in Section 3 of this chapter.
3. Add an estimated value of the head loss at the turnouts and division boxes to obtain
the minimum required water level in the main canal (mwlm).
4. The water surface in the main canal must be at or higher than the mwlm.
5. Determine the water level at the head of the main canal and confirm that the water
source has enough head to supply the design discharge. If there is insufficient head,
a weir or a pumping station may be required.

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Annex 8: Discharge characteristics of some measuring weirs

Discharge characteristics of broad- and sharp-crested weirs

Types of sharp-crested weirs

Hydraulic parameters of the broad-crested weir for discharge measurement.

Discharge coefficient: The discharge coefficient depends on the curve of the streamlines
above the crest, and amounts to = 1 for the broad-crested weir. Thus, weir coefficient of the
broad-crested weir is c = 1.7 m½/s. Thus, the hydraulic design equation of a broad-crested
weir with a rectangular control section is often simplified into: Q = c b H1.5 with c = 1.7 m½/s.

The Romijn broad-crested weir

One of the most commonly used broad-crested weirs for discharge measurements is the
Romijn weir, which was developed in Indonesia for use in relatively flat areas and where the
water demand is variable because of different requirements during the growing season. The
discharge equation for the Romijn broad-crested weir is written as:

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Q  32 x C v x Cd x  32 g 2 Bt x H crt
1 3
2

Where:
Q = Design discharge over the weir (m3/sec)
Cd = Discharge coefficient
Cv = Approach velocity coefficient
g = Acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/sec2)
Bt = Width (or breadth) of the weir across the direction of flow (m)
Hcrt = Design upstream water depth over the weir (m)

For field structures with concrete abutments, it is advisable to use an average value of C d =
1.00. The value of the approach velocity coefficient, Cv, ranges between 1.00 and 1.18,
depending on Hcrt. Where both Cd and Cv are considered to be 1.00, substituting these
values and the value for g gives:

q  1.7 x B t x H crt
2

Rectangular contracted weir

A rectangular contracted weir is a thin-plate weir of rectangular shape, located perpendicular
to the flow. To allow full horizontal contraction of the nappe, the bed and sides of the canal
must be sufficiently far from the weir crest and sides. Many practical formulae have been
developed for computing the discharge, amongst which are the following:

Hamilton-Smith formula:
  0.1h  3
 x x 2g 2 x b x h 2
1 3
Q  0.616 x 1 
  b  2
Francis formula:
Q  1.838 x b  2h  x h 2
3

Where:
Q = Design discharge over weir (m3/sec)
b = Length of weir crest (m)
h = Design water depth measured from the top of the weir crest (m)
Table gives discharge data related to length of crest, b, and water head, h, over a weir.

Trapezoidal (Cipoletti) weir

The Cipoletti weir is a trapezoidal weir with the sides having an outward sloping inclination of
1Horizontal:4Vertical. This side slope is such that the water depth-discharge relationship is the
same as that of a full width rectangular weir, Figure below..

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Hydraulic parameters of the Cipoletti weir for discharge measurement

The hydraulic design equation of a Cipoletti weir is:

3
Q = 1.9 bH1.5 or Q  1.859 x b x h 2
where Q is the discharge in m3/s, H is the energy head upstream in m, b is the width of the
crest in m.

Where:
Q = Design discharge over weir (m3/sec)
b = Length of weir crest (m)
h = Design water depth measured from the top of the weir crest (m)

V-notch weir
The V-notch weir is an accurate discharge-measuring device, particularly for discharges less
than 30 l/sec, and it is as accurate as other types of sharp-crested weirs for discharges from
30 to 300 l/sec. To operate properly, the weir should be installed so that the minimum
distance from the canal bank to the weir edge is at least twice the head on the weir. In
addition, the distance from the bottom of the approach canal to the point of the weir notch
should also be at least twice the head on the weir. The general and simple discharge
equation for a V-notch weir is:

Q  1.38 x tan  12 x θ  x h 2
5

Where:
Q = Design discharge over the weir (m3/sec)
θ = Angle included between the sides of the notch (degrees)
h = Design water depth (m)
Parshall Flumes
The upstream head-discharge (ha-Q) relationship of Parshall flume of various sizes, as
calibrated empirically, is represented by an equation, having the form

Q = Khu,
where K denotes a dimensional factor which is a function of the throat width. The power u
varies between 1.522 and 1.60. Values of K and u for each size of flume are given in the

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following figure. In the listed equations Q is the modular discharge in m3/s, and ha is the
upstream gauge reading in metres.

The flumes cover a range of discharges from 0.09 l/s to 93.04 m 3/s and have overlapping
capacities to facilitate the selection of a suitable size

Discharge characteristics of Parshall flumes

Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 7 Volume II.

Sizes of Parshall flumes

All dimensions are in millimetres.

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Annex 9: How to determine the drainage modulus in a rice field

To determine the modulus for a rice field the following steps may be followed: -
1. Obtain data on rainfall, for as many years as possible and calculate for each year the
maximum 3 days‘ rainfall during the growing season;
2. Analyse the data to obtain a maximum 3 days‘ rainfall which has a return period of
say 5 to 10 years. In rice fields 5 years return period is usually taken;
3. Draw the data as it is shown below assuming that at the end of the 3 days only 50
mm water is accumulated;

4. Subtract evapotranspiration and percolation losses from the accumulated water, to

obtain the maximum drainage modulus (D3 days);
5. The mean drain capacity in l/s/ha is calculated as follows:

Drain capacity Qd = q. Litres/sec should be used. For larger areas, the drainage channel
cross section should be adjusted to the discharge value.

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Annex 10: Process of formation and approving an environmental and social impact
assessment

WUA Formation Process - New Irrigation Schemes

Identification of Farmers
1 See separate diagram 
Interested in Irrigation
Multi-disciplinary team of
Apply Eligibility Criteria Preliminary assessment & selection IWMU/ DADO and NGO,
for selection Engineers/ Consultants
of development site

Formation of provisional, IWMU/ DADO & NGO

representative farmer group Facilitators

Basic general participatory agreement for development

Eligibility criteria; water Socio-economic and technical

resources, land tenure, Consulting Engineers;
feasibility assessment in IWMU/ DADO and NGO.
resettlement, engineering
& economic viability consultation with farmers

2 Organization Physical
Development Infrastructure
Training Modules: • Surveys
• Preliminary design of
• Farmer Organisation options
• Type of Organization • Presentation to
• Understanding WUA Formation/ Design farmers
 Legal Framework Training Irrigation System • Selection & approval
• Preparation of By-laws of option
WUA • EIA (>10ha)
• Roles/ Responsibilities • Final design
• Environment • Final presentation &
• Gender - HIV/AIDS • approval by farmers/ Project
• Preparation of tender
Application documents
for
Registration
DADO/ NGO
& Consultants Participatory Agreement for Construction and Future O&M of IWMU/ DADO &
the Irrigation System Consultants

Training Modules: Modalities of executing

3 physical works
• General Management
• Leadership • Contractor
• Understanding Bylaws Empower Construction • Beneficiary farmers
• Finance 1 & 2
• Record Keeping WUA Works
• Contract Management

Training Modules:
• Irrigation / drainage
practices;
• Crop production
• Water management Operationalise
• Maintenance planning
• System O&M WUA Activities
• Crop water requirement
• Water charges & fees
• Conflict management

Note: Based on Smallholder Flood Plains Staged

Irrigation Management See separate diagram
Development Project (SFPDP) process design and Transfer Agreement
lessons learned.

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99
Annex 11: Example of the Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)

Implementation Frequency of Cost

Environmental
arrangements monitoring
/ Proposed mitigation and aspects for monitoring
C – Construction
social impact Execution Supervision
O – Operation
Soil erosion - Control earthworks. PM/RE, Random (c).
- Install irrigation canals and drainage structures Contractor. Twice a year to cater
as per design. for seasonal
- Install erosion control measures. variation (o).
- Landscape embankments and re-vegetate
borrow sites with grass and indigenous shrubs.
- Ensure management of excavation activities. Farmer AEDO
- Manage irrigation to avoid erosion. Random (o)
Borrow sites - Inform community living at/near the sites that the PM/RE, Once after site
areas have been selected for exploitation. Contractor. selection (c).
- Arable lands should not be used as borrow sites
whenever possible. For new borrow sites the
topsoil (30cm) should be put aside and used for
reinstatement after construction is over to
minimise the impact on ecosystem and
agriculture.
- Plan access to borrow sites.
- Control and restrict access to borrow sites (e.g. PM/RE, Monthly (c).
by fencing). Contractor.
- Control earthworks.
- Proper management of excavation activities.
- Landscape, terrace and if necessary grass sites.
Replace trees that are removed during
excavation.
Vegetation loss - Control clearing of vegetation. Contractor, AEDO. Random (c,o).
- Avoid clearing using herbicides. PM/RE.
- Replant areas where vegetation is unnecessarily
removed. Farmers. AEDO.
- Undertake agroforestry in the schemes.

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Implementation Frequency of Cost
Environmental
arrangements monitoring
/ Proposed mitigation and aspects for monitoring
C – Construction
social impact Execution Supervision
O – Operation
- Landscape and plant trees or grass at all
disturbed areas (borrow pits, embankments etc). Farmers. AEDO.
- Care for trees / plants.
Construction - Sufficient measures should be taken at the Contractor, Daily (c)
campsites construction camps i.e., provision of garbage bins PM/RE.
and sanitation facilities. If septic tanks are
installed, waste must be cleared out periodically.
- Special attention should be paid to the sanitary
condition of camps.
- Garbage should be disposed of periodically.
Air pollution - Prohibit idling of construction vehicle engines. Engineer, Daily (c)
- Water should be sprayed during the construction Contractor,
phase on excavated areas and access roads PM/RE.
leading to borrow pits, and the Project sites to
minimise dust.
Noise pollution - Supervise construction traffic. PM/RE and
- Maintain construction equipment according to Contractor.
manufacturers' specifications.
- Workers in the vicinity of high level noise to wear
safety & protective gear.
Oil pollution - Ensure proper storage, handling and disposal of Engineer, Daily (c).
oil and oil wastes. PM/RE, Twice a year (o).
- Maintain construction equipment according to Contractor.
manufacturers' specifications. PM/RE,
Contractor.
- Maintenance of construction vehicles should be
carried out in the Contractor's camp.
Public health - Sensitisation campaign on STDs in the Contractor, Public Health Twice a year (c,o).
and communities around the schemes. PM/RE. Officer,
occupational - Monitor solid and liquid waste disposal and
safety collection facilities.

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Implementation Frequency of Cost
Environmental
arrangements monitoring
/ Proposed mitigation and aspects for monitoring
C – Construction
social impact Execution Supervision
O – Operation
- Place warning signs during construction.
- Consult with the beneficiary community and
health workers.
Water Sources - Manage water usage during construction so as Contractor, Daily (c)
not to disrupt beneficiary community. PM/RE.
- Plan works schedule according to water
availability.
- Construct appropriate stream / river crossings
where none exist.
- Do not bulldoze soil into stream / rivers.
- Minimise areas to be disturbed around water
resources. Farmer AEDO Random (o)
- Install erosion protection works to prevent
siltation.
- Ensure pit latrines are located away from water
resources.
- Ensure appropriate agricultural practices and
control of agro-chemical inputs.
Fuel - Energy sources should be identified so as not to Contractor. Daily (c).
put a strain on the local resources.
- Discourage use of firewood/charcoal by providing
alternatives such as kerosene and gas.

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Annex 12: Standard Drawings of Major Structures

Standard Division Box Details

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104
Standard Stone Masonry Drop Structure

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105
Standard Division Box combined with modified Drop Structure

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Standard Culvert Details

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107
Standard Gate Details (Type: Slide Gate)

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108
Standard Gate, Trash Racks, and Stop Logs Details

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109
Typical Canal Cross Sections

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110
Fence Details and Typical Road and Mitre Drain Cross Section

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111
Typical Washing Steps and Footbridge Details

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112
Standard Cattle Trough Details

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113
Typical Cross Drainage Structure Type 1 Details

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114
Typical Cross Drainage Structure Type 2 Details

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115
Typical Resident Engineer’s Offices Details

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116
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117
Annex 13: Standard Bills of Quantities

TYPICAL BILL OF QUANTITIES FOR WEIR BASED SURFACE IRRIGATION SCHEME

Bill No. 2 DIVERSION WEIR

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
2.1 Earthworks
2.1.1 Site clearing for the weir body, m2
apron & cut-off wall, divide wall,
gabion, wing wall and dyke
2.1.2 Strip 150mm top soil for the weir m2
body, apron & cut-off wall, divide
wall, gabion, wing wall and dyke
2.1.3 Excavation of earth for the weir m3
body, apron & cut-off wall, divide
wall, gabion, wing wall and dyke
2.1.4 Compacted backfill at the back of m3
wing wall
2.1.5 Embankment fill for the dyke m3
Subtotal - 1

2.2 Structural Work

2.2.1 Masonry Work
2.2.1.1 Wet masonry for the weir body, m3
apron & cut-off wall, wing wall (1:3)
2.2.1.2 Plaster the required parts of m2
masonry for weir body, apron &
cut-off wall and wing wall
2.2.2 Concrete Work
2.2.2.1 Reinforced concrete for divide wall m3
, breast wall, deck slab, box culvert
(C-25)
2.2.2.2 Blinding concrete for divide wall m2
and box culvert (C-15 and t =
75mm)
2.2.2.3 Concrete for toe wall in the dyke m3
(C-15)
2.2.2.4 Steel reinforcement for divide wall, kg
breast wall, deck slab and box
culvert
2.2.2.5 Formwork for divide wall, breast m2
wall, deck slab and box culvert
2.2.3 Miscellaneous Work
2.2.3.1 Gabion (Protection work) in the m2
river bed as specified in the design
2.2.3.2 Supply, install and fix galvanised nr
steel gate for the intake as
specified in the design
2.2.3.3 Supply, install and fix galvanised nr
steel gate for under-sluice bay as
specified in the design
2.2.3.4 Stone pitching (rip rap) for U/S face m3

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
of the dyke
2.2.3.5 Gravel under the pitching in the m3
dyke
Subtotal - 2

2.3 Allow for diversion of river and LS

reinstate on completion plus all
associated temporary works
necessary to construct the weir
Subtotal - 3

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Bill No. 3 CANAL EARTHWORKS
3.1 Main Canal - Lined ( 100m )
Chainage 0 to 100m

3.1.1 Site clearance m2

3.1.2 Strip top soil (Provisional) m2
3.1.3 Excavation in soft material m3
3.1.4 Fill and compact the embankment m3
as specified
3.1.5 Wet stone masonry m3
3.1.6 Compacted Granular backfill m3
Subtotal

3.2 Main Canal - Earthen (311m )

Chainage 100 to 411m

3.2.1 Site clearance m2

3.2.2 Strip top soil (Provisional) m2
3.2.3 Excavation in soft material m3
3.2.4 Fill and compact the embankment m3
as specified
Sub total

3.3 Tertiary Canal

3.3.1 Site clearance m2

3.3.2 Strip top soil (Provisional) m2
3.3.3 Excavation in soft material m3
3.3.4 Fill and compact the embankment m3
as specified
Subtotal

3.4 Other minor canals (may not be

contracted out)

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTIT RATE AMOUNT

Y (MK) (MK)
3.4.1 Field canals m
3.4.2 Field drains m
Subtotal

3.5 Tertiary Drain

3.5.1 Excavation in soft material m3

3.5.2 Fill and compact the embankment m3
as specified
Subtotal

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3.6 Flood Protection

3.6.1 Strip top soil under embankment m2

(75mm thick)
3.6.2 Forming earthen dykes with m3
excavated material scrapped from
adjacent lands across old river
course
Subtotal

3.7 Land Levelling

3.7.1 Stripping in soft material from upper m3

part of each plot/field and placing
on lower side of it to make a level
surface or as directed
Subtotal

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BILL No. 4 STANDARD IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
4.1 DIVISION BOXES

4.1.1 Main Canal

Division Box (2 No.)
4.1.1.1 Excavation for structure in soft m3
material
4.1.1.2 Excavation for structure in rock m3
4.1.1.3 Backfilling and compaction with m3
selected fill to structure (0.84 m3
per division box)
4.1.1.4 Class C25/ reinforced concrete to m3
base
4.1.1.5 Wet stone masonry to gate sill m3
(0.02m³ per division box)
4.1.1.6 Brick walls in 1:3 mortar, plastered m3
on both sides, thickness greater
than 330 mm
4.1.1.7 Concrete capping Class C20 to m2
brick walls (5cm)
ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTIT RATE AMOUNT
Y (MK) (MK)
4.1.1.8 Steel fabric reinforcement A142 to kg
floor slab ( 6.8 Kg per division box)
4.1.1.9 Tipped rock, Class F to canal base m3
and sides (0.7 m3 per division box)
4.1.1.10 Supply, install galvanised slide No
gates complete with all fixing iron
mongery as per drawings
4.1.1.11 Provide and install staff gage (0.70 No
m)
Subtotal

4.2 STANDARD FOOT BRIDGES

4.2.1 On main canal and tertiary drain
4.2.1.1 Excavation for structure in soft m3
material (1 m3 per drop)
4.2.1.2 Class 25/ Reinforced concrete to m3
footbridge (0.6m3 per drop)
4.2.1.3 High yield steel reinforcement (36 kg
kg per cu. m RC)
4.2.1.4 Class 20/ mass concrete to m3
foundation footings (0.8 m3 per
structure)
Subtotal

4.3 OVERFLOW SECTION

4.3.1 Excavation for structure in soft m3
material (1 m3 per drop)
4.3.2 Masonry lining m2
Subtotal

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4.4 MEASURING STRUCTURE
4.4.1 Common excavation m3
4.4.2 Reinforced concrete Class C20 m3
4.4.3 Brick walls m3
4.4.4 Backfilling m3
Subtotal

4.5 CROSS DRAINAGE STRUCTURE

4.5.1 Excavation for structure in soft m3
material
4.5.2 Excavation for structure in rock m3
(Provisional)
4.5.3 Backfilling and compaction with m3
selected fill to structure
4.5.4 Graded filter material Class A m3
4.5.5 Tipped rock, Class F 300mm thick m3
4.5.6 Class C15/ Blinding concrete, m3
75mm thickness
ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTIT RATE AMOUNT
Y (MK) (MK)
4.5.7 Class 20/ mass concrete m3
4.5.8 Wet stone masonry thickness m2
greater than 400 mm
4.5.9 600 mm concrete pipe m
Subtotal

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BILL NO. 5 ACCESS ROAD
5.1.1 Site clearance m2
5.1.2 Strip 150 mm top soil as specified, m2
and grade road to design slope
5.1.3 Fill low spots as directed by the m3
Engineer and compact with
selected material, and grade road
to design slope.
5.1.4 Provide road drains as per drawing m

Note: The quantities for the road

works are provisional and are for
spot improvement of access
road. These will only be
undertaken when instructed by
the Project Manager.

TOTAL BILL CARRIED OVER TO SUMMARY SHEET

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124
TYPICAL BILL OF QUANTITIES FOR MOTORISED SURFACE IRRIGATION SCHEME

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT

(MK) (MK)
2 Pump
2.0.1 Supply, test and install 8HP
Motorised pumps (Q=23l/s,
H=15m)
2.1 Fabricate portable steel plate
mounting for pump and
construct pump store for the
scheme
2.1.1 Fabricate and supply (10 No) No.
portable steel plate mountings for
the pumps, to include bolts, nuts
and washers as detailed in
standard pump mounting base
plate Drawing No JK1306/STD/07
3 Construct pump store
3.1.0 Excavate and backfilling for cu.m
structure
3.1.4 50mm hardcore cu.m
3.1.3 Class C20/C20 mass concrete to cu.m
floor as specified
3.1.1 230mm clay burnt brickwork to sq.m
walls reinforced with brickforce wire
at every 5 courses
3.1.2 19mm Plaster to brickwork to walls sq.m
3.1.5 Supply and fix 100mm X 75mm m
timber rafters to roof as specified in
the Pump store drawing
3.1.6 Supply and fix 50mm x 50mm m
timber purlins to roof as specified
3.1.7 Supply and fix 230mm x 15mm m
nutec fascia board to roof as
specified
3.1.8 Supply and fix 100mm x 50mm wall m
plate to roof as specified
3.1.9 Supply and fix 28 gauge IBR sq.m
sheets
3.1.10 Supply and fix breeze blocks as sq.m
specified on drawing
3.1.11 Supply and fix standard hardwood no.
double door as specified on the
drawing complete with frame
including all ironmongery
3.1.12 Supply and fix double steel grilled no.
door as specified on the drawing
complete with frame including all
ironmongery

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125
ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
4 Supply and Installation of pipes
and related fittings to suction
lines for pumps
4.1.0 Reinforced Flexible Suction no.
Pipe,75mm diameter , with Clips 6
m long
4.1.1 Foot valve and Strainer (75mm no.
diameter)
4.1.2 75mm Diameter Steel Tee piece no.
with a steel Plug
4.1.3 75mm Diameter Brass Barrel no.
Nipple
4.1.4 NIFV Barrel Nipple,3/4 inch no.

4.1.5 75mm Diameter Non-return Valve no.

4.1.6 125mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.7 140mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.8 200mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.9 250mm X 75mm UPV Reducer no.

4.1.10 Fabricate, Supply and install no.

manifold as specified in drawing
5 Supply and Installation of UPVC
pipes and related fittings to
delivery lines
5.1.0 125mm Diameter PVC RRJ class no
4 Pipe
5.1.1 125mm Diameter NIFV Barrel no
Nipple
5.1.2 140mm Diameter PVC RRJ class 4 no
Pipe
5.1.3 200mm Diameter PVC RRJ class 4 no
Pipe
5.1.4 250mm Diameter PVC RRJ class 4 no
Pipe
5.1.5 125mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.6 140mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.7 200mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
5.1.8 250mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.9 125mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
113 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.10 140mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
141 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.11 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
153 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.12 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC 90 no
Degree Long Radius Bend
6 Earthworks to pipe lines

6.1.0 Excavate up to 0.75m deep X cu.m

0.6m wide Trench (including
backfilling) for Pipelines
7 Supply and Install Fittings for
Hydrants / Discharge Chambers
7.1.0 125mm Diameter Gate Valve with no
flange adaptors
7.1.1 125mm Diameter Class 6 uPVC 90 no
Degree Elbow
7.1.2 140mm Diameter Gate Valve with no
Two Flange Adaptors
7.1.3 140mm Diameter Class 6 uPVC no
90 Degree Elbow
7.1.4 200mm Diameter Gate Valve with no
Flange Adaptors
7.1.5 200mm Diameter Class 6 uPVC no
90 Degree Elbow
7.1.6 250mm Diameter Gate Valve with no
two Flange Adaptors
7.1.7 250mm Diameter Class 6 uPVC no
90 Degree Elbow
7.1.8 140mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
Tee Piece
7.1.9 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
Tee Piece
8 Type 1 (Hydrant with Single
outlet)
8.1.0 Excavation and backfilling for cu.m
structures
8.1.1 50mm Hardcore cu.m

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
8.1.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

8.1.3 Concrete thrust blocks to hold inlet cu.m

pipe for hydrants as specified on
drawings
8.1.4 Brickwork in cement sand mortar sq.m
as specified
8.1.5 19mm Plaster to brickwork in sq.m
cement sand mortar
9 Type 2 (Hydrant with Double
outlets)
9.1.0 Excavation and backfilling for cu.m
structures
9.1.1 50mm Hardcore cu.m

9.1.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

9.1.3 Concrete thrust blocks to hold inlet cu.m

pipe for hydrants as specified on
drawings
9.1.4 Brickwork in cement sand mortar sq.m
as specified
9.1.5 19mm Plaster to brickwork in sq.m
cement sand mortar
9.2 Type 3 (Hydrant with Triple
outlet)
9.2.0 Excavation and backfilling for cu.m
structures
9.2.1 50mm Hardcore cu.m

9.2.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

9.2.3 Concrete thrust blocks to hold inlet cu.m

pipe for hydrants as specified on
drawings
9.2.3 Brickwork in cement sand mortar sq.m
as specified
9.2.4 19mm Plaster to brickwork in sq.m
cement sand mortar
10 Valve Chambers as Shown in
Drawing No.
10.1.0 Excavation and backfilling for cu.m
structures
10.1.1 50mm Hardcore cu.m

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
10.1.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

10.1.3 Brickwork in cement sand mortar sq.m

as specified
10.1.4 19mm Plaster to brickwork in sq.m
cement sand mortar
10.1.5 Valve Chamber Cover 980mm X no
980mm X50mm Hardwood Cover
with 2 Handles
11 Field canals-lined secondary
canals and unlined tertiary
canals (Total length)
11.1.0 Site clearance sq.m
11.1.1 Excavate suitable fill material as cu.m
directed by the engineer and place
in embankment, haulage not
exceeding 300m
11.1.2 Fill and compact to 98% MDD, the cu.m
embankment with suitable fill
material
11.1.3 Excavate canal section to specified cu.m
grade and profile
11.1.5 Clay-burnt bricks lining in cement sq.m
,sand mortar as specified
11.1.6 19 mm plaster to brickwork in sq.m
cement sand mix 1:3 in all canals

12 Footbridges

12.1.0 Excavate for structures cu.m

12.1.2 Class C25/20 Reinforced concrete cu.m
to deck slab and supports as
shown in the drawing
12.1.3 Class C20/20 Mass concrete to cu.m
foundation footings
13 Distribution boxes
13.1.0 Type 2 (Double outlets) no

14 Drainage Channels

14.1.0 Excavate to form drains to m3

specified levels and shape as
shown on relevant drawings

15 Drop Structures for Canals and

Drainage Channels

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
15.1.0 Construct 0.236m drop structures No.
at locations specified on Drawing
No. STD
15.1.1 Construct 0.250m drop structures No.
at locations specified on Drawing
No. STD
15.1.2 Construct 0.300m drop structures No.
at locations specified on Drawing
No. STD
15.1.3 Construct 0.400m drop structures No.
at locations specified on Drawing
No. STD
15.1.4 Construct 0.450m drop structures No.
at locations specified on Drawing
No. STD
15.1.5 Construct 0.500m drop structures No.
at locations specified on Drawing
No. STD

16 Siphons

16.1.0 63mm diameter siphons, each No.

1.5m long at 600

TOTAL BILL TO SUMMARY

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TYPICAL BILL OF QUANTITIES FOR SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT

(MK) (MK)
2 Pump (fixed or portable,
depending upon system)
2.0.1 Supply, test and install 8HP
Motorised pumps (Q=23l/s,
H=15m)
2.1 Fabricate portable steel plate
mounting for pump and
construct pump store for the
scheme
2.1.1 Fabricate and supply portable steel No.
plate mountings for the pumps, to
include bolts, nuts and washers as
detailed in standard pump
mounting base plate Drawing No
3 Construct pump store
3.1.0 Excavate and backfilling for cu.m
structure
3.1.4 50mm hardcore cu.m
3.1.3 Class C20/C20 mass concrete to cu.m
floor as specified
3.1.1 230mm clay burnt brickwork to sq.m
walls reinforced with brickforce wire
at every 5 courses
3.1.2 19mm Plaster to brickwork to walls sq.m
3.1.5 Supply and fix 100mm X 75mm m
timber rafters to roof as specified in
the Pump store drawing
3.1.6 Supply and fix 50mm x 50mm m
timber purlins to roof as specified
3.1.7 Supply and fix 230mm x 15mm m
nutec fascia board to roof as
specified
3.1.8 Supply and fix 100mm x 50mm wall m
plate to roof as specified
3.1.9 Supply and fix 28 gauge IBR sq.m
sheets
3.1.10 Supply and fix breeze blocks as sq.m
specified on drawing
3.1.11 Supply and fix standard hardwood no.
double door as specified on the
drawing complete with frame
including all ironmongery
3.1.12 Supply and fix double steel grilled no.
door as specified on the drawing
complete with frame including all
ironmongery

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
4 Supply and Installation of pipes
and related fittings to suction
lines for pumps
4.1.0 Reinforced Flexible Suction no.
Pipe,75mm diameter , with Clips 6
m long
4.1.1 Foot valve and Strainer (75mm no.
diameter)
4.1.2 75mm Diameter Steel Tee piece no.
with a steel Plug
4.1.3 75mm Diameter Brass Barrel no.
Nipple
4.1.4 NIFV Barrel Nipple,3/4 inch no.

4.1.5 75mm Diameter Non-return Valve no.

4.1.6 125mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.7 140mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.8 200mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.9 250mm X 75mm UPV Reducer no.

4.1.10 Fabricate, Supply and install no.

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
5.1.8 250mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.9 125mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
113 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.10 140mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
141 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.11 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
153 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.12 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC 90 no
Degree Long Radius Bend
6 Earthworks to pipe lines

6.1.0 Excavate up to 0.75m deep X cu.m

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
8.1.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

8.1.3 Concrete thrust blocks to hold inlet cu.m

9.1.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

9.1.3 Concrete thrust blocks to hold inlet cu.m

9.2.2 Concrete foundation slab cu.m

9.2.3 Concrete thrust blocks to hold inlet cu.m

pipe for hydrants as specified on
drawings
9.2.3 Brickwork in cement sand mortar sq.m
as specified
9.2.4 19mm Plaster to brickwork in sq.m
cement sand mortar
10 Laterals, risers, and sprinkler
heads
10.1.0 Excavation and backfilling for cu.m
laterals (for fixed system)
10.1.1 Supply and install lateral pipes m
(uPVC or Aluminium – specify
diameter)

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
10.1.2 Supply and install sub-lateral pipes m
(uPVC or Aluminium – specify
diameter)
10.1.3 Supply and install riser pipes m
(specify length, diameter)
10.1.4 Supply and install sprinkler heads no
(specify size or type)
10.1.5 Supply and install end-stops no
(related to size of laterals and sub-
laterals)
11 Drainage Channels

11.1.0 Excavate to form drains to m3

specified levels and shape as
shown on relevant drawings

TOTAL BILL TO SUMMARY

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TYPICAL BILL OF QUANTITIES FOR DRIP IRRIGATION SCHEME

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT

(MK) (MK)
2 Pump
2.0.1 Supply, test and install Motorised
pumps (Q=23l/s, H=15m)
2.1 Fabricate portable steel plate
mounting for pump, filter, and
construct pump store for the
scheme
2.1.1 Fabricate and supply portable No.
steel plate mountings for the
pumps, to include bolts, nuts and
washers as detailed in standard
pump mounting base plate Drawing
No JK1306/STD/07
3 Construct pump store
3.1.0 Excavate and backfilling for cu.m
structure
3.1.4 50mm hardcore cu.m
3.1.3 Class C20/C20 mass concrete to cu.m
floor as specified
3.1.1 230mm clay burnt brickwork to sq.m
walls reinforced with brickforce wire
at every 5 courses
3.1.2 19mm Plaster to brickwork to walls sq.m
3.1.5 Supply and fix 100mm X 75mm m
timber rafters to roof as specified in
the Pump store drawing
3.1.6 Supply and fix 50mm x 50mm m
timber purlins to roof as specified
3.1.7 Supply and fix 230mm x 15mm m
nutec fascia board to roof as
specified
3.1.8 Supply and fix 100mm x 50mm wall m
plate to roof as specified
3.1.9 Supply and fix 28 gauge IBR sq.m
sheets
3.1.10 Supply and fix breeze blocks as sq.m
specified on drawing
3.1.11 Supply and fix standard hardwood no.
double door as specified on the
drawing complete with frame
including all ironmongery
3.1.12 Supply and fix double steel grilled no.
door as specified on the drawing
complete with frame including all
ironmongery

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
4 Supply and Installation of pipes
and related fittings to suction
lines for pumps
4.1.0 Reinforced Flexible Suction no.
Pipe,75mm diameter , with Clips 6
m long
4.1.1 Foot valve and Strainer (75mm no.
diameter)
4.1.2 75mm Diameter Steel Tee piece no.
with a steel Plug
4.1.3 75mm Diameter Brass Barrel no.
Nipple
4.1.4 NIFV Barrel Nipple,3/4 inch no.

4.1.5 75mm Diameter Non-return Valve no.

4.1.6 125mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.7 140mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.8 200mm X 75mm UPVC Reducer no.

4.1.9 250mm X 75mm UPV Reducer no.

4.1.10 Fabricate, Supply and install no.

manifold as specified in drawing
5 Supply and Installation of uPVC
pipes and related fittings to
delivery lines
5.1.0 125mm Diameter PVC RRJ class no
4 Pipe
5.1.1 125mm Diameter NIFV Barrel no
Nipple
5.1.2 140mm Diameter PVC RRJ class 4 no
Pipe
5.1.3 200mm Diameter PVC RRJ class 4 no
Pipe
5.1.4 250mm Diameter PVC RRJ class 4 no
Pipe
5.1.5 125mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.6 140mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.7 200mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
5.1.8 250mm Diameter Reinforced no
Flexible Pipe 6m long with Clips
5.1.9 125mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
113 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.10 140mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
141 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.11 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC no
153 Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.12 250mm Diameter class 6 uPVC 90 no
Degree Long Radius Bend
5.1.13 Supply and install non-return
valves
5.1.14 Supply and install by-pass valve

5.1.15 Supply and install sand separator

(hydrocyclone)
5.1.16 Supply and install pressure gauge

5.1.17 Supply and install sand filter

5.1.18 Supply and install back-wash valve

6 Earthworks to pipe lines

6.1.0 Excavate up to 0.75m deep X cu.m

0.6m wide Trench (including
backfilling) for Pipelines
S1,S2,S3,S4,S5 and S6
7 Supply and Install Fittings for
irrigation system
7.1.0 Supply and install PE pipes as m
main line
7.1.1 Supply and install PE pipes as sub- m
main lines
7.1.2 Supply and install lateral lines (poly m
tubes)
7.1.3 Supply and install drippers / no
emitters
7.1.4 Supply and install end-stops no

7.1.5 Supply and install flush valves no

7.1.6 Supply and install air valves no

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ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
(MK) (MK)
7.1.7 Supply and install ball valves no

TOTAL BILL TO SUMMARY

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139
Annex 14: Some software used in irrigation design

a. Simple on Excel
b. AutoCad
c. LandCad
d. Surfer
e. Drainmod
f. EPANET 2.0 – design and dimensioning of pipeline systems
g. CROPWAT
h. CLIMWAT
i. Model Maker
j. Civil Designer
k. AquaCrop
l. ArcGIS
m. MAQUA for design of river training works

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

140
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141
Annex 15: Bibliography

1. Achieving Implementation of IWRM, IUCN Water Briefing

2. Basic Engineering Drawing and Communication, Sokoine University of Agriculture,
Morogoro, Tanzania
3. Drip Irrigation Design Guide, Irrigation Direct
4. EIA Guidelines for Irrigation and Drainage Projects published by the Environmental
Affairs Department
5. Engineering Drawings: Detailed Drawings as per Australian Standard A51100
6. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 40: Organisation, Operation and Maintenance of
Irrigation Schemes, by J.A. Sagardoy, A. Bottrall, and G.O. Uittenbogaard, Rome,
1986
7. FAO Irrigation Water Management Training Manuals:
a. Manual 1: Introduction to Irrigation
b. Manual 3: Irrigation Water Needs
c. Manual 4: Irrigation Scheduling
d. Manual 5: Irrigation Methods
8. FAO Irrigation Manual Crop Water Requirements
9. FAO Irrigation Manual Planning Development Monitoring and Evaluation of Irrigated
Agriculture with Farmer Participation, Modules 5 to 10, 2002
10. FAO Irrigation Manual Volume 1, Module 1: Irrigation Development: a Multifaceted
Process.
11. Handbook for Flood Protection, Anti-erosion, & River Training Works by Sh K.N.
Keshri et al, Flood Management Organisation, Central Water Commission,
Government of India, June 2012.
12. Handbook of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems, Water Resources Research Institute,
National Agriculture Research Centre, Islamabad, Dec 1992
13. Hydraulic Structures 4th. Edition by P. Novac, AIB Moffat, C. Nalluri, and R.
Narayanan; Taylor Francis, 2007
14. Irrigation Design and Practice by Bruce Withers and Stanley Vipond, Batsford
Academic and Educational Ltd., 1985
15. IWRM Introduction to Principles and Practices, World Bank Institute, Oct. 2006
16. NEH Irrigation Guide, Part 652, Sept. 1997
17. Pump Selection Handbook, MultiQuip Inc., 2011
18. SADC Guidelines for Local Level IWRM,
19. Solar-powered Pumping in Agriculture: A guide to System Selection and Design,
NSW Farmers, Aug, 2014
20. Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation by Jack Keller and Ron D. Bliesner, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, 1990
21. Suppliers of Centre Pivots: Valley Irrigation (valleyirrigation.com); Nelson Irrigation
Corporation (nelsonirrigation.com)
22. Surface Irrigation by L.J. Booher, FAO, 1974
23. Tanzania Irrigation Code of Practice
24. Technical Handbook on Pressurised Irrigation Techniques by A. Phocaides, FAO,
2000
25. Training Manual Environmental and Social Impact Assessment, Infrastructure
Services Project, Aug. 2008

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142
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
143
PART 2: OPERATING AND MAINTAINING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

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145
IRRIGATION OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CODE OF PRACTICE

Table of contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 148
1.1. PURPOSE OF THE IRRIGATION OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CODE OF PRACTICE .................................... 148
1.2. CONTEXT OF THE IRRIGATION OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CODE OF PRACTICE .................................... 148
1.3. TECHNICAL STANDARDS ....................................................................................................................... 148
1.4. HOW TO USE THE IRRIGATION OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CODE OF PRACTICE .................................... 148
CHAPTER 2: DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................... 150
CHAPTER 3: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL ............................................................................ 158
3.1. DEFINITION ......................................................................................................................................... 158
3.2. INTAKE ............................................................................................................................................... 158
3.3. PUMPING STATION .............................................................................................................................. 158
3.4. WATER CONVEYANCE CHANNELS ......................................................................................................... 160
3.5. WATER DISTRIBUTION STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................... 160
3.6. WATER APPLICATION STRUCTURES....................................................................................................... 160
3.7. WATER MEASURING DEVICES ............................................................................................................... 161
3.8. FLOOD PROTECTION STRUCTURES ....................................................................................................... 162
3.9. NIGHT STORAGE RESERVOIRS AND DAMS .............................................................................................. 162
3.10. SILT EJECTORS ................................................................................................................................... 162
3.11. THE END USER ................................................................................................................................... 163
3.12. IRRIGATION W ATER MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................ 163
3.12.1. Purpose................................................................................................................................... 163
3.12.2. Irrigator Skills and Capabilities ................................................................................................ 163
3.12.3. System Capability ................................................................................................................... 164
3.12.4. Managing Soil Water to Promote Desired Crop Responses ................................................... 164
3.12.5. Optimising Use of Water Supplies .......................................................................................... 165
3.12.6. Minimising Irrigation Induced Soil Erosion .............................................................................. 165
3.12.7. Decreasing Non-Point Source Pollution of Surface and Groundwater Resources .................. 165
CHAPTER 4: OPERATION PROCEDURES....................................................................................................... 166
4.1. PERSONNEL AND ORGANISATION .......................................................................................................... 166
4.2. STRUCTURE OF WUA .......................................................................................................................... 166
4.3. COORDINATION WITH SUPPORTING AGRICULTURAL SERVICES ................................................................. 169
4.4. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF WUA ........................................................................................................ 169
4.5. SIZE OF WUA ..................................................................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 5: THE OPERATION SERVICE ........................................................................................................ 172
5.1. MAIN OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................... 172
5.2. PLANNING THE OPERATION................................................................................................................... 172
5.2.1. Estimating Future Water Supply .................................................................................................. 172
5.2.2. Estimating Future Water Demand................................................................................................ 172
5.2.3. Matching Supply and Demand ..................................................................................................... 173
5.2.4. Restrictive Measures to Match Supply and Demand ................................................................... 174
5.3. DISTRIBUTION OF W ATER ..................................................................................................................... 176
5.3.1. On Demand Distribution .............................................................................................................. 177
5.3.2. Semi-Demand Distribution ........................................................................................................... 177
5.3.3. Canal Rotation and Free Demand Distribution ............................................................................ 178
5.3.4. Rotational System Distribution ..................................................................................................... 178
5.3.5. Continuous Flow Distribution ....................................................................................................... 179
5.4. OPERATION OF STRUCTURES ............................................................................................................... 179
5.4.1. Headworks ................................................................................................................................... 179
5.4.2. Spillway ....................................................................................................................................... 180
5.4.3. Intakes ......................................................................................................................................... 180
5.4.4. De-silting Basin and Sediment Trap ............................................................................................ 180
5.4.5. Stilling Basin ................................................................................................................................ 180
5.4.6. Night Storage Reservoirs ............................................................................................................. 181
5.4.7. Canal Outlets (Offtakes) .............................................................................................................. 181
5.4.8. Division Boxes ........................................................................................................................ 181
5.4.9. Drop Structures ....................................................................................................................... 182
5.4.10. Farm Turnouts (Farm Intake) .................................................................................................. 182
5.4.11. Check Structures .................................................................................................................... 183
5.5. EMERGENCY OPERATION ..................................................................................................................... 183

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146
5.5.1. Emergency Procedures ............................................................................................................... 184
5.5.2. Flood Emergency Criteria ............................................................................................................ 184
5.6. MONITORING THE OPERATION............................................................................................................... 184
5.6.1. Flow Measurement ...................................................................................................................... 184
5.7. OPERATION OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS .................................................................................................... 186
5.7.1. Basin Irrigation ............................................................................................................................. 186
5.7.3. Furrow Irrigation........................................................................................................................... 187
5.7.5. Border strip Irrigation ................................................................................................................... 188
5.7.6. Overhead Irrigation (Sprinkler or Centre Pivot) ............................................................................ 188
5.7.7. Localised Irrigation Systems (Drip) .............................................................................................. 189
5.8. MONITORING THE OPERATION SERVICE ................................................................................................. 191
5.8.2. Staffing the Operation Service ..................................................................................................... 192
5.8.3. Equipment ................................................................................................................................... 194
CHAPTER 6: THE MAINTENANCE SERVICE ................................................................................................... 196
6.1. SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................... 196
6.2. THE VICIOUS CYCLE OF MAINTENANCE .................................................................................................. 196
................................................................................................................................................................... 197
6.2.2. Reasons for Poor Maintenance ................................................................................................... 198
6.3. MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE MAINTENANCE SERVICE .................................................................................. 198
6.4. TYPES OF MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................................................... 199
6.5. MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES .................................................................................................................... 202
6.5.1. Dams and Reservoirs .................................................................................................................. 202
6.5.2. Night Storage Reservoirs ............................................................................................................. 203
6.5.3. Headworks ................................................................................................................................... 203
6.5.4. Irrigation Canals........................................................................................................................... 203
6.5.5. Pipelines and Sprinklers .............................................................................................................. 207
6.5.6. Drainage Network ........................................................................................................................ 208
6.5.7. Scheme Road Network ................................................................................................................ 209
6.5.8. Berms, Embankments, Dykes...................................................................................................... 210
6.5.9. Land Levelling.............................................................................................................................. 210
6.5.10. Structures................................................................................................................................ 210
6.5.11. Gates ...................................................................................................................................... 210
6.5.12. Pump Stations......................................................................................................................... 210
6.5.13. Solar System........................................................................................................................... 213
6.5.14. Ancillary Works ....................................................................................................................... 214
6.6. PLANNING MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES..................................................................................................... 214
6.6.1. Inventory of the Works ................................................................................................................. 214
6.6.2. Volume of Maintenance Works .................................................................................................... 215
6.6.3. Optimum Cycle of Maintenance ................................................................................................... 215
6.6.4. Machinery and Manpower Requirements .................................................................................... 216
6.6.5. Costing and Establishing Maintenance Priorities ......................................................................... 219
6.7. IMPLEMENTING THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME .................................................................................... 220
6.8. CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................. 221
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................................................... 222
ANNEX 1: SELECTED HERBICIDES FOR CONTROL OF AQUATIC WEEDS ...................................................................... 223
ANNEX 2: MACHINERY FOR CANAL CLEANING ........................................................................................................ 224
ANNEX 3: HAND TOOLS FOR CONTROL OF CANAL VEGETATION ................................................................................ 227
ANNEX 4: SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER MOVED TOOLS FOR CONTROL OF CANAL WEEDS .............................. 228
ANNEX 5: SAMPLE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE BUDGET .................................................................................. 230
ANNEX 6: SAMPLE MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE ....................................................................................................... 232
ANNEX 7: TROUBLESHOOTING CHECKLIST FOR PUMP MAINTENANCE ...................................................................... 233
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................................. 234

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Purpose of the Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Code of Practice

Goal and 1. The goal of developing irrigation systems is the efficient and
purpose sustainable use of water, energy, labour and capital in the irrigation
industry.
2. This operation and maintenance code of practice shall provide the
guidance on operation and maintenance of irrigation systems in an
economic and environmentally sustainable manner, in order to
achieve the irrigation industry‘s expectation of acceptable levels of
irrigation operation and maintenance practices to irrigation owners,
and operators.
3. In some circumstances practices and equipment other than those
suggested in the code may be equally relevant in meeting irrigation
industry standards.
4. The code is mandatory, and is intended to draw authority from all
areas of legislative responsibility within the irrigation industry.

1.2. Context of the Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Code of Practice

Context 1. The Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Code of Practice describes
the procedures that irrigation managers and operators must follow to
meet the required performance standards.

1.3. Technical Standards

Alignment 1. Standards from other Codes of Practice that are referenced within this
with Code of Practice are overseen by the relevant issuing authority.
Standards 2. The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has
responsibility for the International Standards published under its
name.
3. Where Malawi Standards exist, these shall apply to the
implementation of this Code of Practice.

1.4. How to use the Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Code of Practice
1. The Code of Practice includes practices that must be followed by
managers and operators in the operation and maintenance of
irrigation systems to ensure acceptable performance standards.
2. Specific technical data are provided to help in this respect, with
reference to other technical Standards.
3. The Operation and Maintenance Manual should be translated into
local languages to facilitate its implementation by the communities at
irrigation scheme level.

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149
CHAPTER 2: DEFINITIONS

2.1. Adequacy of irrigation: A measure of the proportion of the target area for
which the soil is restored to a level that equals or exceeds a set level, or
target soil water content

2.2. Application depth: The mean application depth (mm) applied by an

2.3. Application efficiency: The percentage of applied water that is retained

in the root zone, or in the target area, after an irrigation event

2.4. Application rate: The mean precipitation rate of the irrigation system,
expressed in millimetres depth of water applied per hour.

2.5. Application uniformity: The spatial variability of application, defined in a

variety of ways; the most common being distribution uniformity (DU),
coefficient of uniformity (CU) and emission uniformity (EU).

2.6. Available water holding capacity: The difference in moisture content

2.7. Back flow preventer: A device or devices installed in a pipeline to prevent

water flowing in reverse through the system.

2.9. Crop factor: The ratio of the water requirements of a particular crop to
that of a reference crop (usually average grass pasture).

2.10. Design area: The specific land area in hectares, which the supplier (or
designer) and the irrigation system purchaser mutually understand is to be
irrigated by the irrigation system.

2.11. Design system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare of
irrigated area used in the design of the system.

2.12. Distribution efficiency: A measure of how much of the water supplied to

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150
the Property reaches the application system. It is a function of losses
incurred in the conveyance or distribution system, from the point of water
abstraction or entry to the Property (in the case of irrigation schemes) to
the application system.

2.13. Drainage depth: The potential drainage volume based on peak irrigation
demand. This is typically expressed as volume per unit area (m3/ha) or an
equivalent depth per unit area (mm/ha).

2.14. Easily Available Water (EAW) refers to the amount of water that is easily
available to the plant, being 50% of the Plant Available Water. The easily
available water in the soil is determined as follows: Easily Available Water
(mm) = Plant Available Water (mm/m) x Effective Root Depth (m) x 50% or
EAW = PAW x ERD x 50% .

2.15. Effective root depth: The depth of soil profile that has enough rooting
density for extraction of available water, if needed. Roots may be found at
depths greater than this value but do not contribute significantly to water
extraction.

2.16. Environmental and Social Impact Assessment: An assessment of

factors ensuing from the implementation of the project that would impacts
(negative or positive) on the social welfare of the people as well as the
environment. Identified mitigation measures are incorporated into the
design of the project.

2.17. Evapotranspiration rate (ET): The rate of water loss from a combined
surface of vegetation and soil. It includes evaporation of water from the soil
surface, from free water on plants and transpiration by plants.

2.18. Field capacity: The soil water content of well-drained soils after drainage
from initially saturated soils has become negligible. The macro pores of the
soil are filled with air and the micro pores hold water by capillary action.

2.19. Field Water Capacity (FWC) is the volume of water, measured in

millimetres, that is required per meter of soil to saturate the soil and all free
water has drained. This is regarded as the full point of the water reserve in
the soil.

2.20. Headworks efficiency: A measure of the hydraulic performance of the

2.21. Hydraulic efficiency: A measure of the system hydraulic performance; it

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151
2.22. Infiltration rate: The rate at which the soil can absorb water, which
changes according to the wetness of the soil. Infiltration rate is usually
expressed in units of mm/hour.

2.23. Irrigation cycle refers to the number of days before a block is irrigated
again. For example, if the cycle for a block is three days, it will be irrigated
for instance on Mondays and Thursdays.

2.24. Irrigation scheme types

2.24.1. Basin: Water is supplied in a field which has been subdivided into flat
areas of land surrounded by earth bunds. Water entering the basin is
ponded until it infiltrates into the soil.

2.24.2. Border strip: Resembles basin irrigation in that the land is divided into
strips by small earth bunds, however, the field usually slope uniformly
away from the field channel.

2.24.3. Centre Pivot and Lateral Move: These are self-propelled irrigation
systems which apply water to pasture or crop, generally from above the
canopy. They are anchored at one end and rotate around a fixed central
point. Lateral systems are not anchored and both ends of the machine
move at a constant speed up and down a paddock.
Centre Pivot and Lateral Move systems require an energy source to move
water from the source to the plant as well as energy to move the machine
on farm.

2.24.4. Dam: An irrigation scheme whose water source is a reservoir formed by

constructing a dam across a river, a stream, or a valley. Reservoirs can be
on-stream or off-stream depending upon their location.

2.24.5. Drip: Drip irrigation (low volume/micro-irrigation) is where water is

2.24.6. Furrow: Irrigation water is confined to narrow channels (furrows) between

crop rows. The shape of the furrow depends upon soil type, stream size,
and crops being grown. This method is widely used irrigating row crops.

2.24.7. Gravity: An irrigation scheme in which water is supplied to the agricultural

land with gravity force only

2.24.8. Groundwater: An irrigation scheme in which the water source is a shallow

well, a borehole, or other groundwater storage. Water abstraction could be
by centrifugal pumps, submersible pump, treadle pump, solar powered
pump, or other pump mechanism.

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2.24.9. Localised: This form of irrigation aims at applying water at the plant root
zone, using such devices as nozzles, micro-tubes, porous pipes, orifices.

2.24.10. Pump (lake/pond): An irrigation scheme whose water source is a lake or

pond and water is abstracted by pumping.

2.24.11. Pump (river): An irrigation scheme whose water source is a river and
water is abstracted by pumping.

2.24.12. Rainwater harvesting: An irrigation scheme that subsistence farmers

themselves have introduced using simple rainwater harvesting techniques
to artificially control the availability of water for crops. This type includes
flood recession schemes.

2.24.13. Sprinkler: This system comprises a network of pipes with sprinklers

2.24.14. Surface: These are schemes whereby water is applied onto the crops on
the ground surface and allowed to percolate to roots by gravitational
forces.

2.25. Irrigation system: This comprises all of the equipment required to transfer
water from the water source to the crops in the design area.

2.26. Irrigator: An individual, community, or institution that seeks to develop

agricultural land into an irrigation scheme.

2.27. Leaching: Removal of salts and loss of nutrients beyond the root zone of
plants due to deep percolation of water.

2.28. Mainline: A pipeline within the distribution system that transports water
from the water source to sub units or zone control valves in a system.

2.29. Maximum allowable deficit (MAD): The percentage of available water

that is accepted to be depleted before irrigation is required. Often known
as stress point or critical deficit.

2.30. Mean Annual Flood (MAF): The flood which is estimated to occur in a
river whose magnitude is based on a probability of occurrence or non-
exceedance. In case of ungauged rivers, the following parameters apply in
determining MAF: MAFug (ungauged river), MAFg (gauged river), MAFo
(observed).

2.31. Operating system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare the
system is able to provide the way it is being managed.

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2.32. Osmotic Pressure: Osmotic Pressure refers to the pressure required by
plant roots to draw water from the soil.

2.33. Permanent wilting point: The soil moisture content at which a plant will
die from drought stress. For practical purposes, it is the soil water content
at a soil tension of 15 bar (1500 kPa). It is the volume of water, measured
in millimetres per meter soil, where most plants will wilt permanently, i.e.
where plants will not recover in twelve hours after being watered again.
This is regarded as the empty point of the water reserve in the soil.

2.34. Planning stage: A period in the irrigation project development process

which covers activities related to the initiation of the project by the client or
irrigators under the guidance of professional registered irrigation services
providers.

2.35. Plant Available Water (PAW) is defined as the difference between Field
Water Capacity and Permanent Wilting Point, i.e. PAW = FWC – PWP.

2.36. Potential system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare the
system is able to provide in the time available.

2.37. Precipitation: Precipitation refers to the increase in the water content of

the soil as a result of irrigation or rain, and is measured in millimetres
(mm). Precipitation is calculated as follows: Precipitation (m) = Volume of
water (m3) / Area of land (m2) : P = V / A or Precipitation (mm) = Volume
of water (m3) x 1,000 / Area of land (m2).

2.38. Productivity: The marginal increase in income resulting from the irrigation
system. It is generally expressed as the increase based on mean annual
irrigation demand per unit area ($/ha, may also be expressed as $/mm/ha),
though for economic analysis, maximum and minimum values may also be
of interest.

2.39. Pump terminologies

2.39.1. Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour bubbles in the liquid.
The reason is in most of the cases is a too low static suction head. The
suction valve should be submerged in the liquid to a depth greater than
the minimum recommended by manufacturers so that no air is sucked in
through vortices when the pump is in operation. Cavitation causes pitting
corrosion at the impeller, pressure drops resulting in a drop in pump
performance.
2.39.2. Diaphragm pumps use a positive displacement design and will deliver a
specific amount of flow per stroke, revolution or cycle. Engine-powered
versions are the most common.
2.39.3. Dynamic Discharge Head is the static discharge head plus the friction in
the discharge line. Also referred to as Total Discharge Head.
2.39.4. Dynamic Suction Head is the static suction lift plus the friction in the
suction line. Also referred to as Total Suction Head.

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2.39.5. Head refers to gains or losses in pressure caused by gravity and friction
as water moves through the system. It is most commonly listed in metres
of water. Depending on how the measurement is taken suction lift and
head may also be referred to as static or dynamic head.
2.39.6. High-pressure centrifugal pumps are designed for high-discharge
pressures and low flows. Typically, these pumps will discharge around 10
litres per second and produce heads in excess of 90 metres. These
pumps by design are not capable of handling any types of solids or even
sandy water.
2.39.7. Maximum suction lift is the practical suction lift, at sea level, which is
specified by most pump manufacturer. It is set at 7.5 metres.
2.39.8. Net positive suction head (NPSH) is defined as absolute pressure
(rather than gauge pressure) that is required at the pump inlet for
satisfactory operation. The NPSH of the pump is determined by
measurements carried out on the suction and delivery side of the pump.
This value is to be read from the pump characteristic curve and is
indicated in meter (m). The NPSH of the pump is called NPSH required,
and that of the system is called NPSH available. The NPSHavl should be
greater than the NPSHreq in order to avoid cavitation. NPSH required
(NPSHR) depends on the design of a particular pump, and is specified by
the pump manufacturers. For safety reasons another 0.5 m should be
integrated into the calculation, i.e.: NPSHavl > NPSHreq + 0.5m
2.39.9. Performance of a pump is measured in volume as litres per second and
in pressure as head.
2.39.10. Required flow rate (Q) is equal to the design flow rate for the irrigation
system. In situations where there is more than one design flow rate, the
designer shall consider using a single or multiple pumps, or a variable
speed drive unit or other control methods.
2.39.11. Standard centrifugal pumps common models are in the 50 mm to 100
mm range with flows from 10 to 35 litres per second and heads in the
range of 25 to 35 metres, used in clear water applications only. They will
only pass spherical solids ¼ the diameter of the suction inlet.
2.39.12. Static Discharge Head is the vertical distance from the discharge outlet
to the point of discharge or liquid level when discharging into the bottom of
a water tank.
2.39.13. Static Suction Lift is the vertical distance from the water line to the
centreline of the impeller.
2.39.14. Submersible pumps have a compact and streamlined design which
makes them ideal for wells and other jobs where space is limited. They
work in the water source being pumped.
2.39.15. Total Dynamic Head is the head that the pump is required to impart to a
fluid in order to meet the head requirement of a particular system. The
total dynamic head is made up of static suction lift or static suction head,
static discharge head, total static head, required pressure head, friction
head and velocity head.
2.39.16. Trash centrifugal pumps can handle large amounts of debris and are
preferred by contractors for desilting at construction sites. The most
common sizes are in the 50 mm to 150 mm range producing flows from 15
to 120 litres per second and heads up to 380 m. They will generally handle

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spherical solids up to ½ the diameter of the suction inlet, and up to 25%
suspended solids by volume.

2.39.17. Water Hammer occurs when water flow is stopped abruptly, e.g. the
column of pumped water stops and flows backwards towards the pump.
This can cause major pipe damage.

2.40. Readily available water holding capacity: The difference in moisture

2.41. Readily system capacity: The mean daily flow of water per hectare
required to meet the demands of the crop at Peak ET after accounting for
the duration that water is available.

2.42. Return interval: The interval between successive irrigation cycles during
periods of peak demand and no rainfall.

2.43. Return on water use: The marginal change in returns resulting from the
irrigation system. It is generally based on mean annual irrigation demand,
and incorporates cost and productivity elements above. Values can be
expressed as returns per unit area or volume of water ($/ha or $/m 3).
Values can be positive or negative, dependent on system costs,
productivity and crop returns.

2.44. Scheme Committee refers to a body of persons elected by the farmers

responsible for the management, operation, and maintenance of the
scheme.

2.45. Scheduling coefficient: A ratio to indicate how much additional water

above the mean application needs to be applied to adequately overcome
non-uniform applications.

2.46. Size of irrigation schemes:

≤ 10ha: Mini Irrigation Schemes
11 – 50 ha: Small Scale Schemes
51 – 500ha: Medium Scale Schemes
≥ 501ha: Large Scale Schemes

2.47. Soil texture: refers to the particle size or the relative amounts of sand, silt
and clay in the soil.

2.48. Stand-Time is the period (in hours) that a block is irrigated.

2.49. Surface runoff: An assessment of the potential surface runoff (volumetric)

proportion from the system operating during periods of peak irrigation

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demand. Generally, such considerations are limited to surface irrigation
systems and some spray systems.

2.50. System capacity: A measure to assess the ability of a system to meet

total system requirements; crop irrigation demand and losses due to non-
uniformity of application and distribution losses.

2.51. Transpiration reffers to the loss of water by means of evaporation from a

plant‘s surface through minute pores on the leaf surface, called stomata.

2.52. Uniformity coefficient (Christiansens): A measure that defines the

2.53. Water holding capacity: The maximum amount of water that can be held
in the soils that is available for plant growth. For practical purposes, it is
the difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

2.54. Water User Association: Water User Associations (WUA) are formally
registered organizations of the people, for the benefit of the people set up
to do the functions of operation and maintenance of the irrigation system

2.55. Water User Group: Water User Group (WUG) are organizations of the
people, for the benefit of the people set up to do the functions of operation
and maintenance of the irrigation system, which has not been formally
registered.

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CHAPTER 3: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL
3.1. Definition
1. Operation and maintenance procedures rely very much on the
designer‘s concept of the irrigation scheme. The designer made
some assumptions and decisions that have been incorporated in the
design of the irrigation scheme. The designer, therefore, has a very
important role in guiding and determining the way the scheme should
be operated and maintained.
2. The designer should provide a description of the irrigation and
drainage system including proposed crops and cropping patterns. A
clear picture should be presented on the flow of water from the water
source to the drainage system, highlighting the different components
that exist in the scheme layout. These instructions should be
presented in operation and maintenance manuals that should be
prepared by the designers for each scheme. This underscores the
need to involve of stakeholders and beneficiaries in the entire
process of planning and design of the irrigation schemes.
3. The designer should produce scheme specific manuals clearly
specifying how each part of the infrastructure should be operated and
maintained to ensure sustainability. In these manuals, capacities and
capabilities of the operators at each level should be described to
ensure efficiency of the system. As a guide, the following are some of
the issues to be described in the manuals

3.2. Intake
Requirements 1. The following should be specified concerning operation and
maintenance of the intake:
a. How many days per week the intake should be operated;
b. How many hours per day the intake should be operational;
c. What flow should pass through the intake at any given time
and how the flow should be measured and controlled;
d. Depending upon the type of intake, what are the critical areas
of operation and maintenance to maintain the efficiency of the
structure;
e. What the maintenance procedures should be followed
regarding all components of the intake.

3.3. Pumping Station

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. The type of pump(s) that will be installed and used in the
entire irrigation system (axial, centrifugal, submersible, solar);
b. Pump position and location (if variable). A mention should be
made of the condition of the base where the pump will be
positioned;
c. How the pump should be primed;
d. What operation procedures should be followed for each type
of pump installed in the irrigation system;
e. What the sequence of operations should be when switching
on and off the pump so as to prevent water hammer;
f. How long the pump should be operated per day;
g. Number of pumps operating at a time;
h. The type of fuels to be used for pumps and an estimate of
how much would be required for a single operation. Likewise,

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if an electric pump is to be used what consumption should be
expected;
i. Necessity of referring to pump manual by users;
j. What maintenance procedures should be followed for each
type of pump installation;
k. How pumps should be installed and operated in order to avoid
problems of cavitation, and pumping of sediments.

2. Specific Speed
i. Specific speed as a measure of the geometric similarity of
pumps - Specific speed (Ns) is a non-dimensional design
index that identifies the geometric similarity of pumps. It is
used to classify pump impellers as to their type and
proportions. Pumps of the same Ns but of different size are
considered to be geometrically similar, one pump being a
size-factor of the other.
ii. Specific speed is defined as the speed in revolutions per
minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate
if it were of such a size as to deliver one gallon per minute
flow against one-foot head.
iii. The understanding of this definition is of design engineering
significance only, however, and specific speed should be
thought of only as an index used to predict certain pump
characteristics.
iv. Specific speed as a measure of the shape or class of the
impellers – Specific speed determines the general shape or
class of the impellers. As the specific speed increases, the
ratio of the impeller outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet or eye
diameter, D1, decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true
axial flow impeller. Radial flow impellers develop head
principally through centrifugal force. Radial impellers are
generally low flow high head designs. Pumps of higher
specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force and
partly by axial force. A higher specific speed indicates a
pump design with head generation more by axial forces and
less by centrifugal forces. An axial flow or propeller pump
with a specific speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head
exclusively through axial forces. Axial flow impellers are high
flow low head designs.
v. Specific speed identifies the approximate acceptable ratio of
the impeller eye diameter (D1) to the impeller maximum
diameter (D2) in designing a good impeller.
Ns: 500 to 5000; D1/D2 > 1.5 - radial flow pump
Ns: 5000 to 10000; D1/D2 < 1.5 - mixed flow pump
Ns: 10000 to 15000; D1/D2 = 1 - axial flow pump
vi. Specific speed is also used in designing a new pump by size-
factoring a smaller pump of the same specific speed. The
performance and construction of the smaller pump are used to
predict the performance and model the construction of the
new pump.
vii. Specific speed as a measure of the safe operating range –
Suction specific speed (Nss) is commonly used as a basis for
estimating the safe operating range of capacity for a pump.
The higher the Nss is, the narrower is its safe operating range
from its BEP. The numbers range between 3,000 and 20,000.

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Most users prefer that their pumps have Nss in the range of
8000 to 11000 for optimum and trouble-free operation.

3.4. Water Conveyance Channels

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. The flow expected in the conveyance or main channel;
b. How many days the channel will operate per week;
c. How many secondary turnouts the channel should feed at any
given time and what their discharges and water levels are;
d. How the flow into secondary channels should be controlled;
e. Need for removing pipes and provision of end caps during the
rainy season where necessary;
f. How to manage sediments in channels, drains, and all other
structures along conveyance channel;
g. How to operate channels in order to avoid failure of the side
walls or slopes;
h. How to operate channels and drains in order to minimise
maintenance operations;
i. How to maintain channels and drains in order not to
compromise their operational efficiencies;
j. In case of siphons (inverted or otherwise) and other
conveyance structures, how these should be operated and
what protective measures should be undertaken in order to
minimise sedimentation and other maintenance needs;
k. Use of conveyance systems for human and livestock (animal)
use, and the resultant safety measures and maintenance
needs.

3.5. Water Distribution Structures

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. The flow is expected in the secondary and tertiary channels;
b. How many tertiary channels should operate at any given time
and the operation time for each channel;
c. The sequence of operation for the tertiary channels i.e. which
channel operates first;
d. How the flow should be controlled in each channel;
e. How to operate the channels in order to minimise
maintenance operations;
f. How to maintain the channels so that they do not compromise
their conveyance efficiencies.

3.6. Water Application Structures

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. The method used for application of irrigation water (basin,
furrow, border strip, sprinkler, dripper, centre pivot);
b. How many basins, furrows, border strips, sprinklers, drippers
should be used per given time or the irrigation time for each
method, similarly for centre pivots;
c. The application aides that should be used (spiles, siphons,
gates, hydrants), their sizes and how many of each per given
time;
d. How long each application aide should operate;
e. How to control the water level in the field canals to ensure
delivery of the design discharge;

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f. How to operate these application aides without destroying the
channels, and thus compounding maintenance needs;
g. When to operate the application aides and for how long to
meet the irrigation demand of the time;
h. What precautions should be taken before, during, and after
operation of the operation aides;
i. Maintenance needs and storage measures that will enhance
the length of life of the application aides.

3.7. Water Measuring Devices

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. The position of all water measurement devices in the scheme
and their types;
b. How and when to read each water measurement device;
c. How to maintain the data thus collected;
d. How to use the data collected from each water measurement
device;
e. Maintenance needs of the structures;

2. Stage-discharge relationships
i. The empirical, or also theoretical, relationship existing
between the water-surface stage (i.e. the water level) and the
simultaneous flow discharge in an open channel is known as
stage-discharge relation or rating curve, or also just rating.
These expressions are synonymous and they can be used
interchangeably.
ii. The rating curve is a very important tool in surface hydrology
because the reliability of discharge data values is highly
dependent on a satisfactory stage-discharge relationship at
the gauging station.
iii. Although the preparation of rating curves seems to be an
essentially empiric task, a wide theoretical background is
needed to create a reliable tool to switch from measured
water height to discharge.
iv. The rating curve is extensively used to estimate the discharge
in natural and/or artificial open channel. It is common practice
to measure the discharge of streams at suitable times, usually
by a current meter or other methods Meanwhile, the
corresponding stage is also measured; a curve of discharge
against stage can then be built by fitting these data with a
power or polynomial curve, looking like the one in Figure 12.
The traditional and simple way to gather information on
current discharge is then to measure the water level with
gauges and to use the stage-discharge relationship to
estimate the flow discharge.
.

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Figure 12 An example of a rating curve

v. For new gauging stations, many discharge measurements are

needed to develop the stage discharge relation throughout the
entire range of stream flow data. Generally, periodic
measurements are needed to validate the underlying stage-
discharge relationship and to track changes or shifts in the
rating curve.

3.8. Flood Protection Structures

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. How the structures have been designed to operate;
b. How the structures should be maintained, and the frequency
of the maintenance operations;
c. Safety measures that have been incorporated into the design
that need to be enforced;
vi.
3.9. Night Storage Reservoirs and Dams
Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. How the structures should be operated in order to
complement the discharges into the water delivery system;
b. How to operate the structures in order to maintain the stability
of the structure;
c. How long the structure should be operated;
d. Maintenance services that are needed for the structure to
maintain its design efficiency;
e. Safety measures that have been incorporated into the design
that need to be enforced;
f. Frequency of maintenance operations.

3.10. Silt Ejectors

Requirements 1. The designer should specify the following:
a. How the structures have been designed to operate;
b. Operation procedures and frequency of operation;
c. Safety measures incorporated into the design that need
enforcing;
d. Maintenance needs and frequency.

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3.11. The End User
Requirements 1. The role and responsibilities of the end user should be clearly
indicated in the Manual. The development of the Manual should be
done with full involvement and participation of the end users so that
these roles and responsibilities are outlined and included upon
consensus.

3.12. Irrigation Water Management

Definition The process of determining and controlling the volume, frequency and
application rate of irrigation water in a planned, efficient manner.

3.12.1. Purpose
1. The purpose for irrigation water management is to:
a) Manage soil moisture to promote desired crop response
b) Optimize use of available water supplies
c) Minimize irrigation induced soil erosion
d) Decrease non-point source pollution of surface and
groundwater resources
e) Manage salts in the crop root zone
f) Manage air, soil, or plant micro-climate
g) Proper and safe chemigation or fertigation
h) Improve air quality by managing soil moisture to reduce
particulate matter movement

2. The designer and the Operation Service manager shall develop an

―Irrigation Water Management Plan‖ to assist the irrigator or decision-
maker in the proper management and application of irrigation water.

3.12.2. Irrigator Skills and Capabilities

1. Proper irrigation scheduling, in both timing and amount, control of
runoff, minimizing deep percolation, and the uniform application of
water are of primary concern.
2. The irrigator or decision-maker shall possess or obtain the knowledge
and capability to accomplish the purposes which include:

A. GENERAL
i. How to determine when irrigation water should be applied,
based on the rate of water used by crops and on the stages of
plant growth and/or soil moisture monitoring.
ii. How to determine the amount of water required for each
irrigation, including any leaching needs.
iii. How to recognize and control erosion caused by irrigation.
iv. How to measure or determine the uniformity of application of
an irrigation.
v. How to perform system maintenance to assure efficient
operation.
vi. Knowledge of ―where the water goes‖ after it is applied
considering soil surface and subsurface conditions, soil intake
rates and permeability, crop root zones, and available water
holding capacity.
vii. How to manage salinity and shallow water tables through
water management.
viii. The capability to control the irrigation delivery.

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B. SURFACE SYSTEMS
i. The relationship between advance rate, time of opportunity,
intake rate, and other aspects of distribution uniformity and
the amount of water infiltrated.
ii. How to determine and control the amount of irrigation runoff.
iii. How to adjust stream size, adjust irrigation time, or employ
techniques such as ―surge irrigation‖ to compensate for
seasonal changes in intake rate or to improve efficiency of
application.

C. SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS
i. How to balance the relationship between water tables,
leaching needs, and irrigation water requirements.
ii. The relationship between the location of the subsurface
system to normal farming operations.
iii. How to locate and space the system to achieve uniformity of
water application.
iv. How to accomplish crop germination in arid climates and
during dry periods.

D. PRESSURIZED SYSTEMS
i. How to adjust the application rate and/or duration to apply the
required amount of water.
ii. How to recognize and control runoff.
iii. How to identify and improve uniformity of water application.
iv. How to account for surface storage due to residue and field
slope in situations where sprinkler application rate exceeds
soil intake rate.
v. How to identify and manage for weather conditions that
adversely impact irrigation efficiency and uniformity of
application.

3.12.3. System Capability

1. The irrigation system must be capable of applying water uniformly
and efficiently and must provide the irrigator with adequate control
over water application.

3.12.4. Managing Soil Water to Promote Desired Crop Responses

1. The following principles shall be applied for various crop growth
stages:
i. The volume of water needed for each irrigation shall be based
on plant available water-holding capacity of the soil for the
crop rooting depth, management allowed soil water depletion,
irrigation efficiency and water table contribution.
ii. The irrigation frequency shall be based on the volume of
irrigation water needed and/or available to the crop, the rate of
crop evapotranspiration, and effective precipitation.
iii. The application rate shall be based on the volume of water to
be applied, the frequency of irrigation applications, soil
infiltration and permeability characteristics, and the capacity of
the irrigation system.
iv. Appropriate field adjustments shall be made for seasonal
variations and field variability.

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3.12.5. Optimising Use of Water Supplies
1. Limited irrigation water supplies shall be managed to meet critical
crop growth stages.
2. When water supplies are estimated to be insufficient to meet even
the critical crop growth stage, the irrigator or decision-maker shall
modify plant populations, crop and variety selection, and/or irrigated
acres to match available or anticipated water supplies.

3.12.6. Minimising Irrigation Induced Soil Erosion

1. Application rates shall be consistent with local field conditions for
long-term productivity of the soil.

3.12.7. Decreasing Non-Point Source Pollution of Surface and Groundwater

Resources
1. Water application shall be at rates that minimize transport of
sediment, nutrients and chemicals to surface waters and that
minimize transport of nutrients and chemicals to groundwater.

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CHAPTER 4: OPERATION PROCEDURES

4.1. Personnel and Organisation

Definition 1. Water User Associations (WUA) are organizations of the people, for
the benefit of the people set up to do the functions of operation and
maintenance of the irrigation system. Membership is comprised of
participating farmers in the irrigation schemes.

4.2. Structure of WUA

WUA 1. The WUA has the following structure:
Structure and
functions

Figure 13 structure of WUA

Source: WUA Manual

i. The General Assembly: composed of all the farmers of the

association. It is the highest authority. Its main roles and
functions are as follows:
a) To select their representatives (Board of Trustees);
b) To elect the members of the Executive Committee.
c) To hear and pass upon the reports of the Executive
Committee and officers of the Association.
d) To make a final decision regarding any drastic
change in financial policies.
e) approve or disapprove the management plans.
f) To elect and remove trustees, officers and committee
members for just cause.
g) To adapt or amend the Articles of Incorporation and
by-laws of the Association.
h) To act and exercise final authority in all matters
affecting the Association except those delegated to
the Executive Committee.

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i) To dissolve the Executive Committee for just cause
and to constitute a new one.
ii. The Executive Committee: This is the highest executive body
comprising a President, Vice President, Secretary, Vice
Secretary, Treasurer and three committee members. The
number of Executive Committee members may be increased
according to the need and in accordance with the law. The
Executive Committee of the Association shall exercise all the
powers and accept all the duties laid down in this constitution
and in particular shall have all duties listed below:
a) The Executive Committee shall protect the
Constitution of the Association.
b) To be responsible for planning, co-ordination and
implementation to ensure the efficient distribution and
use of irrigation water.
c) Assist the Irrigation Committee in the preparation of
an annual operation and maintenance plan.
d) To be responsible for joint or group actions of
members in the proper operation and maintenance of
the irrigation system.
e) To closely co-ordinate irrigation activities in the area
including cropping patterns, irrigation scheduling and
water distribution.
f) To formulate and implement rules and regulations for
the management of the affairs of the Association and
for the guidance of the Associations officers and
members.
g) To hold Annual General Meetings as required by the
Constitution.
h) To ensure true and accurate records of all
transactions of the Association are kept by the
Treasurer and audited annually.
i) To appoint employees who may not be members of
the Association and fix their remuneration.
j) To submit to the General Assembly, the financial
statement of the Association.
k) To decide on the disposition of any surplus funds in
case of dissolution and/or liquidation of the
Association with the concurrence of two thirds of the
general membership present at a regular or special
meeting for the purpose.
l) To act on the withdrawal from membership.
m) To ensure safe custody of the Association property.
n) To enter into contracts on behalf of the Association.
o) To ensure that resolutions of the General Meeting
are complied with and implemented.
p) Land allocation
q) To apply for water rights on behalf of the Association
r) To ensure that the health and hygiene practices
within the scheme are appropriate
s) To ensure that members are conversant with current
agronomic practices in irrigated farming.
t) To encourage users to make the best use of natural
resources and protect the environment.
u) To ensure that all water fees are collected by an

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agreed time and remitted to the Treasurer of the
Association.
v) To prepare an annual budget and get approval from
the General Assembly.
w) To perform other duties as agreed by the AGM.

iii. The Standing Committees: comprising the Irrigation

Committee and the Finance Committee. The specific functions
and responsibilities of each of the standing committees are as
follows:

a) Irrigation Committee – responsible for the day to

day management of the irrigation system including:
 Ensure the proper distribution and use of
irrigation water;
 Consolidate the list of irrigated and planted
areas.
 Evaluate and recommend ways and means
for efficient water delivery and distribution.
 Evaluate and recommend policies and
procedures in managing water crises.
 Evaluate and recommend policies and
procedures for in-season maintenance.
 The preparation of an annual operation and
maintenance plan.
 Evaluate O&M plans before and after each
cropping season and identify problems and
formulate procedures to solve them;
 Supervise O&M work;
 Supervising any irrigation staff employed by
the Association.
 Recommend policies and procedures in
settling irrigation related conflicts.

b) Finance Committee – responsible for all financial

matters of the Association including:
 Formulate policies and procedures regarding
the business affairs and improvement in the
finances of the association.
 Evaluate and recommend policies and
procedures for defective irrigation service
fee collection.
 Study proposed income producing
projects/activities and recommend
appropriate actions to the Executive
Committee
 Consolidate list of members with back-
accounts.
 Consolidate actual receipts and
expenditures of the Association and renders
monthly report to the Executive Committee.

iv. The Water Jury: established by the General Assembly, to

administer all water related conflicts in the scheme. The Water

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Jury is responsible for settling disputes amongst members,
ensuring that there is order and discipline in the scheme as
well as at all WUA meetings, ensuring that all bye-laws are
being followed by all committees and bringing offenders to
book, ensuring that all scheme infrastructure is well protected
and maintained and recommend punishments and fines.

4.3. Coordination with Supporting Agricultural Services

Coordination 1. Coordination with the agricultural and irrigation services is at the level
of the Board of Directors of the association where they are included
as special members, or are invited to the decision-making meetings
of the concerned institutions.

4.4. Main Characteristics of WUA

Characteristics 1. The most outstanding characteristics of the WUA are:
i. They secure farmers' participation in decision-making for the
irrigation schemes. The democratic process of selecting
farmers' representatives guarantees such participation.
ii. They are non-political in nature. However, political influences
pose a challenge to the nature of the associations.
iii. Farmers are personally interested in their own organization
and this sometimes permits them to do the same job cheaper
and faster. They reduce the need for a heavy public
bureaucracy to run the irrigation schemes. Civil servants
utilised in the development of an irrigation scheme can be
moved to a new scheme, instead of remaining as permanent
employees of the developed scheme.
iv. The recovery of water fees is more effectively carried out.
v. Rules and regulations are respected better since the
punishment of faults is effective and quick.
vi. The relations between those distributing the water (water
masters and water guards) and the farmers receiving it are
much more friendly and cooperative than when the same job
is undertaken by personnel of the administration.
vii. They provide an excellent communication channel between
the administration and the farmers. When they do not exist,
communication tends to be one-sided from the top to the
bottom.
viii. The Board of Directors and often the appointed Manager
himself are farmers of the irrigation scheme and continuation
in their jobs will depend largely on their performance. This is
indeed an important incentive to carry out their jobs in the best
possible way.
Limitations 2. Despite the WUA being the highly desirable way of managing an
irrigation scheme, there are also some limitations to consider:
i. The water distribution system utilized frequently leads to
considerable operational water losses.
ii. There is little capability for undertaking responsibilities outside
the operation and maintenance field. Most of the people
running the WUA are from the farmers' community and are
unlikely to have technical and managerial skills, thus tending
to limit their sphere of competence to problems that they
themselves can easily handle.
iii. Long periods of considerable effort are required to get the
WUA established and working properly

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4.5. Size of WUA
WUA Size 1. The size of the WUA is predetermined by the physical size of the
scheme.
2. In larger schemes, the possibility of subdividing them into irrigation
sections, each having its own WUA, or having a large association for
the whole scheme, is frequently debated.
3. The larger the WUA the more difficult becomes communication
between the individual farmers and the executive body.
4. On the other hand, small WUAs facilitate communications; but the
administrative costs are greater and therefore place more of a burden
on the farmers.

4.6 Responsibilities of WUA

WUA 1. The WUA is responsible for the management of operation and
Responsibilities maintenance functions at the scheme.
2. The aim of good irrigation management is to obtain a correct flow
division within the canal network and over the fields in order to
achieve sufficient and equitable delivery of water to the fields. This
means that infrastructure must be maintained to provide optimum
service after construction, and that operation activities are done to
maintain the designed discharges in order to meet the demand for
water from the farms, without disputes.
3. The WUA therefore establishes an Irrigation Committee comprising
three separate executing units in order to achieve these functions,
namely:
i. A committee for operation of the irrigation network
ii. A committee for maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure
iii. A committee for dealing with disputes, the Water Jury
4. An administration unit ensures that these activities are done in
accordance with rules and regulations set out in the Constitution of
the WUA.
5. In general, the following are the responsibilities of the WUA in order
to ensure efficient operation and maintenance of the scheme:
i. plan, co-ordinate and implement the efficient distribution and
use of irrigation water.
ii. prepare an annual operation and maintenance plan and
budget. This should include the following:
a) silt clearance
b) weed clearance
c) repairs to structures
d) maintenance of service roads and bridges
e) environmental protection
iii. facilitate joint or group action by farmers in the proper
operation and maintenance of the irrigation system.
iv. ensure a consolidated list of irrigated and planted areas is
prepared for planning purposes and determining water
requirements.
v. evaluate and recommend policies and procedures in
managing water crises.
vi. evaluate and recommend policies and procedures for in-
season maintenance.
vii. evaluate operation and maintenance plans before and after
each cropping season and identify problems and formulate

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procedures to solve them.
viii. appoint suitable personnel and contractors for operation and
maintenance.
ix. ensure that there are always sufficient funds for operation
and maintenance.
x. evaluate the overall performance of the irrigation system.
xi. to supervise Operation and Maintenance work.
xii. to supervise any irrigation staff or contractors employed by
the Association.
xiii. to collect and deposit irrigation fees.
xiv. to prepare an Annual Report showing the water received and
water utilized; and the area irrigated under different crops.

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CHAPTER 5: THE OPERATION SERVICE

5.1. Main Objectives

Objectives 1. The main objective of an Operation Service is the timely delivery of
the irrigation water necessary to satisfy crop water requirements. The
accomplishment of this objective implies the following main activities:
i. Planning the Operation (preparation of the so-called
Irrigation Plans)
ii. Implementation of the Plan (actual water distribution)
iii. Monitoring of the Operation (collection of data related to
water use and preparation of the corresponding reports).
2. To undertake these tasks different kinds of personnel are required
with specific qualifications depending on the type of water distribution
system and other local characteristics.

5.2. Planning the Operation

Planning 1. The objective of this activity is to match supply with demand as
closely as possible. As water is a scarce resource in irrigation
schemes, the importance of this planning process cannot be
overemphasized, but unfortunately there are too many occasions
when this process is not carried out even in its most elemental form.
2. The planning exercise may be a complex and laborious undertaking,
or just a simple meeting where farmers are informed of the amount of
water available and the times when it will be distributed.
3. The planning process is essential because it promotes two-way
communication with the farmers.
4. The planning process culminates in the development of an Irrigation
or Crop Plan. The preparation of an Irrigation or Crop Plan implies the
following main steps:
i. Estimating future water supply
ii. Estimating water demand of the expected cropping pattern
iii. Matching supply and demand.

5.2.1. Estimating Future Water Supply

Water Supply 1. The estimation of the future water supply depends upon several
factors such as the characteristics of the dry and wet season, the
type of water storage utilized, the reliability of climatic data, or the
effective rainfall during the irrigation season.
2. Simple cases of determination of the water supply are: (a) pumping or
diversion from a river, with an average flow much greater than the
one pumped; (b) pumping from fairly abundant aquifers; (c) dam
storage where the season for filling the reservoir does not coincide
with the irrigation season during which hardly any water contribution
can be expected. In all these cases the available water resources
should be known precisely at the beginning of the irrigation season.
3. However, where there are cases of uncertainty in the availability of
the water resources, it is important to have alternative plans which
can be adopted according to changing climatic conditions, which can
be modified according to changes in the weather.

5.2.2. Estimating Future Water Demand

Future water 1. The water demand is determined by the expected cropping pattern
demand and the irrigation efficiencies at the farm and project level.

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i. Cropping pattern
a) The difficulty of foreseeing the expected cropping pattern
on an irrigation scheme varies according to the degree of
freedom allowed to farmers in their choice of crops and
the timing of their cultivation activities.
b) Alternatively, demand can be controlled by means of
differential control over the water supply pattern
(permitting certain highly water-consuming crops to be
grown only in certain designated areas which will be the
only ones to receive sufficient water).
c) There can also be a free choice of cropping, when
response to market demand is the main determining
factor.
d) In irrigation schemes where the management has
recognized authority over the cropping pattern, a series of
negotiations can be made in order to keep a balance
between the cropping pattern desired by the farmers and
the management.
e) Where management has no authority over the cropping
pattern, information gathered from previous years and a
study of the trends in relation to expected prices of
different crops could be a guide.

ii. Irrigation efficiencies

a) In order to complete the evaluation of the demand, the
efficiency of the water distribution system and of
application must be known.
b) This is usually the weakest point in estimating the
demand, because such evaluations are rarely made in the
field as they are time-consuming and the qualified staff
needed to undertake them are frequently not available.

5.2.3. Matching Supply and Demand

Supply and 1. The main cases that are encountered in trying to match supply and
demand demand are as follows:

i. Irrigation schemes where water supply is greater than or

equal to the demand
a) This is the most favourable situation from the
management point of view.
b) Although systems with relatively abundant water are
easier to operate, they are likely to be less efficient in
terms of returns per unit of water distributed.
c) In technically well designed schemes, supply and demand
should match fairly equally. However, when the supply is
smaller than the peak month demand, the usual
corrective measure is to advance the planting dates of
some of the crops in order to avoid coincidence of peak
demands.

ii. Irrigation schemes with a moderate water deficit

a) A moderate water deficit (10-20 percent of the water
supply available) is often encountered in irrigation
schemes.
b) This can either be a periodic situation found only in "dry"

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years or recurrent every year.
c) Whichever the case may be, these irrigation systems offer
the best potential for maximizing the returns from the
water that is available.

iii. Irrigation schemes with a large water deficit

a) There are some irrigation schemes which command an
area much larger than can actually be irrigated. The water
deficit is often greater than 50 percent of the available
supply.
b) However, these schemes may not have been designed to
irrigate the whole command area at cropping intensities of
100-200 percent. Many of these schemes were designed
with the important social objective of benefiting as many
people as possible; others were merely the result of an
under evaluation of crop water requirements.
c) Whatever the reason, these projects have frequently
yielded less than expected. Production per hectare is low.
Some of the reasons for such a state of affairs could be:
- that although the efficient use of water was
essential, the farmers were not assisted in
preparing their lands (land levelling, grading) for
efficient use when water supplies were limited;
- that the water distribution network was much
longer than it should have been; therefore, losses
were bound to be greater.
d) These problems do not only occur in irrigation systems
with large water deficits; they can also happen in any of
the others, and are likely to have more damaging effects.
e) Where water supplies are extremely scarce in "socially
designed projects", it is possible to obtain high returns
from water, provided good management (i.e. ensuring
regular and predictable water supplies) is ensured,
suitable technical designs are implemented and the
farmer is assisted to use water efficiently.

5.2.4. Restrictive Measures to Match Supply and Demand

Restrictions 1. Several restrictive measures and water distribution practices can be
to Supply utilized to reduce the gap between supply and demand.
and Demand 2. The measures that can be taken to reduce the water deficit are
related to the cropping pattern, the water distribution practices, and
the water fees. They are not mutually exclusive and a combination
can usually be applied.

i. Measures related to the cropping pattern

There are three main measures that can be undertaken to
reduce water demand: (a) changing the planting time; (b)
changing the existing crops for others with lower water
requirements; and (c) reducing the irrigation area. Of all the
possible measures these are the most effective to reduce water
deficit but they are also the most difficult to implement.
a) By suitable regulation of the planting time and other
cultivation activities large reductions can be attained
during the peak demand of an irrigation scheme. Careful
planning allows controlled staggering of cultivation

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activities between different sections of the same irrigation
system leading to a more rational use of available
machinery and manpower.
b) Changing the existing crops for others is an effective
measure to reduce water demand, e.g. sorghum for
maize, etc. However, the condition must be met that the
two crops have similar characteristics or end purposes.
Otherwise there is the risk of introducing crops which may
have very low water requirements but that are not
financially attractive to the farmer.
c) Reducing the irrigated area is the most expedient way
of reducing the demand, but it is difficult to implement.
Rather than physically reducing the irrigated area, the
usual measure is to reduce the water allocation which in
turn should lead to a reduction in the area irrigated by the,
farmer.
d) Other methods of reducing the cropped area are:
- eliminating the areas furthest from the distribution
point;
- giving water to certain sections of the command
area only, with the sections being rotated from
season to season. This is only feasible where
irrigation is supplementary and farmers in sections
not receiving irrigation water are able to grow
rainfed crops in the season concerned.

ii. Measures related to water distribution practices

There are only two measures that can be used to lessen the
water deficit: reducing the water allocation but keeping the
same water distribution method, and changing the water
distribution method to a more efficient one.

a) Reducing the water allocation can be effected in three

different ways:

Allocating water to preferential crops: This is

common where high value crops (fruit trees, nursery
produce, vegetables) are grown near to less valuable
ones. In such cases, the regulation is sometimes
established that the valuable crops must receive their
necessary allocation and whatever is left can be
utilized for the other crops. This kind of measure is
easy to implement provided that the interests of the
farmers and the management are the same, which is
generally the case.

Decreasing the amount of water given per

irrigation: This can be done in a manner proportional
to the deficit with no regard to the possible effects on
the crop yield or, on the contrary, by trying to
decrease the amounts in such a way that the effect
on crop production is minimized. The first alternative
is the most commonly adopted because of its
simplicity, but the second one offers much better
possibilities, where it can be applied. This method

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can be extremely effective in irrigation schemes
concerned with one single crop, but its effectiveness
decreases with the number of crops grown because
the intervals that fit one crop well may not necessarily
do so for others.

Extending the interval between irrigations is the

measure most commonly used to cope with water
deficits. There is also the possibility of irrigating at
times when the crop can make best use of the water.
Similarly, the effectiveness of the method is reduced
by an increase in the number of crops grown in the
scheme.

b) Changing the water distribution method: Among the

different water distribution methods, it is expected that
some will be more efficient (assuming comparable
situations of management and technical design) than
others. The possibilities of changing the water distribution
method are very limited since a certain method is
normally linked with a specific technical design. In most
cases, changing the method also means changing the
physical system to some extent. However, even in cases
where there is no need to alter the physical system, a
switch is difficult to introduce because farmers have been
used to a particular system for many years.

iii. Measures related to water fees

Increases in the water fees tend to decrease the amount of
water used. However, this measure should be exercised with
great care and only where the preconditions for its use exist.

One precondition is that the water distribution system must be

equipped with water measuring devices at the farm level, in
order that prices of water can be associated with the volumes
received.

Another important requirement is that the farmer must have

some understanding of the soil-plant-water relationship,
otherwise he will continue to use the same amount of water as
before and simply pay more for it.

5.3. Distribution of Water

1. The main water distribution methods are:
i. On-demand: Water is available to the farmer any time that the
intake or hydrant is opened. Therefore, the amounts to be used
are not limited but water consumption is usually metered and
paid for.
ii. Semi-demand: Water is made available to the farmer within a
few days (generally 2-7 days) of his request. The amount is
often limited to a certain volume per hectare.
iii. Canal rotation and free demand: Secondary canals receive
water by turns, for example every 7 days, and once the canal
has water farmers can take the amount they need at the time
they wish.

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iv. Rotational system: Secondary canals receive water by turns
and the individual farmers within a given canal area receive the
water at a pre-set time and generally in a limited quantity.
v. Continuous flow: Throughout the irrigation season, the farmer
receives a small but continuous flow that compensates the daily
crop evapotranspiration.
2. The water distribution method is normally linked to the design of the
conveyance system; therefore, once a water distribution method has
been selected there is little possibility to change it.
3. The selection of the water distribution method is thus an important
matter where social, technical and economic characteristics must be
taken into consideration.

5.3.1. On Demand Distribution

1. On-demand irrigation systems are generally designed with high-level
technology.
2. The degree of human intervention is minimal since they operate on
automatic principles, i.e. when the water level or pressure drops in a
canal or pipe due to the opening of an inlet, the level or pressure is
immediately reinstated by an automatic device which calls for a
greater supply, provided by automatic gates or valves.
3. The efficiency of these systems is very high (up to 90 percent)
particularly when using pipes for the distribution.
4. The great advantage of this method is that it allows the farmer to use
the water when it is most necessary for the crops.
5. The main disadvantages are high costs and the need for a high level
of technology in the construction, operation, and maintenance of the
systems.

5.3.2. Semi-Demand Distribution

1. This is perhaps the most common system of water distribution due to
its simplicity.
2. A farmer requests the water from the water guard, who passes the
information up to the water master.
3. He makes the necessary calculation to accommodate it with the
demands of the other farmers within the limited capacity of the canal.
If the demand can be met, the information is passed back through the
water guard to the farmer with an indication of the exact time of his
turn.
4. In irrigation systems where the canals have been designed with a
certain flexibility, the request is usually met within a short time (2-3
days), although sometimes 6-7 days can elapse in the case of canals
with little flexibility and high demand.
5. The amount to be supplied to the farmer is usually fixed in relation to
the number of hectares.
6. This form of distribution requires a well-designed and constructed
irrigation system since the flows delivered by the canals should be
well-known, and the intakes should also be capable of delivering the
requested flow.
7. Another advantage of this system is that when the need arises (peak
month) or during exceptionally dry years, it can also function on a
fixed rotation.
8. The only disadvantage of this distribution system is its low efficiency
at times of low demand, because the opening and closing of canals
for a few farmers could imply considerable losses. However, the

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problem is mitigated since at times of low demand water losses are
not so relevant.

5.3.3. Canal Rotation and Free Demand Distribution

1. The main feature of this system is that canals receive water in turns.
2. The duration of the turns is generally the result of experience in the
area.
3. When the number of crops grown in the irrigation scheme is fairly
large, there is not much opportunity for rationalizing the duration of
the turns. However, where the number of crops is limited or some
crops clearly prevail, the duration of the turns can be determined in a
rational way.
4. When it is their turn, the farmers take the water from canals on free
demand or they may eventually establish some kind of rotation
among themselves.
5. Since farmers take the water on free demand, which is the more
frequent, the canal must be designed to cope with a concentration of
demand at any time.

5.3.4. Rotational System Distribution

1. In this system all canals receive water by turns and farmers on the
tertiary canals receive water at a pre-set time and in the allowed
quantity.
2. This system is an improvement on the previous one where the
rotation is not only of the main canals receiving water but also of the
farms.
3. It is a highly efficient system from the operational point of view and
socially fair since it gives an equal chance to everyone.
4. There are several ways in which a rotational system can be
implemented:
i. The water is distributed by turns of equal duration throughout the
irrigation season. The farmer receives the water on a fixed day
for an amount of time that is always constant, regardless of the
crops that he may plant.
ii. The water is distributed by turns of different duration, longer at the
beginning and end of the irrigation season and shorter in the
middle, according to crop demand. The order of distribution
within each turn is always the same and the amount delivered
is constant throughout the season.
iii. The water is distributed by turns of different durations and the
amount delivered also changes throughout the season. The
amount delivered is calculated according to the actual crop
water requirements.
5. The degree of technicality increases from method (i) to (iii) and this
not only refers to the actual calculation of the amounts of water to be
delivered but also to the design of the irrigation network. For instance:
a) Method (i) can only be applied if the irrigation network has
water measuring devices for each farm. It is the simplest of the
three and perhaps the most widely used. It is a fair method,
since it gives every user an amount of water proportional to the
amount of land.
b) Method (ii) requires a little more technical knowledge as the
intervals must be adapted more to the actual needs of the
crops.
c) Method (iii) technically offers the best opportunity to meet crop

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water requirements and achieve greater water efficiency.
However, it is difficult to implement.
i. First of all, water measuring devices are needed at the
farm level in order to measure the amount of water that
must be delivered.
ii. Secondly, the management must have an excellent
communication system in order to inform the farmers
well in advance about their turns.
iii. Thirdly, since the calculations for the amounts of water
to be delivered are made by the management and
change from one irrigation to the next, the system is
very vulnerable to malpractice.
iv. Fourthly, the calculation procedures are quite
complicated and lengthy, needing qualified staff for
their execution.
d) As a result of all these requirements, this method is rarely used,
in spite of its theoretical advantages.

5.3.5. Continuous Flow Distribution

1. Continuous flow is perhaps the simplest water distribution system, but
it is also the least efficient because delivery is generally from field to
field, resulting in large evaporation losses.
2. These are inevitable since the water moves from top to bottom in a
thin, but extensive layer. Under this system, water losses by deep
infiltration and excessive runoff are high.
3. Where water is scarce, the continuous flow system can lead to
considerable social unrest because farmers on higher land get the
water needed while those lower down get very little or nothing.
4. In areas of water shortage, continuous flooding is gradually being
replaced by "intermittent irrigation". With this system, any field can be
filled or drained at will by the farmer within the restrictions imposed by
the irrigation and drainage network. This system also helps plant
growth through periodic drainage and reduces any tendency for
fertilizer to be leached. The term "intermittent irrigation" means the
intentionally controlled supply of water to fields by the farmer.

5.4. Operation of Structures

5.4.1. Headworks
1. A headwork has to safeguard the inflow to an irrigation scheme, to
secure a sufficient and reliable supply of water to the irrigation
scheme, and must be sufficiently solid to resist high floods and other
damaging forces.
2. It requires skill and high investments and the design is never
standardised but adapted to the specific conditions of the site.
3. Most common head works are:
i. Reservoir dam
ii. Pumping station
iii. Diversion weir
4. The headwork is operated to supply the scheme irrigation demand
regardless of the distribution method that is applicable at the time.

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5.4.2. Spillway
1. A spillway is a structure in a headwork that guides excess water
safely to the drainage system.
2. Water levels in irrigation canals changes depending on the inflow and
outflow of the canal section concerned. The water level may rise if
the gate of an intake structure is open instead of being closed, or if
field intakes are closed instead of open.
3. The rising water may pass the free board level, reach the crest of the
canal embankment, and start overtopping, resulting in destruction of
the bank.
4. To avoid this problem, a small section of the canal bank is lowered
and is reinforced with concrete or with masonry. As this is the lowest
part of the canal bank, rising water will spill over here. This water will
be guided to the drainage system.
5. No particular operational procedures are required for spillways.

5.4.3. Intakes
1. Intakes are constructed at the head of canals mostly in combination
with a regulator in the on-going canal. The regulator could be any of
the following:
i. Slide gate for flow regulation and shut-off of canal or canal
section
ii. Avio gate for flow regulation with slide gate for shut-off of
canal or canal section
iii. Distributor for flow regulation
2. Regulators are operated in such a way as to provide the required
amount of water to the field in line with the irrigation demand of the
day.

5.4.4. De-silting Basin and Sediment Trap

1. A de-silting basin is mostly constructed just behind the headworks,
with an outlet back to the river, for the deposit and removal of solids,
sand/silt.
2. Sediment traps are constructed in the irrigation system soon after the
offtake in order to trap and remove solids and suspended load from
the irrigation water to prevent them settling in main and secondary
canals. Special sections are included where the velocity of the
flowing water is reduced (< 0.5 m/s) and the sediments are separated
from the water by gravity.
3. The sediment trap has to be cleaned regularly and all solids, sand,
and silt removed.

5.4.5. Stilling Basin

1. A stilling basin, constructed with protected walls and floor, is filled
with water in order to dissipate the energy of fast flowing water, so
that the flow enters the canal downstream of the basin at low velocity
(non-silting and non-eroding velocity).
2. Stilling basins are required downstream of structures where flow
velocities are high, such as intake structures, off-takes, culverts,
weirs, or drop structures.

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5.4.7. Night Storage Reservoirs
1. These are storages constructed at the head of secondary or tertiary
units when night irrigation is not possible.
2. They store water during the night, which is available to distribute into
canals when irrigation activities commence in the morning together
with the daytime flow.
3. They supplement canal discharges where reliance on canal flow
alone would not be sufficient to meet the irrigation demand within the
desired time of application.

5.4.8. Canal Outlets (Offtakes)

1. These are structures with gates for releasing and controlling the
amount of water that should be delivered into field canals.
2. There are two types normally used, an over-flow gate, similar to a
weir, or an under-flow gate.
i. Over-flow gates are usually rectangular box-like structures
with grooves in the sidewalls into which flashboards can be
placed. The over-flow section is similar to a weir crest, the
height of which can be adjusted by adding or removing
boards. When the boards are higher than the water surface in
the canal, the structure serves as a gate to stop the flow.
ii. Under-flow gates may be similar, except that a solid wood or
metal gate is raised or lowered to control the flow under the
gate.
3. Another type makes use of a pipe placed through the ditch bank with
a sliding control gate on the inlet end. The pipe should be slightly
lower than the bottom of the canal into which the water is released.
Having the outlet submerged will help dissipate the energy of the
moving water as it leaves the pipe, reducing erosion in the canal.
4. Operation of these gates assists in maintaining a constant water
level, and therefore constant discharge entering that canal. It also
minimises the risk of overtopping in tertiary canals.

5.4.9. Division Boxes

1. Division boxes are generally concrete box-like structures with two or
more outlets, constructed to provide a fixed or variable proportional
division of flow in the main or secondary canals. The width of each
outlet is in proportion to the division of water that is to be made.
2. Their function is to distribute irrigation water proportionately, dividing
the flow in proportions between two or more smaller canals. The
flows are proportional to the areas to be irrigated by each canal.
Gates are required for closing or regulating the flow into each
separate canal.
3. In some division boxes the division of the flow is fixed and cannot be
changed. This means that if the flow in the source canal changes, the
flow in the branch canals will also change, but the flows remain
proportional to the respective command areas of the branch canals.
4. The type of division box chosen depends on:
i. the accuracy that is required,
ii. the number of off-take canals at the same distribution point,
iii. the local topography.
5. A division box is an ideal instrument to enable farmers to manage
their own scheme. The outlets in the division box should be fixed with
no moveable parts, as these are likely to break down or change the

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proportional division.
6. The water level in the division box determines the output through
fixed outlets.
7. Division boxes are sometimes combined with other structures, such
as drop structures or culverts.

5.4.10. Drop Structures

1. Irrigation water may need to be transported over steeply sloping land.
If a canal had the same slope as the surrounding steeply sloping
field, the flow velocity in the canal would be very high. The canal is
therefore given a slope that is less than the field slope in order to
avoid unacceptably high flow velocities.
2. Canals on land with considerable slope require drop structures.
These permit the canal to be constructed as a series of relatively flat
canals, each at a different elevation.
3. The water is lowered from one section to the next by means of drop
structures. They are generally spaced so that the difference in
elevation at each drop does not exceed 50 cm.
4. The main function of a drop structure is to dissipate the energy of
falling water so that it does not erode the canal. They also provide for
the safe dissipation of surplus energy when combined with a stilling
basin.
5. A stilling basin or a concrete or rock apron is generally used to
absorb this energy.

5.4.11. Farm Turnouts (Farm Intake)

1. The entrance of water from the field channel to the farmer's field is
called the field intake or the farm turnout.

Table 15 Farm turnouts characteristics

Item Breach Gated Siphon Spile

intake
Opening Gate setting Starting or None or
and closing – priming the opening/
Operational
by hand and responsibility siphon closing by
Activity
shovel of one plug
farmer
Bank Cost Cost; Cost
erosion; Head loss in Blocked
Channel the Siphon openings.
damage; (high Water
Problems Poor control level required
in the
channel);
Difficult to
prime.
Possible, Manipulating Number & Number &
Discharge
but not the gate diameter of diameter
regulation
accurate pipes of pipes

2. The discharge through the turnout depends on the area of the

opening through which water enters the field, and the difference in
water level between the channel and the field.

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3. It is possible to control the flow by manipulating the water level in the
field channel, by using check structures. The higher the water level is
in the field channel, the greater will be the discharge. Lowering the
water level in the field channel reduces the discharge into the field.
4. The opening of the intake can be adapted to supply the required
discharge: breaches can be made smaller or larger; gates can be
opened partly or fully; and the number of siphons or spiles and their
diameter can be reduced or increased.
5. The difference in water level between the channel and the field also
affects the flow rate through the field intake, and can also be adapted
to meet the need of water intake.
6. Farm turnouts are compared in Table 15 with regard to the
operational activities involved, problems, and quality of discharge
regulation of the various options for water intake to the field.

5.4.12. Check Structures

1. A check structure obstructs the flow in the canal and consequently
raises the water level.
2. Check structures can be permanent or temporary.
i. Permanent check structures can be made of concrete, wood
etc. Removable flash boards, usually made of wood, are used
to change the water level in the canal.
ii. Temporary checks can be made of plastic, canvas, cloth etc.
In small canals, the use of sandbags is also a well-known
method for raising the water level.
iii. The decision to choose permanent or temporary check
structures depends on:
(a) The function of the check
(b) The need to raise the water level (a few centimetres
or 10 to 20 cm)
(c) Whether the check is in a lined or unlined canal
(d) Whether the check Is needed regularly
(e) Whether the place of installation is fixed
3. When flash boards in a check structure are down, when gates are
closed, the water level upstream of the structure concerned will rise.
This higher water level allows higher flow rates through field intake
structures. As a result, the discharge in the field channel downstream
of the check is seriously reduced or may even become zero.
4. Water in a field channel is most commonly distributed among the
farmers in rotation. Check structures can be very useful, because the
farmer whose turn it is can be given the full channel discharge. The
discharge downstream of the check in such cases can be zero.
5. When the discharge in a field channel is large, several farm plots can
be irrigated simultaneously.

5.5. Emergency Operation

1. Emergency works require immediate action by the WUA, to prevent
or reduce the effects of unexpected events such as:
i. Breach or overtopping of canal embankment or protection
bund, causing flooding
ii. Critical failure of pumps or head-works, causing interruption
of irrigation water supply
iii. Natural disasters such as floods.
2. System operators must be trained so that they know what to do as
soon as they arrive, such as cutting off the power to an overheated

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pump, and closing the head-works in case of a canal breach.

5.5.7. Emergency Procedures

1. An emergency action plan should be developed for all facilities for
which failure or malfunction could cause:
i. danger to human life
ii. substantial property damage
iii. loss of production
iv. disruption to other community activities
2. The plan should outline the response and procedures to be taken
during an emergency, with particular reference to a flood. The plan
should indicate:
i. action to be taken to minimise damage or risk to structures
ii. action to minimise danger to life or other property
iii. canal shut-down procedure
iv. procedure to be followed to inform affected members
v. reporting processes to be followed (who should be informed
and how)
vi. notices to be given to the community
3. The Water Users Association should keep a sufficient store of
materials to be available for rapid repair. This should include shovels,
spades, sandbags, cement, wheelbarrows, among other materials
and equipment.
4. The WUA should also keep a list of persons that should be contacted
in an emergency.

5.5.8. Flood Emergency Criteria

1. Criteria should be established for different stages of emergency with
regard to different water levels in the river or at the headworks.
2. Relationships should be developed between flood levels and threats
of flooding of housing areas, isolated houses and fields.
3. Procedures and regulations should be laid down and followed.

5.6. Monitoring the Operation

It is important and essential to maintain a record of water discharges at
every critical point in the irrigation system because this will assist in
decision making concerning water management and system
improvements in successive seasons. Monitoring should include:
 how and how much water is available in the system per season
 how the available water is utilised in the season.
This entails the measurement of discharges and keeping appropriate
records.

5.6.7. Flow Measurement

1. It is important to know the discharges in the canals in order to supply
the required amounts of water to the crops and to avoid waste by
supplying too much.
2. Measurements should be taken at various points in the system and at
farmers' intakes, for the following reasons:
i. efficient water distribution: if the amount of water each part
of the system receives is known, it becomes possible to
manage the water and prevent losses; on top of that
locations where the excessive losses take place are visible
and action may then be taken to prevent these losses;

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ii. water charges: if farmers have to be charged for the water
they receive, the amount of water that they have received
has to be measured and recorded;
iii. disputes over water: if a conflict over water between
farmers or between farmers and the system management
occurs, it, again, is necessary to know the amount of water
each has received;
3. From the above, the locations for measurement follow logically:
i. at the outlet: here the farmer takes water from the supply
channel to irrigate his fields, measurements here can be
the basis for water charges and solving disputes;
ii. at the beginning [head] of the distribution canal:
measurements taken here can be used for solving disputes
and making management decisions;
iii. at the beginning of the main canal: measurements taken
here give information about how much water is available
for the system and can be used for making management
decisions.
4. In an ideal system, discharges should be measured at all these
points continuously. In most systems, therefore, measurement of
discharges is limited to the main canal and distributor heads once or
twice a day because of human resource issues and costs.
5. The following procedures are used for flow measurement.
i. Flow estimation procedure: Float method: one throws a
floating object into water and measures the time it takes to
cover a specified distance, e.g. 10 meters. This is repeated
several times and similar answers and average time is
computed. The velocity is the distance divided by time. The
method is not very precise but it is simple and gives a good
indication.
ii. Current meters: This method uses propellers, which are
held perpendicular to the direction of flow; and the number
of revolutions made corresponds with a certain speed. For
small channels the propeller is held halfway the depth of
the channel, for larger discharges, speeds are measured
on 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth of the channel, taking the
average of these as the speed of the water.
iii. Weirs: Weirs are sharp- or broad-crested overflow
structures that are built across open canals. They can
measure the discharge accurately when correctly installed.
However, it is important that the water level downstream is
always below the weir crest, otherwise the discharge
reading will be incorrect.
The water level upstream of the structure is measured
using a measuring gauge installed at a specified distance
from the crest of the weir. The difference in elevation
between the water level and the crest of the weir is termed
the head and marked 'H'. The discharge corresponding to
that water level is then read from a table that is specific for
the size and type of weir being used. This implies that the
weir should be calibrated and a discharge curve developed
specific to the weir. Critical dimensions that should be
recorded are:
a) the level of the weir crest relative to the channel
bottom

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b) the horizontal distance between the measuring
gauge and the weir
c) the level of the gauge relative to the level of the
crest of the weir.
iv. Flumes: Flumes consist of a narrowed canal section with a
particular, well-defined shape. The advantage of flumes
over weirs is the small drop in water level (head loss), and
so flumes can be used in relatively shallow canals with flat
grades. The drop in water level is only one quarter of the
drop needed to be able to use a weir, for the same
discharge under similar conditions. Because of this, smaller
flumes can easily be used as portable measuring devices.
Like measurements with weirs, the water level upstream of
the flume is a measure of the discharge through the flume,
and when the head has been measured the discharge can
be obtained by reading the value on a diagram that is
specific for the flume being used.

5.7. Operation of Irrigation Systems

5.7.7. Basin Irrigation
1. The basic principle is that water is released into a basin that is
reasonably level.
2. The water is retained or ponded inside the basin by means of bunds
or small banks of earth, 20 to 40 cm high.
3. The amount of water corresponds to the required water demand at
the time.
4. Where basins come in series, such as terraces, one after the other,
with the next one on a lower level than the previous one, water is let
in the highest basin and if the desired level is attained, the basin
overflows and starts filling the next one. This applies to both flat
basins and ridged basins in which plants that cannot tolerate standing
in water are planted on top or on the side of the ridge.

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5.7.9. Furrow Irrigation
In furrow irrigation system, planting may be done on top or on the sides of
the ridges.
In ponded furrows, the furrow is ponded with water to the required water
depth, and then the flow is diverted to the next furrow. The dead
water layer in the furrow slowly infiltrates the soil. Ponded furrows are
most suitable on land with slopes of over 2 %.
In the case of other types of furrows, water is let into the furrow at the top
and infiltrates to a certain depth before the water reaches the soil
furthest away from the inlet. This depth should not be too much in
order to attain an even distribution of water over the furrow. The
depth depends on the infiltration rate of the soil and the discharge
into the field.
Selection of the size of stream flow depends upon the length of furrow, the
optimum furrow length, and the optimum non-erosive stream flow. As
a rule of thumb, the stream size must be large enough to reach the
end of the furrow in approximately one quarter of the contact time.
This is called the one-quarter rule.
In order to minimise runoff losses at the end of the furrow, the flow is
usually reduced once or twice during an irrigation, such that runoff
remains small. The flow could be reduced by taking out siphons from
the furrow. Table 16 shows discharge rates through spiles, while
Table 17 shows discharge rates through siphons of different sizes.
Table 16 Rates of discharge through spiles
Diameter Pressure head (cm)
of pipe 5 10 15 20 25
(cm)
20 18.7 26.4 32.3 37.3 41.7
25 29.2 41.3 50.5 58.3 65.2
30 42.0 59.4 72.8 84.0 93.9
35 57.2 80.9 99.0 114.4 127.8
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 7 Vol. II
Table 17 Discharge for iphons for different head and pipe diameter (l/sec)
Diameter Head (cm)
of pipe 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20
(cm)
4 0.75 0.91 1.06 1.18 1.29 1.40 1.49
5 1.17 1.43 1.65 1.85 2.02 2.18 2.33
6 1.68 20.6 2.38 2.66 2.91 3.14 3.36
7 2.29 2.80 3.24 3.62 3.96 4.28 4.58
8 2.99 3.66 4.23 4.72 5.18 5.59 5.98
9 3.78 4.63 5.35 5.98 6.55 7.07 7.56
10 4.67 5.72 6.60 7.38 8.09 8.73 9.34
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 7 Vol. II

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5.7.11. Border strip Irrigation
1. Border irrigation entails the guiding of a layer of water down
the slope by means of two bunds on either side of a strip.
Strips can be 3 to 30 meters wide and 100 - 800 meters long.
2. As in the case of furrow irrigation, it is important to use the
right stream size for the soil and land slope and to stop the
flow at the right time so that just enough water infiltrates into
the soil to satisfy the required irrigation depth. As a rule of
thumb, the water supply is stopped when the waterfront
reaches between 2/3 and 3/4 of the border strip length. Table
18 gives a general guideline to decide when to stop the flow.
Table 18 Guidelines to determine when to stop the water supply onto a
border strip
Soil Stop the flow when advance reaches the
Type following portion of border strip
Clay Two thirds of total length
Loam Three quarters of total length
Sand Almost end of border strip
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 7 Vol. II
Where possible, it is recommended to carry out field tests to
determine the best border strip length.

5.7.12. Overhead Irrigation (Sprinkler or Centre Pivot)

1. Overhead irrigation is the application of water to the soil through
the air. The simplest ways to do this are the watering can and the
water hose. A more complicated method is sprinkler and centre
pivot irrigation.
2. A basic sprinkler system consists of:
 a pump to supply water under pressure,
 a supply pipe, which is called main line,
 pipes that supply water from the main line to the
sprinkler heads, which we call laterals,
 the sprinkler head itself. This is often placed on a riser,
a pipe between the lateral and the sprinkler-head, to
enable the release of water above a matured crop.
3. The sprinkler head can be just a hole in the lateral but the most
common one is the rotary sprinkler head. A rotary sprinkler has
either one or two nozzles. A single nozzle sprinkler is used at
lower application rates and pressures. The two-nozzle sprinkler is
used at application rates and higher pressures, the main nozzle
being similar to the single nozzle sprinkler and the second
nozzle, located at the opposite side of the sprinkler head,
irrigating the area close to the sprinkler.
4. The design of a sprinkler system includes a layout of the system,
application rate, operating pressure, nozzle diameter, discharge
per sprinkler head and the spacing between the sprinklers.
5. The basic infiltration rate of the soil is used as a guide to select a
sprinkler with a precipitation rate lower than the infiltration rate.
6. The time of application corresponds to the irrigation need at the
time.
7. Table 19 gives the maximum precipitation rates on level ground,
which can be adjusted on the basis of the slope of the terrain as
shown in Table 19 Table 20 shows the suggested maximum

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sprinkler application rates for average soil, slope, and tilth.

Table 19 Maximum precipitation rates to use on level ground

Soil type Maximum precipitation
(mm/hr)*
Light sandy soils 18 - 12
Medium textured soils 12 - 6
Heavy textured soils 6 - 2.5
* Rates increase with adequate cover and decrease with land slope
and time
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 8 Vol. III
Table 20 Precipitation rates reduction on sloping ground
Slope Percent reduction
0 - 5% 0
6 - 8% 20
9 - 12% 40
13 - 20% 60
> 20% 75
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 8 Vol. III
Table 21 Suggested maximum sprinkler application rates for average soil, slope
and tilth
Slope
0 – 5 – 8-12% 12 –
Soil texture and profile 5% 8% 16%
Maximum application rate
mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr
Coarse sandy soil to 1.8 m 50 38 25 13
Coarse sand soils over more 38 25 19 10
compact soils
Light sandy loams to 1.8 m 25 20 15 10
Light sandy loams over more 19 13 10 8
compact soils
Silt loams to 1.8 m 13 10 8 5
Silt loams over more 8 6 4 2.5
compact soils
Heavy textured clays or clay 4 2.5 2 1.5
loams
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 8 Vol. III

5.7.13. Localised Irrigation Systems (Drip)

1. The success of a localised irrigation system is based on proper
operation and a regular maintenance programme.
2. Considerations in the application of water to the crops are similar
to what has been discussed for overhead systems (sprinkler and
centre pivot).
3. Problems and suggested solutions in the operation of localised
systems are presented in Table 22.
h mm/hr mm/hr

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Table 22 Problems and suggested solutions in the operation of localized
irrigation system
Potential Suggested solution
problem
Too low  Check the suction screen and clean from dirt.
pressure at the  Check the volute and impeller of the pump and
pump outlet clean from dirt.
 Check for pipe breakage especially the main
line.
 Check and ensure that the number of blocks
under irrigation does not exceed the number
specified in the designs.

Too low  If the pressure at the filter inlet is as specified

pressure at the in the designs and the pressure at the outlet is
main filter low, then cleaning of filters is required.
outlet
Too low  Check for pipe breakage in the system and
pressure at the rectify.
block inlet  Check for open laterals at the block level and
close them.
 Check for number of blocks in operation and
do not exceed design number.

Too low  Check block filter and clean.

pressure in the  Check for open laterals and close.
laterals  Check block inlet pressure; if low follow earlier
recommendations.

Too high  Check number of blocks under irrigation. It

pressure at the could be that less blocks than the
filter outlet recommended number are in operation.
 Check filter for ruptures and rectify.

Too high  Check the number of blocks in operation and

pressure at the rectify.
block inlet
Lack of  Using an electrical conductivity (EC) bridge,
knowledge on measure the EC of the water. Proceed with
the time injection of fertilizer solution at a specified
required for the pressure differential. Measure the EC at the
fertilizer to exit outlet of the furthest emitter of a block. The EC
the system will increase and then decrease to the level
measured before connecting the injector. The
time taken for the injected solution to reach the
EC of the water is recorded and used in the
future with the same pressure differential.

Clogged  Flush the manifold and laterals one at a time

emitters until clean water comes out.
 Chlorinate.
 Use acids.

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Flow rate after  Gradual clogging of emitters. Use chlorine
the main filters and/or acids.
has been  Regularly flush manifold and laterals.
declining over
the past few
months.
Leaking  Cut the leaking portion and connect the two
laterals ends with a connector.

Leaking  Excavate soil around the manifold. Identify

grommet leaking grommet and replace the rabble ring
and the grommet, if needed

Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 9 Vol. IV

5.8. Monitoring the Operation Service

Purpose and 1. This activity has two main purposes: (i) short-term: acting as a
functions means of management control - comparing the actual pattern of
water distribution with what it should have been and helping to
identify reasons for divergences; and (ii) long-term: amassing
information on water supply, demand and performance etc. in
past seasons as a guide to planning and implementation in
forthcoming seasons.
2. The functions to be performed by this service include the
following:
i. Day-to-day activities in relation to water distribution
ii. Preparation of the annual Irrigation or Crop Plan; and
iii. Preparation of the Annual Report covering the irrigation
season to account for the water distribution affairs
throughout the season.
3. It is essential that only relevant information (for the purposes of
performance evaluation and future planning) should be included.
4. It is also important that the accuracy of the data should be
regularly checked; this means checks not only on equipment
(e.g. measuring gauges) but also on the junior staff who do the
recording.
5. A monitoring and planning unit should be established that would
be monitoring the behaviour of the system, including problems of
drainage, water supply, water distribution, discharge measuring
devices, flooding and sedimentation, and water quality.
6. The establishment of agro-meteorological stations within the area
of an irrigation scheme is most advisable in medium or large
schemes to provide data for sound calculation of crop water
requirements and water balance studies. The systematic
collection of these data is essential for the proper operation of the
system.

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191
5.8.8. Staffing the Operation Service
1. To function adequately an Operation Service requires the following
personnel:
i. Water Guards – sometimes known as ditchriders, or
water bailiffs, are the main communication channel
between the scheme management and the farmer, so the
success of a smooth relationship between the two parties
depends on their capabilities and honesty. Their main
activities are as follows:
a) distribute and control the flows that each intake
must deliver
b) open and close intake gates or valves
c) collection of the water requests
d) preparation of the daily forms for the water
delivery
e) communication to the master water guard of the
request for water
f) control of the canals and watercourses to avoid
unauthorized use of water
g) compilation of agricultural and water data as
needed
h) delivery of water bills.
i) they also supervise works related to cleaning of
the irrigation canal and ditches, small repairs in
the small hydraulic works (intakes, siphons,
joints, etc.), major repairs, and repairing and
maintaining gates.

ii. Operators of large structures (main canal gates and

intakes and dam gates) – these operators are responsible
for the operation of flow regulating hydraulic structures.
Normally, each operator is responsible for the structures in
a given stretch of canal. A main intake may require one or
more operators depending on its complexity and hours of
work. Their main activities include:
a) reading of water levels in the canal, river or
reservoir
b) transmitting data to Head Water Master who
passes it on to the main office for computation
and feedback
c) manipulating gates and structures as indicated by
main office
d) receiving data from master guards as to the
required amount of water, and transfer data to the
main office
e) reporting to the Head Water Master any
malfunctioning of gates and structures, who
passes on the information to the main office

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192
f) controlling and reporting on the state of
maintenance of the stretch of canal for which
each is responsible
Main canal operators are frequently given round-the-clock
responsibility and should therefore live in proximity to the
stretch for which they are responsible.

iii. Pump-set Operators – pump operators are needed

where pump-sets are used either for lifting groundwater or
surface water. Their main activities are as follows:
a. start and stop engines and motors
b. operate engines or motors under the most
suitable conditions
c. provide for the regular maintenance of pump and
engines/motors
d. check the well discharge regularly check the
number of hours that the pump is utilized by each
farmer or group of farmers (where applicable)
e. ensure the requisite supplies of fuel oil and
grease are available.
They are particularly liable to abuse their positions
because they have monopoly control over distribution
within the areas commanded by their pumps. Effective
management control systems are especially important to
keep this situation in hand.

iv. Water Masters – also known as "water foremen",

supervise water guards and canal operators and are the
main channel of communication with the head of the
operation service. Such an appointment is only necessary
when the group of water guards to be supervised is larger
than 12-15. For most of the existing irrigation schemes,
the standard is one water master for each 6-12 water
guards. Their main activities are as follows:
a) receive the water request from the water guards
transmit the water request to the Chief of the
Operation Service
b) coordinate, with the canal operators, the
operation of the main canal gates
c) transmit operational orders to the water guards
according to instructions received from the head
of the operation service
d) supervise that the orders transmitted to the water
guards are executed accurately.
e) Where the Operation Service is entrusted with
maintenance responsibilities during the off-
season, the water master supervises major and

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193
minor maintenance work.

Optimally, one water master should be responsible for one

or several hydraulically independent sections served by a
single canal.

v. Service Head of the Operation Service – also called

Irrigation Supervisor is responsible for the operation of the
whole scheme. His main function is to collect the
information provided by the water guards, process it, and
issue the operational orders to be executed. Main
activities are as follows:
a) responsible for the preparation of the annual
irrigation plan
b) contribute as required to the preparation of the
annual report
c) schedule the operation as planned
d) supervise all the aspects related to the operation
of the scheme
e) impose fines and penalties on farmers breaking
the rules as adopted in the rules or regulations of
the scheme
f) control operational expenses
g) ensure the supply of materials necessary for
continued operation.

vi. Auxiliary Staff – such as drivers, bookkeepers, clerical

staff, etc., should be limited to the minimum indispensable
to undertake the necessary work. When possible, these
services should be provided by a pool serving the other
units (maintenance, administration, etc.).

2. Staffing varies greatly depending on the technical characteristics of

the irrigation system (number of control structures, complexity of
information required about farmers' demands, etc.) and the social
attributes of the farmers (educational level, size of holding, etc.).
3. Staffing requirements are also affected by the nature of local
transport facilities and telecommunications.

5.8.9. Equipment
1. Little equipment is needed for the operational activities. The
following are usually needed:
i. for the Water Guards: portable water measuring devices
can be used to check water flows when the irrigation
system is not equipped with water measuring structures.
Bicycles or motorcycles help to improve the service.
ii. for the Canal Operators: radio or telephone for
communicating with the main office. They should also
have good transport facilities.

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194
iii. for the Pump Operators: adequate mechanical tools for
their maintenance work. Transport of fuel, oil and grease
should be arranged by the main office.
iv. for the Main Office: small desk calculators and desk
computers are necessary for medium-scale schemes. The
value of using desk computers or larger ones depends on
the complexity of the water distribution methods being
used.

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195
CHAPTER 6: THE MAINTENANCE SERVICE
6.1. Scope
1. The irrigation network is perhaps the costliest element of an
irrigation scheme and is designed to last a long time. However, all
too often one finds that irrigation schemes not long constructed
bear little resemblance to the original construction and design. Silt
deposition, weed infestation, malfunctioning of structures and other
undesirable situations make it practically impossible to control the
flow in these canals. As a result, the system is unable to deliver the
necessary water and distribute it equitably. On the other hand, with
proper maintenance and cooperation among farmers in this task,
irrigation systems may last much longer than their original
designers or constructors ever envisaged.

6.2. The Vicious Cycle of Maintenance

1. The main purpose of forming a WUA is to ensure efficient
operation and maintenance of the irrigation system in a sustainable
way for continuous agricultural production so that members can
achieve their economic and social goals. When maintenance
services are not done efficiently, the following circle results,
causing more deterioration of the system:
i. Poor maintenance leads to siltation of canals, excessive
growth of vegetation, seepage, resulting in reduced canal
capacity and lack of water.
ii. The lack of water can lead to late planting, stress on
plants and, as a consequence, yields will be reduced.
iii. With the reduced yields, the farmers‘ income may be
reduced and may not be sufficient to pay the annual
operation and maintenance dues.
iv. This lack of funds for O&M and reduced income leads to
poor maintenance and a further deterioration in the
system.
2. There are several ―external‖ factors that can also affect the
situation. Some of them, such as climate and disasters, cannot be
influenced. However, others which can be influenced, such as:
i. Poor catchment conditions – farmers can discuss with
upland farmers how to improve conservation measures in
the catchment.
ii. Poor collection of O&M fees- the WUA can ensure
collection of funds.
iii. Poor crop management- the WUA can assist farmers with
training and advice on good crop management practices.
3. Figure 14 shows how the interconnection between main issues that
affect and result from inadequate maintenance services.

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196
Poor
management

POOR
MAINTENANCE

Poor Inadequate
collection facilities

LOW
PAYMENT Disasters
OF FEES REDUCED
CANAL
CAPACITY

Low Output
Prices
Climate
REDUCED
INCOME
LACK OF
WATER
Poor
High input catchment
prices
POOR
YIELDS
Poor
operation
Poor
management Climate

Pests

Figure 14 vicious cycle of maintenance (adapted from WUA Manual)

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6.2.2. Reasons for Poor Maintenance
1. There are several reasons for poor maintenance, the most
important are:
i. insufficient funds made available to the management,
which could be due to prioritising other activities;
ii. lack of interest by the farmers in participating or
collaborating in the maintenance work, which could be due
to not realise the importance of maintenance work, not
knowing how to do it, feeling that his work benefits others
rather than himself, or not identify the irrigation system as
his own system;
iii. poor organization of the work; and
iv. degree of completion of construction works, i.e. handing
over the irrigation system to farmers in an incomplete
state of construction hoping that completion shall be done
during the period of operation and maintenance.
2. It has been observed that the need for maintenance is greater in
"low-cost technology" constructed irrigation schemes than in "high-
cost technology". Thus, when using low-cost technologies, special
attention should be paid to the maintenance problem if the scheme
is to work properly.
3. Where there is little hope that maintenance will be satisfactory, the
choice of a high-cost technology design may be justified, but
keeping in mind that, although the maintenance requirements of
such schemes are smaller in terms of manpower, they require
highly specialized personnel.

6.3. Main Functions of the Maintenance Service

1. The Maintenance Service is entrusted with the overall
responsibility for keeping the irrigation and drainage systems
working in a satisfactory manner, within the limitations imposed by
the initial design.
2. The main functions to be undertaken by the Maintenance Service
are:
i. Planning the maintenance activities within the limited
resources available;
ii. Ensure maintenance of head works and main canal;
iii. Overall supervision of maintenance work in the scheme;
iv. Ensure adequate water supply in main canal;
v. Process water rights;
vi. Registration of all membership;
vii. Take inventory of structures at the heard works and main
canal;
viii. Process land lease;
ix. Land allocation;
x. Periodical system inspection for rehabilitation or regular
major maintenance;
xi. Reporting to Board of Trustees;

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xii. Arrange for contractors on works which they cannot afford
and supervise accordingly;
xiii. Evaluating and recommending policies and procedures in
managing water crises;
xiv. Evaluating and recommending policies and procedures for
in-season maintenance;
xv. Preparing an annual operation and maintenance plan;
xvi. Evaluating O&M plans before and after each cropping
season and identify problems and formulate procedures to
solve them;
xvii. Implementing the maintenance activities planned and
those unforeseen;
xviii. Monitoring the above mentioned activities.

3. Maintenance activities can be more easily undertaken in the off-

season, when labour from the farming community is normally
plentiful. Furthermore, if farmers are engaged in maintenance work
on their own land for their own benefit, they are more likely to work
willingly. Operational personnel are more free at that time of the
year and can be engaged to supervise or execute part of the
maintenance work themselves.
4. A Maintenance Service requires data for good and realistic
planning, which can be obtained by regular monitoring. A project
should endeavour to have its own data based on the specific
conditions of the area.

6.4. Types of Maintenance

1. There are three main types of maintenance, namely:
i. routine or normal maintenance which includes all work
necessary to keep the irrigation system functioning
satisfactorily and is normally done annually. Table 23 gives a
simplified typical maintenance management programme.
Table 23 Sample maintenance management programme

Component Maintenance Effectiveness

Concrete-lined  Hoeing within canal  Up to 4 weeks

field canal
 Slashing/hoeing  Slashing 4 weeks;
sides 2-3 times per hoeing 6-8 weeks
year

Concrete-lined  Slashing canal  Up to 4 weeks

main canal shoulders 3 times
per year

Night storage  Desilting every 5  Every 5 years

reservoirs

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years

Infield drains  Slashing within  Up to 4 weeks in wet

drain season

Main drains  Slashing 2 times  Up to 3-4 months in

per year the dry season

 Hoeing and re-  Up to 6 months; up to

profiling once a 1 year
year

Underground  No maintenance  Long lasting

pipes for but replace when
sprinklers tractor operator
knocks down
hydrant valve

Isolation valves  Check every month  Long lasting

on sprinklers by opening and
closing

Above ground  Can last up to 15  Long lasting

components of years before
sprinkler replacement
systems

Rubber rings in  Replace every 2  Up to 2 years and

aluminium years replace
couplings

Hoses for  Can last up to 8  Replace when

sprinkler years before damaged
systems replacement

Rubber flaps  Can last up to 5  Depends upon quality

on the riser years before
assembly replacement

Garden tap  Can last up to 5  Depends upon quality

rubber or years before
leather seal replacement

Sprinkler  Replace every 2  To maintain correct

nozzles years flow and water
distribution

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Component Maintenance Effectiveness

Sprinkler  Take to suppliers  Overall check-up

assembly every 5 years (springs, plastic
components)

Pressures  Check that pump  Daily

and block
pressures are
within prescribed
limits

Pump  Check that pump  Weekly

operation operation is within
prescribed
parameters

Pump motor  Pump motor must  Monthly

be greased as
prescribed

ii. special maintenance including repairs of damage caused by

major disasters, such as floods, earthquakes and typhoons.
The unforeseeable nature of such natural phenomena make
it very difficult to take specific preventive action, although
general safeguards can be installed in particularly prone
areas, e.g. large drainage dykes in flood areas;

iii. deferred maintenance including any work necessary to

regain the lost flow capacity in canals, reservoirs and
structures when compared to the original design. In particular
cases the system is allowed to deteriorate to a certain level,
beyond which it would not operate well, before it is restored
to its design operational level. It often includes large
modifications to the canal system and structures arising from
important changes (cropping patterns, drainage problems,
erosion of canal banks) that have occurred in an irrigation
scheme. In practice, it is difficult to differentiate between so-
called 'deferred maintenance' and a 'rehabilitation
programme'. The difference is mainly of a financial nature,
because 'deferred maintenance' is normally undertaken with
funds from the national budget allocated to operation and
maintenance while rehabilitation programmes are considered
as an investment and the funds come from a different source
(e.g. loans, national development banks).

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6.5. Maintenance Activities
Requirements 1. The maintenance activities for which the Maintenance Service is
responsible should be clearly spelled out in the by-laws of the
irrigation scheme.
2. While some activities are clearly a responsibility of the Service (silt
removal in canals, weed clearing, etc.), there are others not so
precisely defined, for instance, rural roads, ancillary works, buildings,
the cleaning of the drainage system.

6.5.1. Dams and Reservoirs

1. Maintenance activities in a reservoir itself comprise:
i. controlling aquatic weeds;
ii. removing large debris (e.g. tree trunks) floating in the water
that may damage hydraulic works;
iii. monitoring the water quality: not only from the salt content
point of view but also from a biological standpoint in order to
detect possible sources of pollution;
iv. grass cutting and removing all trees and shrubs growing on
the embankment;
v. surveying the solid deposition in the bottom of a reservoir;
vi. Inspection and filling of the embankment for any signs of
weakness, cracks, animal burrows, leakages due to piping,
that may result in failure of the dam;
vii. Any signs of erosion at the spillway that may lead to collapse
of the structure and failure of the dam.

2. The most common water weed in reservoirs in semi-tropical and

tropical areas is the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). This plant
forms an ideal environment for mosquito larvae and has evaporation
several (2.2 to 13.4) times greater than an open water surface. The
plant has a very fast rate of growth: two plants can produce enough
offspring to cover one acre in less than eight months.
3. Another frequent problem is eutrophication (over-abundance of
nutrients in the water bodies) resulting in high production of blue-
green algae and the associated phenomenon of lack of dissolved
oxygen in the water. The main consequence is that of increasing
vegetation in the irrigation canals and greater weed infestation.
4. The main maintenance activities for an irrigation dam are: lubrication
of gates, anti-corrosion treatment, cleaning of debris, control of filters,
and some other minor work. Earth dams require greater maintenance,
especially the upstream slope where weed control is necessary once
or twice a year.
5. The electro-mechanical system of a dam must also receive proper
maintenance, particularly electric engines, head gates, and the
lighting system. The maintenance of these elements is rather
specialized and the manufacturers of the equipment usually provide

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detailed instructions

6.5.2. Night Storage Reservoirs

1. Night storage reservoirs should not stay dry for a long time as this
allows cracks to develop in the clay in the core, embankment, and
bed.
2. It is necessary, however, to empty the reservoirs from time to time in
order to clear them of weeds. Weeds, besides harbouring snails, tend
to reduce the capacity of night storage reservoirs.
3. It is also recommended to allow the water level in the reservoirs to
fluctuate to control snails.

6.5.3. Headworks
1. The main problems with the headworks are leakages.
2. Regular desilting is also necessary and removal of blockages.
3. Damaged gates and other metal components should be repaired or
replaced immediately.

6.5.4. Irrigation Canals

1. Concrete-lined Canals
i. Concrete-lined canals should require little maintenance,
provided that they have been properly constructed and any
potential problems studied (sub-pressure, gypsum soils,
swelling clays, etc.) and adequate technical solutions
provided. One of the main reasons for constructing concrete-
lined canals is precisely to reduce maintenance operations.
ii. The routine activities include: replacement of joints,
replacement of damaged concrete slabs, weed control in
joints and on the surface of concrete slabs, control and
treatment of filters, control and removal of silt. In the case of
concrete flumes, chemical sterilization is also needed around
the supporting structures.
iii. Under normal conditions, the silting in concrete-lined canals
is not an important problem since water velocity is high and
sand traps and silting basins are often provided to reduce the
solid content of the water. Heavy rain may cause deposition
of solid materials if the berms are not properly formed.
iv. Removal of silt from concrete-lined canals is an expensive
operation because it is mainly manual. In some irrigation
schemes, the technique of flushing "quick water" through the
canal is used to remove silt from one place and concentrate it
in another where it can be more easily removed or disposed
of. For this purpose, the canal should be run at its maximum
capacity to reach the highest possible velocity.
v. Weed control should not be a major problem in lined canals,
although aquatic weeds must be periodically removed.
vi. The main problem in concrete - lined canals is cracking of the
lining and eventual eruption of concrete slabs due to sub-

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pressure.
vii. Apart from repairing the damaged lining, corrective action
must be taken. Usually the installation of sub-pressure valves
is enough to relieve the pressure, but this involves major
work. An alternative measure can be the construction of a
subsurface drainage system to lower the water level.

2. Clay-lined Canals
i. If a sufficient volume of clay soil can be found in the vicinity
of the scheme, clay lining might be the cheapest method to
use to reduce seepage losses.
ii. The clay should be well spread in the canal and well
compacted.
iii. However, clay lining is susceptible to weed growth and
possible soil erosion. Maintenance should be done as soon
as the defect has been observed.

3. Polythene-lined Canals
i. Polyethylene plastic sheeting can be used for lining canals.
The sheets should be covered with well-compacted soil,
since the plastic deteriorates quickly when exposed to light.
ii. Furthermore, tools such as shovels and slashers can easily
damage it during maintenance works.
iii. Weed growth and soil erosion could also cause problems in
the canal.

4. Sand-Cement-lined Canals
i. If coarse aggregates are not available for the preparation of
concrete, the method of sand-cement lining could be
considered.
ii. A strong mixture is either placed in-situ on the canal sides
and bed or is precast (thickness 5-7 cm). A mix of 1:4
(cement : river sand) is recommended.
iii. Cracks should be filled as soon as possible to prevent
damage to the lining.
iv. Weed growth should be prevented as this will tend to weaken
the lining.

5. Brick-lined Canals
i. If good clayish soils, suitable for producing good quality burnt
bricks, are found near the scheme area, brick lining could be
considered.
ii. Cement is required for mortar and plastering.
iii. A disadvantage of this lining method is the large amount of
firewood needed to burn the bricks. In this regard, and for the
sake of environmental conservation, bricks should be either
sand/cement or soil stabilised.

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iv. Plastering with cement mortar is usually done in order to
provide additional strength and durability.
v. Cracks may develop due to pore pressure where the canal
depth is 1.0 m or more. Weep-holes should be provided at
regular intervals to relieve the pore pressure in the canal side
slopes.
vi. Regular inspection of the lining should be maintained, and
maintenance and repair should be done after every irrigation
season.

6. Earth Canals
i. Silting
a) Excessive sedimentation is perhaps the most common
problem affecting the performance of earth canals. The
following are some causes for canal siltation:
1. excessive silt entry at the main canal intake
2. disproportionate withdrawal by branches
3. prolonged heading up at control points
4. drifting sand
5. inadequate transport capacity of channels
6. re-entry of excavated material by rain and wind
action
7. malfunctioning of intakes
8. haphazard sediment excavation
9. excessive weed growth
10. wrong channel regulation.

b) Causes 1 to 5 indicate defective design. Corrective

measures for defective design are difficult to implement
since they require major physical changes which imply
heavy investments. However, the effects of defective
design can be reduced by proper maintenance.
c) Causes 6 to 9 indicate inefficient maintenance, while 10
denotes improper channel operation.
d) Canals carrying a heavy load of material in suspension
should not be allowed to run at less than three quarters of
their capacity since at lower capacities the velocity
decreases inducing silting.
e) Abrupt shutting of gates, causing rapid changes in flow
velocity, may induce bank erosion near the gates.

ii. Weed infestation

a) Weed infestation can seriously impede the flow of canal
water.
b) earth weeds: they root in the soil and their habitat is not the water;
they proliferate on the canal slopes and in the banks, benefiting
from favourable soil moisture conditions;

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c) aquatic weeds: they can either root in the water or the earth but
their habitat is in the water. Robson (1976) classifies them as
follows:
o emergent plants - these are plants growing in the water and
whose foliage emerges above the surface, e.g. the common
read (Phragmites communis);
o floating leaved plants - there are two sub-groups with
floating leaves: in one, the plants are rooted in the mud and
their leaves float flat on the surface, in the other, plants are
not rooted but free-floating on the surface;
o submerged plants - this group consists of plants whose
foliage is totally submerged; a number of them produce
flowers which emerge above the surface; one or two plants
are free-floating, but most are rooted in the mud;
o algae - this group consists of a variety of algae of various
forms, including unicellular algae and the large filamentous
forms.

d) Some of these weeds, such as nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus), are

not only a problem in the operation of the canals but can become
a menace for the farmers when water transports them into fields.
There they reproduce rapidly and become a serious problem
because of the difficulty of eradicating them.
e) Another hazard of weed infestation is the shelter and good
breeding conditions they offer for vectors (mosquitoes, snails,
etc.) of debilitating diseases.

iii. Water infiltration

a) Water leaks through canal banks can be caused by burrowing
small crabs and water rats or by rotting plants and roots which
were not removed from the canal bank seat during construction.
Ants are also known to be a problem even in concrete-lined
canals.
b) These leaks can be repaired by following the path of the leak
through the bank either by hand digging or hydraulic backhoe if
available and once the path has been found, the trench must be
carefully backfilled and compacted.
c) Canal leaks, if not repaired in time, can result in major breaches
in banks causing far greater inconvenience and most costly
repairs.
d) Water seepage through porous soils may also be a major
concern. Seepage through banks can be considerably reduced by
trenching them and burying a plastic membrane or thick slurry
made from the excavated material. The trench is backfilled with
sand after the barrier has been interred.

iv. Erosion of banks

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a) Canal banks can be eroded by heavy rainfall or wind, improper
canal operation, animal grazing or passage by drinking animals,
and the transit of vehicles.
b) Heavy rainfall or wind can cause serious damage to unprotected
banks.
c) Seeding of grasses in the unwetted part of the canal is a cheap
and effective protective measure. Short growing varieties (e.g.
Agropyron riparium (streambank wheat-grass), Psathyrostachys
juncea (Russian wildrye), Festuca ovina (sheep fescue) and
Phleum bertolonii (dwarf timothy)) give good results.
d) Abrupt and rapid shutting off of canal water may also contribute to
erosion of the banks.
e) The practice of leaving a canal empty during the rainy season will
contribute considerably to erosion of canal slopes.
f) Cattle, goats and sheep damage the channel banks in different
ways (Swales 1976). Cattle tend to push the moist bank material
at the waterline into the waterway when they drink. Goats and
sheep, however, graze the banks bare thereby allowing wind and
rain to wash away the bank material.
g) Erosion of canals can be repaired by mechanical means or
manually by re-building the worn canal banks. However, care
should be taken to construct a proper join between the old and
the new part, otherwise the canal will deteriorate at the same
place.
h) The most effective measures are of a preventive nature: such as
seeding grass mentioned earlier, fencing the canals, and
constructing special places for animal watering and bathing.

6.5.5. Pipelines and Sprinklers

1. As a rule, the underground components of the system require no
maintenance. However, at times, because of careless errors during
cultural practices (for example tractor operators knocking down valve
hydrants), pipes have to be replaced in order for the system to
operate at the designated pressure.
2. Isolation valves, when unused for long periods, get stuck to the
opening position and cannot be closed any more for the purpose of
isolating the areas of breakages from other areas. This causes the
whole system to be down, until repairs are made for minor breakages.
It is therefore necessary that once a month all isolation valves are
checked by opening and closing as well as lubricated.
3. The above ground components of the system, if carefully operated
and maintained, are expected to last for about 15 years. This would
require careful movement of aluminium pipes, after each riser and
sprinkler have been disconnected from the pipe to facilitate ease of
movement to the next position.
4. Portable aluminium pipes are connected through couplings with
rubber rings in order to ensure watertight connections. These rings
have a life of about two years and need to be replaced accordingly.

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5. The hoses used for sprinkler systems are rated at 7 metres pressure
and are reinforced. Their life expectancy is about eight years.
However, at times perforations or cuts occur during cultivation. In this
case, line joiners can be used to repair the hoses.
6. Another item that requires replacement is the rubber flap of the riser
assembly which, depending on quality, can last about five years. The
same holds true for the garden tap rubber or leather seal.
7. With respect to the sprinklers, it is necessary that all nozzles are
replaced at least every two years (four seasons), in order to maintain
the correct flow and distribution of water from the sprinkler. This is
particularly important when surface water with high load of suspended
solids is used for irrigation.
8. The tension of the sprinkler spring and the wear of some of the plastic
seals also require attention. It is therefore, necessary that every four
to five years the sprinklers are taken to the supplier for an overall
check-up.

6.5.6. Drainage Network

1. The need for proper maintenance is especially important during the
first two years after a ditch is constructed.
2. It is desirable to establish adapted grass for erosion control on the
ditchbanks as soon as possible since they are susceptible to the
growth of undesirable woody vegetation.
3. The most common problem with drains is weed growth. Weeds should
be frequently removed so as to maintain the design capacity of the
drains.
4. Maintenance work includes control of vegetation by mowing,
pasturing, or chemicals, timely removal of sediment bars as they form,
removing sediment after a few years‘ accumulation, repairing
structures, and doing such other work as necessary to retain the
original effectiveness of the systems. If ditches are allowed to be
overgrown with brush and small trees they may have only one-half to
two-thirds of the designed capacity.
5. Maintenance must be carried out effectively for the drainage system
to operate as planned. Guidelines in Table 23 also apply.
6. The retention in good working order of open drains includes the
following operations:
 light deforestation
 weed control in the canal section
 seeding grass in the canal section
 maintenance of flow gauges and other measuring devices
 removal of silt
 maintenance of pumping stations where water cannot be
evacuated by gravity.
7. For practical purposes, the maintenance of open drains is very similar
to that of earth irrigation canals. However, all too often drainage
networks receive much less attention than the irrigation ones. The

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result is that during heavy rain, when they are much needed, they do
not work as they should.
8. Drainage maintenance should always be programmed from
downstream to upstream, and as far as possible completed within an
irrigation season. The intervals in regular maintenance should not
exceed periods of 2-3 years between two consecutive cleanings.
9. Methods of maintenance include the following:
i. Using construction equipment for maintenance. - Usually
the same equipment used in construction can be employed
economically for removal of sediment and reshaping of spoil at
intervals as needed after construction. Effective maintenance
work by hand tools and with manual labour could pause some
problems.
ii. Mowing. - Mowing is effective in most locations for controlling
brush and encouraging grass on ditchbanks, travelways and
spoil disposal areas. Use of appropriate equipment could
enhance the maintenance work to be more effective.
iii. Pasturing. - Controlled pasturing is one of the most
economical and effective methods of maintaining ditches. In
some locations pasturing is not practical because of the type of
farming adjoining the ditches. Pasturing should be controlled to
keep cattle off ditchbanks especially during wet weather. Pigs
should be kept out of ditches
iv. Burning undesirable vegetation. - In sane locations
controlled burning in the winter is useful to remove dead
weeds, tall grass and small brush. This type of maintenance
should be limited to channels through open areas and must
comply with local antipollution regulations.
v. Chemical control of vegetation. - Chemicals to control
undesirable vegetative growth are effective. Caution should be
used in their application to prevent damage from the drifting
chemicals and poisoning. The most up-to-date information
available, including data on new herbicides, should be
followed.

6.5.7. Scheme Road Network

1. Scheme roads are of vital importance in irrigation schemes, especially
at harvest time. Maintenance of these roads should be included in the
responsibilities of the Maintenance Service.
2. These roads are best grassed to avoid eroded soils being deposited
in the adjacent drains or canals.
3. Any anthills growing on the roads must be removed as quickly as they
have been noticed.
4. Care should be taken not to dump road maintenance debris into
channels or canals.
5. If possible, these roads must be passable by light vehicles or tractors
all year round. They are not made to sustain heavy traffic. Refilling
and compaction of potholes and gullies should be done immediately.

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6. Dust roads deteriorate rapidly in rainy conditions and become
unusable without proper maintenance.
7. Unfenced roads can also be damaged by livestock using the tracks.
8. Repairs and maintenance can be greatly reduced by keeping the
shoulder drains in good condition to evacuate excess water quickly.

6.5.8. Berms, Embankments, Dykes

1. Maintenance of the berms of canal banks or flood protection bunds
(dykes) is similar to that for dust roads.
2. The common problems of embankments are erosion, leakages and
weed growth. Refill and soil compaction should be done when
repairing embankments.
3. Weeds and shrubs should be slashed. Trees must not be allowed to
grow; they should be uprooted as soon as recognised.
4. Preventive measures, such as prohibition of traffic on banks and
berms which are not supposed to be used by heavy machinery
(trucks, tractors, etc.) may considerably reduce the maintenance
needs.
5. Flood protection dykes can be badly damaged in severe flood
conditions and as such situations cannot be anticipated, their repair
must be by so-called special maintenance, for which special budget
allocations are needed.

6.5.9. Land Levelling

1. After the initial land levelling during project construction, it is
necessary to periodically level the fields in order to maintain the
desired field slope. This can be done by machinery or manually.
2. If levelling is done manually, it is still recommended that after every
two to four seasons farmers use machinery, such as a land plane.

6.5.10. Structures
1. The common maintenance problems with structures are siltation,
leakages caused by cracking and weed growth. They should be
maintained accordingly.

6.5.11. Gates
1. Gates can have problems of rusting or sticking over time and leaking.
They should be painted to prevent rusting.
2. Any movable parts should be greased or oiled to prevent sticking.
Replacing warn-out water seals, if there are any, can minimize
leaking.

6.5.12. Pump Stations

1. Pumping stations for irrigation schemes may be:
a. main irrigation lift-pump stations (surface water or
groundwater);
b. booster-pump stations for additional lifts in the main or branch
canals;

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c. drainage-pump stations.
The first two are usually of medium to high lift, required to pump
forecasted quantities of water for long continuous periods. The last is
usually for low lift with much larger quantities of water and required to
operate intermittently.
2. The irrigation pumps are usually manually controlled whereas the
drainage station is frequently float controlled to ensure automatic
starting once drainage levels in the scheme begin to rise above a pre-
set level. A manual operator should also be on call even with an
automatic control.
3. Operation and maintenance tasks for electric pump stations are
comparatively simple, those for diesel operated a little more complex.
The operators must be given clear instructions on safety measures,
on the methods of starting the pump motors and the way in which they
must be brought into full operation. Electric motors sometimes require
to be stepped up in speed manually at a strictly controlled rate. Also
canals may be damaged if all pumps come rapidly into full operation.
4. Operators must also be given a programme of irrigation quantities to
be pumped i.e. 1, 2 or 3 etc. pumps to be operating simultaneously.
5. Where 24-hour pumping is not provided, account must be taken of the
rate of rise and fall of canal levels in the irrigated area. It is of little use
with a 12-hour pumping schedule if canals do not fill up until late in the
morning and still remain full long after dark.
6. In case of an emergency, there must be some system for easy
communication between the pump house operator and the officer in
charge - either telephone or signal or runner.
7. In Table 24 are some general causes of pump malfunctioning and
their remedies that can be used for on-spot trouble-shooting when
pump problems are encountered. Annex 7 gives a general
troubleshooting list for the maintenance of pumps.

Table 24 Pump problems, causes and corrections

Symptoms Causes Corrections
1. Pump not 1. Prime pump correctly
properly primed
2. Speed too low 2. Check speed, check
or high calculations, consult
Failure to pump with manufacturer
3. Not enough 3. Check speed, check
head to open calculations, consult
check valve with manufacture
4. Air leak 4. Check and rework
suction line
5. Plugged section 5. Unplug section
6. Excessive 6. Check NPSH and
suction lift consult manufacturer
Rapid wear of 7. Misalignment 7. Align

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coupling 8. Bent shaft 8. Replace
cushion
9. Air pockets or 9. Locate and correct
small air leaks in
suction line
10. Obstruction in 10. Remove obstruction
suction line or
Reduced impeller
performance 11. Insufficient 11. Extend suction line to
submergence of deeper water to the
suction pipe extent that NPSH
allows you or excavate
and deepen the area
where the suction
basket is located
12. Excessively 12. Replace impeller and/or
worn impeller or wear ring
wear ring
13. Excessive 13. Calculate NPSH,
suction lift consult with
manufacturer
14. Wrong direction 14. Ask contractor to rectify
of rotation
15. Speed higher 15. Reduce speed
than planned
16. Water too 16. Raise suction
muddy
Driver 17. Too large an 17. Trim impeller
overloaded impeller
diameter
18. Low voltage 18. Consult power authority
19. Stress in pipe 19. Support piping properly
connection to
pump
20. Packing too tight 20. Loosen packing gland
nuts
21. Misalignment 21. Align all rotating parts
22. Excessive 22. Check NPSH, consult
suction lift with manufacturer
23. Material lodged 23. Dislodge obstruction
in impeller
Excessive 24. Worn bearings 24. Replace bearings
noise 25. Impeller screw 25. Replace
loose or broken
26. Cavitation 26. Check NPSH, correct
suction piping
27. Wrong direction 27. Ask contractor to rectify

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of rotation
28. Worn wear ring 28. Replace
29. Misalignment 29. Align all rotating parts
Premature 30. Suction or 30. Correct support
bearings failure discharge pipe
not properly
supported
31. Bent shaft 31. Replace shaft
32. High or low 32. Check voltage and
voltage consult power authority
33. High electric 33. Monitor voltage and
surge consult power authority
Electric motor 34. Poor electric 34. Turn power off, clean
failure connection and check connections
35. Overloads 35. Check amperage, do
not exceed full load
amperage
36. Bearing failure 36. Change motor bearing
37. Cooling vent 37. Install proper screen
plugged (rodent,
dirt, leaves)
38. Moisture or 38. Send for blow-dry and
water in motor protect from
environment
Source: FAO Irrigation Manual Module 5

6.5.13. Solar System

1. A very minimal effort is required for maintenance of the panels
including their regular cleaning.
2. Solar panels are required to be cleaned, particularly in dry areas or
where panel tilt is minimal as, dust and other substances, such as bird
droppings, can build up over time and impact the amount of electricity
generated by a panel.
3. Air pollution, dust, fallen leaves and even bird droppings block
sunlight falling on the solar panel surface. Grime and bird droppings
do not need to cover an entire panel to have an effect. Experience
suggests that dirty solar panels, which have not been cleaned for a
week, lead to a drop in power generation by as much as 25 - 30
percent. Hence, it is absolutely necessary to clean the solar panels to
ensure maximum power output and water discharge rate.
4. Before commencing cleaning, ensure that procedures are followed
that are described in the operation manual which is provided by the
manufacturer/supplier.
5. For safety reasons, it is also advisable to clean solar panels from the
ground itself, wherever possible. A good quality soft brush and a
squeegee with a plastic blade on one side and a cloth covered
sponge on the other side, with a long extension is an adequate tool to

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perform solar panel cleaning from the ground level itself.
6. Solar panels can also be cleaned using a hose with a suitable nozzle
to allow a stream of water to reach the panels.
7. Training is provided for maintenance and cleaning by the company
installing the pump. Village personnel can easily be trained to take
care of the pump and solar panels.
8. Solar panels when properly maintained continue to produce electricity
for the pump for even longer than 25 years.

6.5.14. Ancillary Works

1. The hydraulic structures in an irrigation scheme include: gates, inlets,
spillways, outlets, dividers, siphons, jumps, check dams and other
minor structures.
2. Maintenance of such items, when they are constructed in concrete, is
restricted to the removal of silt and obstructions.
3. The mechanical elements require periodic greasing. Iron elements
require antirust treatment. The same applies to structures in drainage
networks (e.g. culverts, drainage outlets) and those in road networks
(e.g. bridges, culverts, crossings).
4. Administrative buildings and some other special installations (e.g.
stores, workshops, warehouses) require a certain amount of upkeep
and should not be overlooked.

6.6. Planning Maintenance Activities

1. In order to be able to formulate a maintenance programme, the
following steps must be taken:
i. make an inventory of all the works that require maintenance;
ii. determine the volume of maintenance activities to be
undertaken annually;
iii. establish the optimum cycle of maintenance for each type of
work;
iv. determine the machinery and manpower requirements to
undertake the maintenance;
v. budgeting and establishing the maintenance priorities.

6.6.1. Inventory of the Works

1. Most irrigation schemes already have maps available, also lists of the
main works and structures, but for maintenance purposes it is
necessary to group the latter into types with similar characteristics. In
this way, calculations can be simplified and machinery utilized to the
optimum. The grouping is specific to each irrigation scheme. An
example of grouping by canal type is as follows:

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214
Table 25 Example of grouping by canal
Canal Type Width of Height of
base (m) water (m)
A 10 – 20 ˃ 3.0
B 8 – 10 2.5 – 3.0
C 4–6 1.8 – 2.4
D 2–4 1.3 – 1.7
E 1–2 ˂ 1 – 1.2
2. Other works (roads, structures, lined canals, etc.) can be grouped
similarly.

6.6.2. Volume of Maintenance Works

1. In order to prepare a maintenance programme, the amount of work to
be undertaker under each category of maintenance must be known.
2. A detailed list of maintenance works should be prepared for the main
elements in the irrigation canal network, the drainage system, and for
work concerning roads, buildings and workshops.
3. The extent of work to be undertaken shall be determined by visual
inspection, followed by detailed measurement of the volume, area, or
unit lengths of each task. The most complex estimate is generally that
of silt clearance, since owing to variations in the sections of the canal
and consequent differences in water velocity, the silt is deposited
unevenly.
4. In order to determine the amount of silt to be removed, a
topographical survey is made by taking the sections every 50 or 100
m according to the required degree of precision. With the data
obtained the area of the sections is calculated. The volume of
sediment (Vp) for each stretch of length will be:
Vp = ½(A1 + A2) l
where A1 and A2 are the transversal section of the sediment and l the
length of the section, and therefore for a canal of constant section:
Vp = {½(A1 + An) +A2 + A3 + .....An-1} l

5. Once all the measurements of the maintenance activities are

complete, they should be grouped according to activity in order to
determine the manpower and machinery requirements.

6.6.3. Optimum Cycle of Maintenance

1. The optimum cycle of maintenance is the time that can safely elapse
between two consecutive maintenance operations of a constructed
element (canal, road, drain, etc.) without that element failing and
disrupting the efficient operation of the whole.
2. A certain degree of malfunctioning (10-20 percent reduction in
absolute efficiency with respect to the design) is normally acceptable
between the two consecutive maintenance operations.
3. The optimum maintenance cycle is determined by local factors such
as climate, length of irrigation season, quality of the water, quality of

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215
the construction, etc., and it should be based on experience gained in
the particular project or in other irrigation schemes with similar
conditions in the country.

6.6.4. Machinery and Manpower Requirements

1. The first decision is whether maintenance should be manual or
mechanical.
2. In general, preference is given to machinery in high cost technology
projects because the original reason for constructing them in that way
was influenced by the scarcity of labour and the availability of
technically skilled personnel.
3. Low cost technology projects should rely as far as possible on
manual labour. As far as technically and economically feasible,
maintenance should be by local labour and only where it is not
possible should resort be made to machinery, particularly since most
of the irrigation projects are in areas where labour is plentiful.
4. In some cases, there may not be sufficient labour to undertake the
requisite amount of work in the time available and thus the use of
machinery becomes unavoidable.
5. As there are many maintenance activities, it is not always possible to
have the ideal machine for each specific activity. Therefore, versatile
machinery is preferable to highly specialized.
6. The machinery or manpower requirements can easily be calculated
once the output of the machinery or labour for a given maintenance
task and the amount of work to be done are known.
7. Silt clearance – Silt is still removed manually in many parts of the
world, provided that the water levels in the canals can be lowered
sufficiently or, even better, the canals dried for several days. This
method is quite effective, although the actual organization of the work
can be a problem.

i. Where water-borne diseases are known to be prevalent,

the use of labour should be restricted to those canals that
can be dried completely for several days, otherwise
mechanical means should be adopted.
ii. Productivity of labour is generally low due to the muddy
conditions in which they often work. Output therefore varies
widely from 2 to 8 m3/man-day, depending on several
factors such as working conditions, tools, lifting and hauling
distance.
iii. Several types of machines are utilized for silt removal and
canal reshaping. The productivity depends largely on how
well suited the machine is to the particular work. Annex 2
rates the productivity of machinery most commonly used
for removing canal silt and reshaping, but most of these
machines can do a certain amount of weed clearance at
the same time, which affects their productivity. The given
rates are applicable to medium or small size canals and

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refer mostly to dry working conditions. The output will be
reduced by 20-30 percent under wet conditions except for
the machines (dredgers) specially designed to work in
running water.
iv. The selection of machinery is mainly influenced by its
reach and working conditions: wet or dry, accessibility,
amount and type of work, weed infestation, etc.
v. A combination of labour and machinery is particularly
frequent in lined canals, where silt is removed and
accumulated at certain points by labour and then removed
by mechanical means.
8. Control of canal vegetation – Weeds are normally removed by
cutting, mowing or dredging.
i. Emergent and submerged weeds are best cut near the
base of the stem, leaving roots and rhizomes undisturbed.
ii. Weeds need cutting at regular intervals throughout the
season and the interval varies according to the
environmental conditions and species.
iii. The stage of growth at which the plant is cut affects the
rate of growth; cutting at an early growth stage tends to be
more effective than at a later one.
iv. Four main methods are used to control canal vegetation,
(a) manual, (b) mechanical method depends weed species,
(c) chemical, and (d) biological. The choice primarily
depends upon the availability of labour, the predominant
environmental and economic conditions.

a) Manual
Much of what has been said for the manual removal of
silt applies to this method of weed control. However,
since it requires a little more skill, the choice of an
appropriate hand tool is more important and will lead to
relatively, high productivity. Annex 3 illustrates some of
the characteristics of these hand tools and their related
productivity.

b) Mechanical
There are many types of specially designed machines
available for specific weed control purposes. In some
cases, it is preferable to adapt a regular farm, tractor for
use with different attachments. Rubber wheeled 40-60
hp farm tractors can travel along channel banks with a
maximum slope of 1:3 percent using the PTO (power
take-off) for the implement. This operation requires
neither specialized operator nor training nor equipment.
For slopes steeper than 1:3 percent, hydraulically
operated machines are available. Tractor-dragged

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217
chains are more effective on steeper slopes. Two 60 hp
tractors can easily handle channels 6 m wide. Mower
and cutter attachments are used mainly for grass and
reeds on banks of watercourses, while buckets are more
appropriate for emergent and submerged weeds.
Launches can be used for mowing and cutting emergent
weeds on banks, if the size of the channel permits their
passage. Details and productivity of the different types
of machinery are given in Annex 4.

c) Chemical
Chemicals have been developed which can control
weeds effectively and safely, provided that adequate
precautions are taken. They also offer an economic
system of weed control in certain circumstances. The
use of herbicides should, however, be limited because of
their possible adverse effects on the environment. It is
known that some herbicides may affect the quality of
water to the extent that it becomes harmful to humans,
animals and crops. Therefore, they should be selected
with care. Where their use may prove hazardous, it may
be necessary to limit or even prohibit them. Annex 1
gives a summary of some available herbicides and their
use.

d) Biological
Biological control may become more important in the
future in view of the disadvantages of other methods
(high costs, danger to the environment). The most
common method is the introduction of an animal, fish or
insect which feeds especially on the problem plant.
Recently, attention has been given to the use of the
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) for the control of
submerged weeds and, in some cases, it appears to be
an economical and effective way of control.

The introduction of competing plants (grasses) has been

tried but this is not appropriate in watercourses where
the flow must be unobstructed.

v. Sometimes weed growth can be prevented by fluctuations

in the water regime, for example, holding a canal dry for 3-6
days is most effective in the control of algae. However, the
success of this method depends on the weed species.

9. Road maintenance – Scheme road maintenance work is well best

done by labour. There are several useful combinations of labour and

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218
machinery that depend on the local wages and availability of
machinery. Table 26 gives some generalized information on the
machines most commonly adopted for road maintenance. Motor
graders, complemented with a water bowser and roller, are
particularly useful for remodelling macadam and dust roads. Tipper
trucks combined with loaders are normally used to haul base material
for distances over 500 m, which is usually the case. The scraper is
more suitable for short distances but there is rarely opportunity for its
use in road maintenance work. Medium size bulldozers are also
useful in some of the remodelling work before a grader can be used
efficiently.
Table 26 Machinery used for road maintenance and land grading

Type Productivity Optimum hauling

distance
Bulldozer (130-150 HP) 400 m3/day 100 m
Grader 1000 m/day 50 m
2 3
Tipper truck 300m /day 500 m or more
3 3
Loader/shovel (1.2 m bucket) 300 m /day 20 m
3 3
Scraper towed (12.0 m bowl) 1100-1200 m /day 100-250 m
3 3
Motor scraper (12.5 m bowl) 1100-1200 m /day 250-500 m
3
Tyre or sheep foot roller 800-1000 m /day
Water bowser 1000 m3/day
1
Productivity figures are only an approximation; precise indications can be
obtained from dealers when working conditions are known.
2
Used in combination with loader or shovel.
Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 40

6.6.5. Costing and Establishing Maintenance Priorities

1. Costing the intended maintenance programme is an easy operation
because the amount of work to be done has been determined and the
basic unit prices are known.
2. It may be important to present a detailed justification for some of the
intended works emphasizing the consequences (financial and social)
if they are not carried out.
3. It is also advisable to earmark some funds for unexpected repairs.
About 10-20 percent of the total budget for this purpose is generally
accepted.
4. As in any budgeting operation, the initial estimates may have to be
reconsidered and curtailed in relation to the finances available. This is
often the case where allocated funds are considerably lower than
those requested. At this point, the establishment of priorities is an
important exercise in which all the units of the water management
organization should participate.
5. The maintenance programme is usually adversely affected by this
kind of budgeting exercise because the effect of reducing the level of
upkeep is not apparent in the short run.

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6. The establishment of maintenance priorities depends on many factors
such as reduction of manpower and machinery, etc., and is therefore
site specific.
7. A sample budget is provided in Annex 5.

6.7. Implementing the Maintenance Programme

1. The implementation of maintenance activities is highly site specific in
nature, but some general management principles can be applied, the
most relevant of which are as follows:
i. Good planning is particularly important in maintenance work
since the time and resources available for its execution are
limited. The use of planning techniques such as critical path
methods and bar diagrams, is helpful, though rarely put into
practice.
ii. Monitoring the output productivity is essential, not only to
feed back the planning process with realistic data but also to
control the progress of the work planned.
iii. Farmers' participation in maintenance work should be
encouraged. In some irrigation schemes the contribution of a
number of man-days per farmer is spelled out in the by-laws
of the scheme. In other cases, the responsibility may be for
specific studies of irrigation ditches. The Maintenance
Service should provide technical guidance, organize and
control the work.
iv. Maintenance work on a voluntary basis is customary in some
old irrigation associations but it is difficult to obtain in public
irrigation schemes. In this latter case, the use of incentives
such as food and transportation, is advisable and work
should be restricted to special repairs that need unexpected
large human resources.
v. Whenever unskilled labour is required, use should be made
of the human resources of the farming community of the
project.
vi. Subcontracting part of the maintenance work may be
advisable in certain circumstances and should be more
frequently adopted. It reduces the number of permanent staff
in a maintenance unit and is a system that can be adapted to
maintenance conditions that change from one year to
another. It is highly suitable for specialized jobs such as
maintenance of electro-mechanical equipment of gates and
remote control devices, placing and removing deep well
pumps, etc. Irrigation schemes having few vehicles and
machines should also consider the possibility of
subcontracting their maintenance rather than having a poorly
equipped workshop where maintenance may be of low
standard.
vii. A sample maintenance schedule has been included as
Annex 6.

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6.8. Catchment Management
Definition 1. Precautionary actions, procedures or installations undertaken to
prevent or reduce harm to the environmental integrity of drainage
areas used to catch water, such as reservoirs or basins.
2. Defining the objectives: Addressing questions such as why the water
catchment protection activities should be initiated, what is the aim of
the water catchment protection activities, how will it be implemented
and what will be the expected outcome of the water catchment
protection activities.
3. Check any policies that address catchment management and its
implementation.
4. Define actual or potential locations for water catchment protection.
5. Check activities currently being undertaken within the catchment and
composition any existing catchment management committees and
their influence.
6. Sensitise all stakeholders who will be affected by the water catchment
protection activities or have an interest in the water catchment
protection activities.
7. Identify size and place of the area to be protected.
8. Identify the necessary protective measures and discuss to consensus
with all affected stakeholders for their implementation. Agree on a
catchment conservation plan and its implementation.
9. Implement and monitor the catchment conservation plan.

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ANNEXES

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Annex 1: Selected herbicides for control of aquatic weeds

Safety
Type Use Dose Remarks2
interval1
Aromatic Submerged weeds 40-80 - Inject under water. Toxic to fish.
solvents ppmv3 Distasteful in water
Acrolein Submerged weeds 4-7 - Inject under water. Very toxic to
ppmv aquatic fauna
Amitrole-T Floating + 1-1.5 - Spray on foliage. In USA can only
emergent weeds kg/ha be used in drainage canals
2,4-D amine Broad leaved 2-4 3 weeks Spray on foliage, especially for
salt plants near water kg/ha water hyacinth
2,4,5-T Ditch bank control 4 kg/ha - Spray on plants
(woody vegetation)
Dalapon Aquatic grasses + 10-25 5 weeks Spray on foliage, repeat
cat-tail kg/ha applications. Safe to fish
Diquat Submerged + 1-1.5 10 days Spray on foliage. Considered safe
floating weeds kg/ha at recommended dosages
Dichlobenil Submerged + 1 mg/1 4 weeks Spray on foliage. No adverse effect
some floating on wild life. At high concentrations
weeds can be toxic to fish
Copper Algae 1.0 - Toxic to fish, distasteful in water
sulphate ppmw4 when suggested dose exceeded
(CSP)
Sodium Submerged + 4 ppmw - Inject or spray, highly toxic (0.02 g
arsenite floating weeds may kill a man) to mammals. Its
use is discouraged
Endothall Submerged weeds 1.5-4 7-25 days Inject underwater. Some of the
ppmw salts (long chain type) are toxic to
fish and mammals
1
Before use of water for irrigation
2
Time to spray one hectare: Hand operated back sprayer, 10 litres capacity - 9 hours
Back mounted power sprayer - 6.5-7 hours
Tractor mounted boom sprayer - 4-5 hours
3
ppmv = parts per million by volume
4
ppmw = parts per million by weight

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Annex 2: Machinery for canal cleaning
Type Productivity Characteristics of use Remarks
Dragline excavators:
(a) small (0.3 80 m/day1/  works from the canal Versatile machine adaptable
m3) banks on dry or running to several jobs and working
channel conditions.

120 m/day2/  Spoil can be dumped clear

of canal banks.
300 m/day3/  reach: 9-10 m Care needed to avoid
damage on compacted bed
channels.
 To be used when desilting
job smaller than 3000 m3/km
of canal.
(b) large (1 m3) 100 m/day1/  works from canal banks Similar to small dragline
on dry or running channel excavator.

160 m/day2/  reach: 18-20 m Suitable for jobs greater

than 3000 m3/km.
500 m/day3/ 

Hydraulic excavators:
(a) back-actor 800-1000  digging depth: 5-6.5 m They are normally crawler
type m/day4/ mounted and all
hydraulically operated.
 reach: 6-8 m

 works from canal bank for

maintenance work or from
the rear in construction of
new canals

 a great variety of buckets More appropriate for

can be fitted construction of new canals.

 can be used for desilting Those mounted on rubber

or weeding jobs tyres require firm ground
conditions.
Hydraulic excavators:
(b) telescopic 1000 m3/day5/  digging depth: 6-7.5 m Can handle several jobs but
boom (Gradall highly suitable for
Type) excavating new drains or
canals and heavy
maintenance work.
 reach: 9-11 m

 bucket can be rotated Compares favourably with

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Type Productivity Characteristics of use Remarks
hydraulically the small dragline.

 tilt capacity is often 90°

(other types only 45°)

Hydraulic backhoes:
(a) tractor 300-600  digging depth: 3.5-4.5 m More powerful and robust
mounted m/day2/ than trailer type.
 reach: 5.5-6.5m Suitable for construction and
maintenance work.
 slew: 180° Normally associated with a
front- end loader
attachment.
The most common type is
the side shift which can be
mounted at each side of the
tractor.
Can be used effectively for
excavation, desilting and
weeding jobs.
Needs good footing.
(b) trailer 200-400  digging depth: 2.8-4.0 m
mounted m/day2/
 reach: 4.5-6.0 m Highly suitable and
economic for maintenance
work.
 slew: 180-190°.

 hydraulic pump of the hoe Can work in difficult

is driven by the drive- positions, while prime mover
shaft of wheel tractor remains on level standing.

Dredges 100-200  good for use in marshy Highly specialized machine.

m/day6/ ground or canals that
cannot be cleaned from
banks. Also good for
removal of soft weeds

 maximum depth: depends Useful for concrete-lined

on model but for small canals since no damage is
dredges 2 m produced when fitted with
suitable skid plates.
 spoil (slurry) on nearest Difficult to transport and to
bank or collected in move in and out of canals.
special pontoons

 cable and winch system

for locomotion needs

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Type Productivity Characteristics of use Remarks
strong anchorage points
along banks
Flatbed ditchers 3000-5000  operates within the Needs powerful crawler
(Briscoe type) m/day7/ waterway, towed by tractors for towing (D6, D7).
tractors from each side;
therefore can only work
on dry canals
12000 m/day8/  bed width: 1.2-4.2 m Most ditchers have their own
engine and hydraulic
system.
Experienced operator
needed.
More suited for construction
of new canals or
reconstruction work.
Rotary digger 400-600  bed width: 0.4-1.0 m
m/day8/
 operates within the canal Powered by PTO of wheeled
tractor.
 suitable for quick removal Works canal bed and batters
of light siltation and soft simultaneously.
weeds
Bulldozer 300-400  spreading of excavated Also used for road
m/day9/ material. maintenance, light
deforestation and rough land
levelling.
 used as prime mover of
attachments mentioned
above
Grader 500-800  finishing of canal banks Better suited to road
m/day and spoils maintenance work and
levelling jobs.
Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 40
Notes:
1/
With standard bucket and for heavy excavation.
2/
With light-weight bucket and for removal of silt and vegetation.
3/
With the weed bucket but does not include any cleaning of the batters.
4/
Refers to remodelling of badly silted canals,
5/
Equipped with the 2.4m wide bucket.
6/
Desilting of 1.5m wide canal. Rates for soft weeds are much higher,
7/
For normal cleaning operations towed by a D6 crawler tractor.
8/
Light cleaning operation, with wheeled tractor.
9/
Refers to spreading of excavated material with a -medium size machine (D6).
NB: The equipment listed is the most commonly used but many specialized machines are also
available on the market.

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Annex 3: Hand tools for control of canal vegetation

Type Use Dimension of Productivity

Canal
Submerged weeds + grass and Small canals up to
Scythe 15-25 m2/hour
reeds on banks 0.6-0.8 m depth
Sickle, grass Submerged weeds + grass and Small canals up to
8-12 m2 hour
hook reeds on banks 0.75-1.25 m depth
Highly variable
Removing cut material, lifting depending on weed
Rake, fork -
floating weeds, removing algae species and
vegetation density
Chain knives and Submerged weeds + grass and 4-60 m2/hour (two
up to 6 m width
chain scythes reeds on banks or three labourers)
Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 40

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Annex 4: Special characteristics of power moved tools for control of canal weeds

Type Attachment Use Outreach Productivity Remarks

1
Tractor powered Oscillating grass Emergent weeds 3-6 m 1-2.5 km/hr Machines can only work on one side of
attachments or cutter Bar the canal at a time (crossing places
trailers Industrial tractors (70-150 hp) increase
outreach to 8 m.
Rotary cutter Emergent weeds " 1-2.5 km/hr1 needed to complete operation).
1
Flail mower Emergent weeds " 1-2.5 km/hr
Chain, harrow Submerged + Width: 2 m 0.5-3 km/hr
emergent
Hydraulic Oscillating grass Emergent weeds horizontal 800-1200 Wheeled machines 1 metre less effective
excavator with cutter bar outreach; 6-12 m m/day1 outreach than tracked machines.
attachments depth: 3-5m
Rotary cutter Emergent weeds " 0,1 ha/hr Can work on both sides of canal at same
time.
Flail -mower Emergent weeds " 0,1 ha/hr
Mud bucket All types " 400-600 m/day2
Weed cutting bucket All types " 600-800 m/day2

Dragline Weed rake Mud Submerged + algae 9-21 m (dragline 500 m/day2 Max. channel width depends on access
bucket +emergent throw) and configuration of channel
Large boats C10- Oscillating rigid knives Bank weeds + Width; 6-10m 1-4 km/hr with a Max. depth of cut: 1.5-2.8 m$ min. depth
15 hp) Modified (T type) floating leaved plants width of cut of of cut: 0.5-1.0 m;-max. river flow velocity:
grass cutters + emergent weeds + 1.5-2.8 m 2.5 km/hr.
algae
Wilder 'D' shaped
cutter

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Type Attachment Use Outreach Productivity Remarks
Small boats C4-5 Oscillating knives " Width; 5-6 m 1.4 km/hr with a Max. depth of cut: 1.0-1.8 m; min depth of
hp) grass cutter width of cut of cut: 0.5-1,75 m; max. river flow velocity:
1.0-1,8 m 2.5 km/hr.
1
Covering a swathe of 1,5-2 m,
2
Refers to the complete cleaning of medium sized canals (5-6 m width),
Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 40

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Annex 5: Sample Operation and Maintenance Budget

Operation Service

Amount
Description Unit Quantity Unit Rate Totals (MK)
(MK)
Personnel
Head Operation Service No.
Water Master No.
Water Guards No.
Pump Operators No.
Operators (Structures) No.
Auxiliary Staff No.
Driver No.
Bookkeeper No.
Clerical Staff No.
Office Assistant No.
Sub-Total

Equipment
Slashers No.
Timer No.
Bicycle No.
Panga Knife No.
Rake No.
Notepad No.
Pen / Pencil No.
Umbrella No.
Raincoat No.
Gumboots No.
Other Protective Clothing No.
Portable water measuring No.
device
Telephone No.
Mechanical Tools (Toolbox) No.
Oils and Grease No.
Computer and Printer No.
Calculators No.
Photocopier No.
Tape Measure No.

Sub-Total

Totals

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Maintenance Service

Amount Totals
Description Unit Quantity Unit Rate
(MK) (MK)
Personnel
Head Maintenance Service No.
Water Guards No.
Water Master No.
Casual Labour No.
Artisans No.

Sub-Total

Equipment
Slashers No.
Hoes No.
Shovels No.
Steel brushes No.
Panga Knives No.
Axes No.
Rake No.
Cement No.
Aggregate No.
Paints No.
Welding Equipment No.
Protective Clothing No.
Tractor No.
Mower and Cutter attachments No.
Drag Chains No.
Herbicides No.
Wheelbarrows No.
Tractor Trailer No.
Tape Measure No.

Sub-Total

Totals

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Annex 6: Sample Maintenance Schedule
Maintenance Schedule
No. Job Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
17
1.0 Headworks
18
2.0 Main Canal
19
3.0 Secondary Canals
20
4.0 Tertiary Canals
21
5.0 Main Drain
22
6.0 Secondary Drain
23
7.0 Tertiary Drain
24
8.0 Collector Drain
25
9.0 Conveyance Structures
26
10.0 Distribution Structures
27
11.0 Measuring Structures
28
12.0 Access Roads
13.0 Catchment Management

17
Headworks maintenance include daily inspection, especially during the wet season to remove floating debris, and repairs and desilting during the dry season.
18
Maintenance of main canal includes daily inspection for weaknesses and shrubs growing on the embankments, and repairs and desilting during the dry season.
19
Similar schedules as for the main canal.
20
Similar schedules as for the main canal.
21
Maintenance schedules include inspections for damages during the wet season, and repairs during the dry season.
22
Secondary drains should be cleaned weakly and repairs should be done during the dry season.
23
Tertiary drains should be inspected and cleaned daily.
24
Collector drains should be cleaned weekly to prevent excessive weed growth.
25
There are many types of conveyance structures. All of them should be inspected daily for any blockages that would affect the flow of water. Repairs should be done during
the dry season.
26
These structures should be treated similarly as conveyance structure
27
Measuring structures should be inspected and cleaned daily to ensure efficiency and correctness of readings or measurements.
28
Repairs to access roads should be done during the dry season. Routine maintenance should be done every quarter, depending upon severity of use.

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Annex 7: Troubleshooting Checklist for Pump Maintenance

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233
Bibliography

1. Drainage of Agricultural Lands, National Engineering Handbook Section 16, USDA Soil
Conservation Service, 1971.
2. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 40, Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Schemes,
Rome, 1986
3. FAO FAO Irrigation Manual Module 5, Irrigation Pumping Plant, 2001
4. FAO Irrigation Manual Module 7, Volume II, Surface Irrigation Systems, Planning, Design,
Operation and Maintenance, 2002
5. FAO Irrigation Manual Module 8, Volume III, Sprinkler Irrigation Systems, Planning, Design,
Operation and Maintenance, 2001
6. FAO Irrigation Manual Module 9, Volume IV, Localised Irrigation Systems, Planning,
Design, Operation and Maintenance, 2002
7. Frequently Asked Questions on Solar Powered Irrigation Pumps by Dr. Harald Richter et
al., GIZ Gmbh
8. WUA Manual, Department of Irrigation

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

234
PART 3: CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

235
IRRIGATION CODE OF PRACTICE FOR CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Table of contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 238
1.1. FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................................... 238
1.2. NOTICE .......................................................................................................................................................... 238
1.3. SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................................... 238
1.4. NORMATIVE REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 238
CHAPTER 2: DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 240
2.1. TECHNICAL TERMS .......................................................................................................................................... 240
CHAPTER 3: PROCUREMENTS OF IRRIGATION WORKS......................................................................................... 245
3.1. PROCUREMENT CYCLE .................................................................................................................................... 245
3.1.1. Budget and Procurement Plan ................................................................................................................ 245
3.1.2. Purchase requisition filled with clear specifications/terms of reference/scope of works/bills of quantities245
3.1.3. Review of specifications/terms of reference/scope of works/bills of quantities ........................................ 245
3.1.4. Review of procurement method ............................................................................................................... 245
3.1.5. Supply Sourcing ...................................................................................................................................... 245
3.1.6. Ascertain availability of funds .................................................................................................................. 245
3.1.7. Preparation of bidding documents ........................................................................................................... 245
3.1.8. Approval of the bidding document ........................................................................................................... 245
3.1.9. Invitation to tender ................................................................................................................................... 245
3.1.10. Receipts and opening of bids ............................................................................................................. 246
3.1.11. Evaluation of bids ............................................................................................................................... 246
3.1.12. Review of Evaluation Report .............................................................................................................. 246
3.1.13. Offer of Contract ................................................................................................................................. 246
3.1.14. Contract Negotiations ......................................................................................................................... 246
3.1.15. Contract Signing ................................................................................................................................. 246
3.1.16. Publish the Award ............................................................................................................................... 246
3.1.17. Performance Rating ............................................................................................................................ 246
3.2. PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP ARRANGEMENT(PPP) .......................................................................................... 246
3.3. CONTRACT MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................................................ 247
3.3.1. Site Handover.......................................................................................................................................... 247
3.3.2. Mobilisation ............................................................................................................................................. 247
3.3.3. Site establishment ................................................................................................................................... 247
3.3.4. Ferrying and Storage of Construction Materials ...................................................................................... 248
3.3.5. Drawings ................................................................................................................................................. 249
3.4. CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION ............................................................................................................................ 250
3.4.1. General.................................................................................................................................................... 250
3.4.2. Variation orders ....................................................................................................................................... 250
3.4.3. Use of contingency reserves ................................................................................................................... 250
3.4.4. Presence of key personnel ...................................................................................................................... 250
3.4.5. Work programming .................................................................................................................................. 250
3.4.6. Contract duration ..................................................................................................................................... 250
3.4.7. Progress Reports .................................................................................................................................... 251
3.4.8. Site meetings........................................................................................................................................... 251
3.4.9. Communication Channels ....................................................................................................................... 251
3.4.10. Record keeping .................................................................................................................................. 251
3.4.11. Site Instructions .................................................................................................................................. 251
3.4.12. Checking material and equipment availability ..................................................................................... 251
3.4.13. Demobilization .................................................................................................................................... 251
3.4.14. Testing and Commissioning of an irrigation system ........................................................................... 252
3.4.15. Site inspection .................................................................................................................................... 252
3.4.16. Retention ............................................................................................................................................ 252
3.4.17. Defects remedy .................................................................................................................................. 252
3.4.18. As-built drawings ................................................................................................................................ 252
3.5. CLOSING PROCUREMENTS................................................................................................................................ 252
CHAPTER 4 CONSTRUCTION PLAN ........................................................................................................................... 254
4.1. GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 254
4.2. QUALITY MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................................................... 254
4.2.1. Three aspects of quality management .................................................................................................... 254
4.2.2. Quality planning....................................................................................................................................... 254
4.2.3. Quality Control......................................................................................................................................... 255
4.2.4. Quality Assurance ................................................................................................................................... 258
4.2.5. Cost Management ................................................................................................................................... 258
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4.2.6. Environmental and Social Management in Irrigation Development ......................................................... 259
CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 260
5.1. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................. 260
5.1.1. Individual construction materials ............................................................................................................. 260
5.1.2. Composite construction materials ........................................................................................................... 262
CHAPTER 6: EVALUATION OF A CONSTRUCTION PROJECT ................................................................................. 281
6.1. GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................................... 281
6.2. REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECT DATA .................................................................................. 281
6.2.1. Review and Analysis sessions ................................................................................................................ 281
6.3. DOCUMENTATION OF LESSONS LEARNT .............................................................................................................. 281
6.4. PROJECT COMPLETION REPORT ....................................................................................................................... 282
6.4.1. Report format .......................................................................................................................................... 282
6.5. PROJECT TECHNICAL AUDIT ............................................................................................................................. 282
6.5.1. General.................................................................................................................................................... 282
6.5.2. Timing of conducting a Project Technical Audit ....................................................................................... 282
ANNEXES ....................................................................................................................................................................... 284
ANNEX 1: DESCRIPTION OF GANTT CHART AND A DEMONSTRATION ON BASICS OF HOW A CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMME IS BUILT 285
ANNEX 2: ANALYSIS OF CONTROL CHART DATA FOR CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE TESTS ......................................................... 291
ANNEX 3: AN EXTRACT OF AN ESMP FOR IRRIGATION SCHEME CONSTRUCTION ................................................................... 293
ANNEX 4: GENERAL PERFORMANCE DATA FOR SELECTED PLANT FOR CONSTRUCTION .......................................................... 295
ANNEX 5: DESCRIPTIONS OF TESTS ................................................................................................................................. 297

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Foreword
This code of practice provides guidance on the irrigation industry‘s expectation of acceptable
levels of irrigation construction works. The code is aligned to statutes, regulations, legal
requirements and industry standards which are used in the construction sector for Malawi. It must
be utilized in construction activities associated with the irrigation sector as it provides essential
guidance on construction of irrigation systems in an economic and environmentally sustainable
manner.

This code of practice is intended for all stakeholders involved in construction projects for irrigation
systems. It is expected that this Code of Practice will be utilized as a guide in all construction
projects within the irrigation sector in Malawi

1.2. Notice
This Code of Practice shall be revised whenever it is necessary so as to have a document that is
relevant to prevailing developments in the construction sector for irrigation works at all times

1.3. Scope
This Code of Practice covers best construction practices for irrigation development including
procurement cycle, construction plan, construction materials, construction works and evaluation of
construction projects

1.4. Normative references

The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute
provisions of this code of practice. All standards are subject to revision and, since any reference to
a standard is deemed to be a reference to the latest edition of the standard, parties to agreements
based on this code of practice are encouraged to take steps to ensure that they use the most
recent editions. Information on currently valid national and international standards can be obtained
from the Malawi Bureau of Standards.

MS 842:2010, Aggregates from natural sources-Aggregates for concrete

IS0 8779:2010, Plastic piping systems-Polyethylene (PE) pipes for irrigation - Specifications

ISO 4064-2:2005, Measurement of water flow in fully charged closed conduits- Meters for cold
portable water and hot water-Part 2: Installation Requirements

MBS 324:1992, Black Polyethylene Pipes for the Conveyance of liquids –specification-Part 1: Low
density polyethylene pressure pipes

MBS 617-3:1998, Pipes and Fittings made of un-plasticized poly-vinyl chloride (PVC-U) for water
supply –Specification-Part 3: Fittings and joints

ANSI-PMI 08-001-2012, 2013: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK
Guide).

DMS 838:2009, Concrete works – Code of practice for minor works

ISO 21500:2012, Guidance on project management

SABS 0164-1:1980, Structural use of masonry - Part 1: unreinforced masonry walling

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238
ASAE EP400.2T: 1997, Designing and Constructing Irrigation Wells

ASAE EP260.4: 1997, Design and Construction of Subsurface Drains in Humid Areas

MBS 88:1986, Solvent cement for assembly of uPVC pipe fittings- specifications

BS 1881:1983, Testing Concrete- Part 102: Method for determination of slump

BS 812:1989, Testing Aggregates-Part 110: Methods for determination of Aggregate Crushing

Value (ACV)

BS 812:1989, Testing Aggregates-Part 103.2: Method for the determination of particle size
distribution

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239
CHAPTER 2: DEFINITIONS

2.1. Technical terms

2.1.1. Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test – this is a test which gives a relative
measure of the resistance of an aggregate crushing under gradually applied
compressive load

2.1.2. Air Pumping – a well development method that utilizes the pressure of air from a
pumping device

2.1.3. Aquifer - underground layer from which groundwater can be extracted and can be
in form of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials
(gravel, sand, or silt)

2.1.4. Backfilling – a construction activity whereby an earlier excavated area is refilled

with either with the material that was dug out of it or imported material

2.1.5. Batching - the measurement of the quantities of the materials (cement, sand,
stone and water) and introducing them into the mixing plant

2.1.6. Bid Evaluation – a process through which a procuring entity undergoes after bid
submissions to come up with a successful bidder

2.1.7. Bid Data Sheet – a section within the bidding document that provides general
information in the instructions to bidders such as submission deadlines, evaluation
procedures, regulations, adjudicator etc.

2.1.8. Bidding forms – a section in the bidding documents which includes the forms for
the Bid Submission, Price Schedules and Bid Security to be submitted with the Bid

2.1.9. Bills of Quantities – document used in tendering whereby

activities/materials/labour and their corresponding costs are itemised

2.1.10. Borrow material –earth material imported from elsewhere for use during earthworks

2.1.11. Certificate of Practical Completion – a certificate issued by the Engineer to the

Contractor following substantial completion of works as stipulated in the contract

2.1.12. Certificate of Final Completion – a certificate issued by the Engineer to the

Contractor following expiry of the Defects Liability Period

2.1.13. Code of practice – a set of written regulations issued by a professional association

or an official body that explains how people working in a particular profession
should behave

2.1.14. Cohesive concrete - concrete that is sticky enough to prevent coarse aggregate
from separating from the rest of the mixture when it is being transported, placed
and compacted

2.1.15. Concrete – construction material formed from sand, coarse aggregate and cement
when mixed with water

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2.1.16. Concrete bleeding- the process where water rises to the surface when concrete is
setting as the other mixture materials are heavier than water

2.1.17. Concrete compressive strength test – test carried out to assess the capacity of
concrete to withstand compressive load

2.1.18. Construction programming software – software that is used for construction

management activities during construction

2.1.19. Concrete Durability- the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical
attack and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties

2.1.20. Contingency Reserves – sum of money allocated to a project to manage identified

risks such as those resulting in scope variations

2.1.21. Contract forms – a section in the bidding document which includes the form for
the Agreement, which, once completed, incorporates corrections or modifications to
the accepted bid that are permitted under the Instructions to Bidders, the General
Conditions of Contract, and the Special Conditions of Contract

2.1.22. Contract management – process of managing contract creation, execution and

analysis with the objective of achieving the targeted deliverables on time, within
budget and to expected quality standards

2.1.23. Contract duration – time allocated to a contract from its start date to expiry date

2.1.24. Control chart – a graphical analysis quality tool used to assess how
measurements deviate from the expected measurement as work progresses

2.1.25. Commissioning – a milestone activity in construction projects that marks the

official commencement of operations for the built infrastructure

2.1.26. Defects Liability Period – period after completion of a construction project during
which the Contractor has the obligation to remedy construction defects

2.1.27. Demobilization - removal of Contractor‘s human, material and equipment

resources away from the construction site following either termination of the
contract or satisfactory completion of the works

2.1.28. Dimensional Control – execution of activities meant at ensuring that the

constructed structures are matching with the engineering drawings
2.1.29. Earthworks – a construction activity associated with movement, excavation and
compaction of earth material

2.1.30. Elevation control – execution of activities aimed at ensuring that the structure is
being constructed as per the specified elevations

2.1.31. Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) – a site specific document
which describes predicted impacts, recommended mitigation measures /
enhancement measures and a schedule for implementing these measures

2.1.32. Falsework – temporary works during construction which are carried out to support
the main work until such work has achieved sufficient capability to support itself

2.1.33. Form of bid - this is a section within the bidding document in which the contractor
declares his intent to carry out the works as per the contract
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241
2.1.34. Formwork – temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar
materials are poured

2.1.35. Flexural Bond Strength – highest stress of a material at its point of yielding in a
flexure test

2.1.36. Gantt chart – a horizontal bar chart developed as a project management tool for
planning, coordination and tracking specific tasks in a project

2.1.37. General Conditions of Contract – this is a section within the bidding document
that sets out the minimum expected performance of the Contractor in the contract

2.1.38. Geotechnical tests – tests aimed at determining physical properties of soil and
rock material

2.1.39. Gabions - Gabions are a form of retaining wall which is produced from individual
rectangular, wire mesh boxes that are partitioned inside

2.1.40. High tensile bars – round, ribbed surface steel bars with a yield tensile strength of
450N/mm2 or higher

2.1.41. Irrigation – artificial application of water to plants

2.1.42. Instruction to bidders - section in a bidding document that provides information to

assist Bidders' preparations

2.1.43. Large schemes - irrigation schemes with irrigation area of more than 500 hectares

2.1.44. Maximum Dry Density (MDD) - the highest dry density on the dry density-moisture
content graph as recorded in a Modified Proctor test

2.1.45. Medium schemes – irrigation schemes with irrigation area of more than 50
hectares but less than 500 hectares

2.1.46. Mini-schemes – irrigation schemes with net irrigable area of less than 10 hectares

2.1.47. Mobilization - preparation of camp site, transportation and delivery of plant,

equipment, personnel and construction materials for use during the construction
works

2.1.48. Mortar – a construction material formed from a mixture of sand and cement in
water which is used for bonding in brickwork and concrete block work

2.1.49. Mild steel bars – round, smooth surfaced steel bars with a yield strength of
250N/mm2

2.1.50. Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) – the moisture content at which fill material
exhibits highest dry density in a Modified Proctor test

2.1.51. Organic Content Test – a test carried out on sand to assess the content of organic
material present

2.1.52. Pre-bid conference - a conference conducted at least two weeks after the first
advertisement which gives an opportunity to aspiring contractors/consultants to
seek clarifications on both technical and administrative matters in the bidding
document
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
242
2.1.53. Procurement – process of finding, acquiring services or works from external
sources

2.1.54. Qualification and Evaluation Criteria - section in the bidding document that
describes the minimum expected requirements for a Contractor to be considered
for the contract

2.1.55. Rip rap - protection that is provided with broken rock or large stones of thickness
between 250 mm and 500 mm depending upon erosive forces such as wave

2.1.56. Schedule of requirements - section in the bidding document which describes the
List of Goods and Related Services, the Delivery and Completion Schedules, the
Technical Specifications and the Drawings that describe the Goods and Related
Services to be procured

2.1.57. Site Handover – function whereby the Client gives the Contractor authority to work
on the site which he/she has been awarded

2.1.58. Small schemes – schemes with irrigation area of 10 to 50 hectares

2.1.59. Special Conditions of Contract – conditions in the bidding document that are
peculiar to a specific contract

2.1.60. Strength control - execution of activities aimed at ensuring that the structure
achieves the specified strength

2.1.61. Standard gauge box – a 150mm x 150mm x 150mm box with handles usually
made from timber and is used as the standard measuring tool for construction
materials such as sand, cement and coarse aggregate

2.1.62. Statistical sampling – a quality control and assurance method that utilizes
representative samples from construction products in order to establish whether the
delivered product has met the required specifications

2.1.63. Setting – the change of concrete property from plastic to hardened state due to the
occurrence of hydration between cement and water

2.1.64. Sand - Fine aggregate that consists of 90-100% of its particles passing through a
square aperture of nominal size 4.75mm

2.1.65. Stress rapture test - a pipe test whereby a pipe sample is exposed to a hoop
stress of 420 bars at 200oC for a duration of 1 hour

2.1.66. Stress Relief test – a pipe test whereby a pipe sample is placed in an oven at
1500C then cooled

2.1.67. Sand Cone Test – a test conducted to establish relative density of a compacted
material

2.1.68. Soil Stabilization – a chemical or physical earthworks technique used to improve

properties of soil

2.1.69. Setting out – execution of activities that enable transfer of dimensional and
elevation properties of a structure from an engineering drawing on paper to the
actual site

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243
2.1.70. Stone pitching - type of erosion protection works that gives a fairly smooth surface
by firmly packed stones which are secured in place by mortar at the joints

2.1.71. Soding – type of erosion protection works which involves planting of grass

2.1.72. Thrust blocks - concrete structures constructed at the end of the pipeline, where
the pipeline changes direction and where the pipe branches into two or more
pipelines in order to resist the load due to additional pressure exerted at these
points.

2.1.73. Work Programming – production of a schedule of works to be done in a

construction project whereby activities are identified, logically sequenced and
realistic durations determined based on available resources

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244
CHAPTER 3: PROCUREMENTS OF IRRIGATION WORKS

3.1. Procurement Cycle

The procurement process to be adopted shall be aligned to the Public
Procurement and Disposal of Assets Act of 2017.In some cases especially
donor-funded projects, the funding agency may demand for additional
procurement steps. The following are the key stages in the procurement cycle
that shall be adopted:

3.1.1. Budget and Procurement Plan

A detailed procurement plan and its corresponding budget shall be prepared
and approved by management before commencement of the actual
procurement

3.1.2. Purchase requisition filled with clear specifications/terms of reference/scope of

works/bills of quantities
The designer(s) of the targeted irrigation system(s) shall ensure that the
specifications/terms of reference/scope of works/bills of quantities are very clear

3.1.3. Review of specifications/terms of reference/scope of works/bills of quantities

A Senior or Independent Design Engineer, in collaboration with the Designer(s)
who produced the specifications/terms of reference/scope of works/bills of
quantities, shall conduct a thorough review to ascertain their clarity and conduct
modifications where necessary

3.1.4. Review of procurement method

The Procurement Expert(s), in consultation with Engineers responsible for the
construction project, shall determine the most suitable procurement method to
be adopted.

3.1.5. Supply Sourcing

The Procurement Expert(s), in consultation with Engineers responsible for the
construction project, shall ensure availability of potential contractors on the
targeted market

3.1.6. Ascertain availability of funds

The Engineer(s) responsible for the construction project shall confirm with
management that funds for both procurement activities and the actual
construction works are available

3.1.7. Preparation of bidding documents

The Procurement Expert(s) shall prepare the bidding document in consultation
with the Engineer(s) responsible for the targeted construction project

3.1.8. Approval of the bidding document

Before an invitation to tender is done, the prepared bidding document should be
approved by:
 The Engineer responsible for the project and
 Management and/or Internal Procurement Committee

3.1.9. Invitation to tender

3.1.9.1. Advertisement in the form of either Request for Proposals (RFP) or Request for
Quotation (RFQ) shall be conducted.

3.1.9.2. Requests for clarifications from potential bidders shall be made to the procuring
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
245
entity through emails, letters or verbally during a Pre-bid conference

3.1.10. Receipts and opening of bids

The bids shall be received and opened at locations and times which are
specified in both the invitation to tender and bidding document

3.1.11. Evaluation of bids

The bids shall be evaluated in accordance with the evaluation criteria specified
in the bidding document. The key areas stages in the evaluation process shall
include administrative compliance, technical compliance, mathematical checks
and corrections and ranking of responsive bids

3.1.12. Review of Evaluation Report

Management/Internal Procurement Committee shall review and approve the
evaluation report presented by representatives of the evaluation team

3.1.13. Offer of Contract

Successful bidders shall be offered contracts following approval of the
Evaluation Report

3.1.14. Contract Negotiations

The Client and Successful bidder shall conduct negotiations regarding terms of
the contract centring on technical and administrative issues

3.1.15. Contract Signing

3.1.15.1. Prior to signing of the contract, often during contract negotiations, the
successful bidder shall be informed of any adjustments/ corrections which have
been made to his/her original bid including its impact upon the final contract
sum.

3.1.15.2. The contract shall be signed by at least one representative from both the Client
and the successful bidder

3.1.16. Publish the Award

The contract award shall be published in the media recommended in the
procurement plan

3.1.17. Performance Rating

The Engineer responsible for the construction project in collaboration with the
Procurement Expert(s) shall assess the performance of the Contractor in the
contract

3.2. Public-private partnership arrangement(ppp)

Where financing for irrigation development is either limited or non-existent, the

Government shall engage with the private sector to jointly execute the targeted
project. PPP arrangement shall be implemented using any of the following
approaches for irrigation infrastructure development:
• DBOM (Design, Build, Operate, Maintain)
• BOOT(Build., Own, Operate and Transfer)
• BOT (Build. Operate and Transfer)

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246
3.3. Contract management

3.3.1. Site Handover

3.3.1.1. Once the Contractor and Client have agreed on the contractual issues, a date
shall be set for site handovers

3.3.1.2. This activity should take place at the site targeted for construction works with
representatives of all key stakeholders of the project in attendance. During the
function, roles and responsibilities for each key stakeholder must be clearly
explained so as to avoid conflicts that may arise due to lack of understanding on
contractual obligations for all parties involved.

3.3.1.3. The Supervising Engineer must provide all relevant engineering drawings,
corrected bills of quantities and contract document either during or before this
function.

3.3.2. Mobilisation

3.3.2.1. The Engineer shall ensure that mobilization has been carefully planned. Timing
regarding when to deliver these resources is crucial as delays may lead to
failure to commence the works for which they are to be used for. Equally,
bringing plant and equipment too early before their scheduled use may lead to
unnecessary increase in idle time

3.3.2.2. Mobilization shall be planned as an activity within the construction programme.

3.3.2.3. Mobilization shall include establishment of camp site, transportation and delivery
of plant, equipment, personnel and construction materials for use during the
construction works.

3.3.3. Site establishment

3.3.3.1. The need for site establishment should always be catered for in the
Preliminaries and General (P&G) section of the bills of quantities. Site
establishment shall include:
• Identification of land or property for use as site office –
• contractors/consultants office
• Setting up of storage place for construction materials
• A laboratory where the site is far away from the laboratory testing
centres
• Identification of water supply

3.3.3.2. When setting up a camp, the Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor has
taken the following into consideration:
• Compliance with all legal and regulatory issues - all legal issues relating
to the planned camp site as well as local, state and national government
regulations must be strictly adhered to
• Water supply – water of right quality and quantity must be made
available to meet the needs of both the site personnel and construction works
• Electricity – electricity for security of the camp, running of equipment and
machinery and general lighting for personnel must be provided for
• Residential houses or camp – workers must be allocated proper
accommodation with adequate sanitary and hygiene facilities
• First Aid facilities – these must be provided for in case of injury.
Furthermore, workers must be provided first aid trainings
• Camp security - shall be seriously considered to deter outsiders from
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tampering with construction facilities and workers from stealing.
• Fuel storage – where there will be need to set up fuel tanks on site,
security of the tanks and prevention of fire accidents must be seriously taken
into consideration.
• Sufficient space for car parking, stocking of materials and storage of
plant and equipment
• Safety measures – warning signs, directive signage
• Accessibility – camp should be accessible and there should be enough
service roads

3.3.4. Ferrying and Storage of Construction Materials

Ferrying and storage of construction materials shall be done before the
scheduled time for utilization of the materials

3.3.4.1. The assessment of material needs during construction planning shall include the
type and quantities of materials available within the vicinity of the project area,
including their haulage distances. This information shall assist the Contractor in
determining and scheduling quantities of materials to be brought to the site in
order to maintain the flow of the construction works and reduce downtime.

3.3.4.2. As much materials as possible shall be brought to the site early, mindful of the
storage requirements, in order to reduce risks of downtime due to transport
breakdowns or adverse weather conditions.

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3.3.4.3. The Engineer shall ensure that the following materials are transported and
stored as follows:
• Sand - Tippers, trucks, tractors and flat lorries shall be used to ferry sand
from the source to the construction site where it is stored in heaps. The heaps
shall be made on areas free from organic matter and as close as possible to the
batching plant
• Cement - Tippers, trucks, tractors and flat lorries shall be used to ferry
cement from the source to the site. Cement shall be stored off the floor in a
waterproof shed. Cement pockets shall be closely stacked to a height of not
more than 12 pockets and shall not be stacked against the walls of the shed.
Bulk supplies of cement shall not be permitted unless all cement is used before
3 months. All cement must be used in the order in which it was received.
Cement for use in construction of irrigation systems should not be older than
three months after its date of manufacturing. This is because cement which has
stayed more than three months reduces in strength.
• Coarse aggregate - Tippers, trucks, tractors and flat lorries shall be used
to ferry sand from the source to the construction site where it is stored in heaps.
In hot weather that is above 300C, coarse aggregate shall either be stored in a
shade or sprayed with water to keep it cool.
• Timber - Tippers, trucks, tractors and flat lorries shall be used to ferry
timber from the source to the construction site Timber should be protected from
exposure to rain before use on site.
• Pipes - Pipes and fittings shall be carefully packed to protect them
against damage during transportation. They shall not come into contact with
sharp objects, nor project beyond the body of the vehicle transporting them but
shall be well secured along their full length. Rubber joint rings shall not be
contaminated with either oil or grease. Before uPVC pipes are delivered to the
construction site, they must be stacked to a maximum height of 1.5 m high (or
about 7 pipe layers) under a covering on pipe racks. Pipe racks must provide
support to the full length of the pipe. Pipes with different diameters shall be
stacked together by inserting smaller diameter pipes inside the larger diameter
pipes. Once on site, the uPVC pipes shall be stored on level ground that is free
of sharp objects and stacked not more than 1 m high in a stack, formed by cross
formation of pipes. Pipes must be stored under a shed.Pipes must be delivered,
unloaded, stored and handled in dry, weatherproof, waterproof condition in a
manner that prevents damage, breakage, deterioration, intrusion, ignition, and
vandalism.
• Steel reinforcement - Tippers, trucks, tractors and flat lorries shall be
used to transport steel reinforcement. Steel reinforcement shall be kept in a dry
storage place which is free from dust and oil.

3.3.5. Drawings

3.3.5.1. The Engineer shall confirm that the benchmark elevations shown on all layout
drawings are a true reflection of their measured values on the ground before
commencement of setting out of the works

3.3.5.2. Any noted discrepancy between these two sets of data shall be reported to the
Supervising Engineer for necessary corrections and/or adjustments. In addition,
during setting out, any mismatch between the drawing and the actual situation
on the ground shall be reported to the Supervising Engineer.

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3.3.5.3. The drawings to be used shall, at a minimum, comprise the following:
• Be prepared to standard, for example British Standard (BS 308) or any
other applicable standard
• Be listed on the drawing schedule
• Have a unique reference number
• Have any amendments clearly indicated and dated
• Have a title block with the name of the Client, Engineer, Draughts
person, as well as the drawing scale and date

3.3.5.4. Construction shall be based on approved construction drawings evidenced by

an Engineer‘s signature and stamp.
3.4. Contract administration

3.4.1. General

3.4.1.1. The Contract shall be administered by the Engineer responsible for the
construction project in collaboration with the Procurement Expert under the
leadership of the Project Manager.

3.4.1.2. The Engineer shall monitor progress to ensure that all contractual obligations
are being adhered to.

3.4.2. Variation orders

The Engineer shall assess the essence of changing the expected
cost/duration/quality parameters as proposed by the Contractor or Client or
other key stakeholders. Where such a proposal is deemed acceptable by the
Client through its Project Manager, the Engineer shall formally issue a written
Variation Order on the same to the Contractor

3.4.3. Use of contingency reserves

The Engineer shall issue a request to use contingency reserves to the Client
through its Project Manager. Only Client-approved amounts of the contingency
reserves shall be used.

3.4.4. Presence of key personnel

. The Engineer shall always ensure that key personnel incorporated in the bidding
document are available on site as per the labour resource calendar. Incoming
personnel as replacement shall be of higher or similar experience and
qualifications to the one being replaced unless there is a revision to the scope of
works. The Engineer shall suspend the works whenever absence of key
personnel is discovered during the execution of construction works

3.4.5. Work programming

3.4.5.1. The Contractor shall provide a tentative programme of works in his bid
submission which should be updated at the commencement of the construction
works.

3.4.5.2. The Engineer shall instruct the Contractor to provide a revised work programme
whenever a significant variation to the prevailing version has occurred (see
Annex A for a description of how a work programme can be produced using a
Gantt chart).

3.4.6. Contract duration

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3.4.6.1. The Engineer shall ensure that physical progress is in tandem with the work
programme .Where the Contractor has delayed in some of the activities being
implemented, countermeasures to prevent delays shall be made by the
contractor through updating the work programme and resource calendar

3.4.6.2. The Engineer shall enforce the liquidated damages' clause if the Contractor has
been found to be at fault in delivering within the contract duration

3.4.7. Progress Reports

The Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor submits monthly progress reports
with the following information as a minimum: progress charts in the form of
Gantt chart, comparison of actual versus planned progress, cash flow
forecasting, detailed descriptions of progress, materials on site, Contractor‘s
photographs showing progress on the site, test results, payments honoured by
the Client, list of correspondences made in the month, challenges and
countermeasures

3.4.8. Site meetings

The Engineer shall ensure that site meetings are conducted as follows:
• Weekly site meetings – to be attended by site staff representing all
parties to the contract
• Fortnightly meetings – to be attended by site team from all parties and
District Council representatives
• Monthly Site Meetings – to be attended by high level representatives
with the authority to make decisions, including those who attend both fortnightly
and weekly meetings.

3.4.9. Communication Channels

3.4.9.1. The Engineer shall ensure that written communication is used when giving or
issuing the following: Approvals, certificates, consents, determinations, notices,
requests and discharges. Minutes of site meetings shall also be in written form.

3.4.10. Record keeping

The Engineer shall ensure that all records pertaining to delivery of the
construction project are kept safe for future reference. Such records include:
climatic data, daily personnel and plant availability, work performed, materials
used, materials remaining on site and information about site visitors on daily
basis.

3.4.11. Site Instructions

The Engineer shall issue instructions and additional or modified drawings which
may be necessary for the execution of the Works and the remedying of any
defects. Instructions from the Engineer, or from an assistant to whom the
appropriate authority has been formally delegated shall be deemed valid by the
Contractor for his/her action.

3.4.12. Checking material and equipment availability

The Engineer shall ensure that approved construction materials and equipment
for the work that has been planned are available before approving
commencement of such works.

3.4.13. Demobilization
The Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor has addressed the following
issues before certifying payment for demobilization:

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• All known defects have been rectified
• All equipment including broken down equipment have been removed
• Spoil disposed off and all unused materials have been removed
• All outstanding wages and debts have been paid by the Contractor in
accordance with the prevailing labour laws of Malawi
• All access areas have been restored to the same condition prior to the
start of the work.
• As-built drawings have been produced and submitted to the Client
• Backfilling of borrow pits

3.4.14. Testing and Commissioning of an irrigation system

4.4.14.1 The Engineer shall approve execution of site handover tasks by the
Contractor when the constructed structures have been tested in terms of
functionality and confirmed to be in conformity with the requirements as per the
approved designs. The checks on functionality and operational aspects of the
system shall include the following key tasks:

• Checks on possible faults on control gates

• Verification of accuracy of gauges for water measurements
• Checks on possible leakages within the system
• Check on whether the designed irrigation methods and procedures are in
tandem with the built irrigation system

3.4.14.1. The Engineer shall ensure that there is involvement of the targeted end-users
for the system during both interim and final checks upon the system to ensure
that they get acquainted with the system and also confirm that the system is
working as per the expectations.

3.4.14.2. Commissioning of the irrigation system shall be done after site handovers from
the Contractor to the Client have been conducted

3.4.15. Site inspection

The Engineer shall conduct site inspections to assess work progress, quality
and safety measures during construction. The Engineer shall deploy Site
Inspectors to assist in day-to-day supervision and monitoring of works.

3.4.16. Retention
The Engineer shall ensure that five percent (5%) of the amount certified as due
to the Contractor is retained by the Client on each interim certificate. An amount
equivalent to 2.5% of the total retention money shall be released to the
Contractor after issuance of Certificate of Practical Completion. The remainder
shall be released after the expiry of defects liability period and issuance of
Certificate of Final Completion.

3.4.17. Defects remedy

The Contractor shall be responsible for the cost of completing outstanding works
and the remedying of defects which fall under his/her responsibility.

3.4.18. As-built drawings

The Contractor shall prepare and submit as-built drawings upon completion of
the construction project. The Engineer shall check and approve the As-built
drawings.

3.5. Closing procurements

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3.5.1. The Contractor shall submit the final certificate once the expected deliverables
as agreed in the contract have been accepted by the stakeholders

3.5.2. The Engineer shall ensure that all outstanding payment issues are addressed in
the final certificate so that the Contractor is neither overpaid nor underpaid.

3.5.3. The Engineer shall ensure that all documents related to the contract are kept
safe for reuse, referencing or audit purposes in future. This includes all files in
both hard copy and digital form.

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CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTION PLAN

4.1. General
Construction of irrigation schemes in Malawi shall take place in three main forms
supervised by the Engineer. These include:
i. Construction by farmers.
ii. Construction by local artisans.
iii. Construction by a hired, registered contractor

Strategies (i) and (ii) are normally deployed in mini-schemes, small and medium.
Strategy (iii) is mainly used in medium to large schemes and the scope of work
is substantial. In all cases, planning for construction is crucial because meeting
quality, cost and time targets for construction, is always the goal for such
projects.

4.2. Quality Management

4.2.1. Three aspects of quality management

Quality management has three components: Quality Planning, Quality Control
and Quality Assurance

4.2.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the three aspects of quality management are
being put to practice before, during and after construction. These include Plan
quality management, Perform quality assurance and Control Quality.

4.2.2. Quality planning

4.2.2.1. The Engineer overseeing construction works must thoroughly understand the
quality requirements set by the designer of the irrigation system. Each
expected quality target for the structures and construction material
components as specified in drawings, technical specifications and bills of
quantities shall be noted during planning stage. Some of the aspects of quality
targets for irrigation structures are tabulated below:

Table 27 Key quality parameters for iirigation system components

No. Structure Quality parameters
1 Canals Maximum dry density for compacted canal embankment,
canal slope, canal width, canal side slope, canal depth ,
material for finished surface area , etc
2 Pipes Pipe material, operating pressure, length, diameter
3 Pipe fittings Operating pressure, fitting type
4 Pump Pump horsepower, pump type(mobile or immobile, fossil
fuel powered or electric powered or solar-powered,
manual pumps, submersible or surface pumps)
5 Gates Gate type, operating pressure, Gate size
valves
6 Weir Weir type, weir material composition, type of river bank
protection works, apron size and material composition
7 Water Devices type, maximum and minimum measurement,
measuring material composition
devices

4.2.2.2. The Engineer shall ensure that construction materials have the expected
specifications that must be taken into consideration during planning. Key
parameters of specifications for construction materials commonly used in

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irrigation and other structures are as shown in Table 28 below:

Table 28 Commonly used construction materials in irrigation

No. Construction Quality parameters
Material
1 Coarse aggregate Aggregate crushing value, flakiness index,
2 Sand Organic content, material grade
3 Cement Type
4 Concrete Compressive strength at 28 days, size of coarse aggregate,
sand-cement-coarse aggregate mix ratio
5 Pipes Pipe type, operating head, diameter , length
6 Mortar Sand-cement mix ratio
7 Fill material Maximum dry density , liquid limit , plasticity index , material
grade
4.2.2.3. Based on information highlighted in 5.2.2.1 and 5.2.2.2, the Engineer shall
determine:
• Required quantities for construction materials
• Required construction equipment
• Methodologies to be adopted during construction in order to meet the
quality, time and cost targets
• Personnel with expertise to deliver according to the set requirements
• Quality-related measurements to be taken during construction

4.2.2.4. The Engineer shall use the information in 5.2.2.3 as basis for supervision of
works and provision of technical and administrative advice to the Contractor.

4.2.3. Quality Control

The Engineer shall ensure that Quality control is being carried out to assess
whether quality targets are being achieved as the construction plan is being
executed. This shall involve monitoring and recording results as devised in the
quality plan. The Engineer or his/her delegated representative shall witness
the quality tests.

4.2.3.1. Quality control in canal construction

4.2.3.1.1. Strength control in canal construction

The Engineer shall ensure that the concrete mix design, compressive strength
of concrete lined canals, mortar mix for stone masonry canals and specified
maximum dry density for fill material in canal embankment are meeting the
technical specifications described in the drawings and other relevant design
documents

4.2.3.1.2. Dimensional control in canal construction

The Engineer shall check through measurements that the constructed canal
has met the specified length, width and depth of canal under construction. This
shall be executed by checking these dimensions with a measuring tape using
the following intervals:
• Every 5m for a canal of maximum length of 50m
• Every 10m for a canal with length more than 50m and less than 200m
• Every 25m for a canal with length of more than 200m
(Note: these dimensions are for quality control checks after completion of the
canal in question. During construction, the regular chainage can be ignored.
Instead, random checks at irregular chainages must be considered)

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4.2.3.1.3. Elevation control in canal construction

4.2.3.1.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the bed slopes for constructed canals are as
per the specified gradient in the relevant canal profile drawing. Thus, at each
point, the following elevations are either shown on canal profile drawing or can
be calculated:
• Canal bed elevation
• Designed water level
• Top Embankment/Cut level

A typical canal profile is shown in Figure 15 below:

Figure 15 Typical canal profile

4.2.3.1.3.2. The Engineer shall check the elevations through the use of any of the following
survey equipment:
• RTK GPS
• Dumpy level
• Total station and
• Theodolite

4.2.3.2. Quality control in pipe laying

4.2.3.2.1. Elevation control in pipe laying

4.2.3.2.1.1. The Engineer shall refer to design drawings, especially the pipeline profile
drawings, in ensuring that the following elevations are set out correctly. The
elevations that are provided shall include:

4.2.3.2.1.2. The Engineer shall ensure control of elevations during construction through the
use of any of the following survey equipment:
• RTK GPS
• Dumpy level
• Total station and
• Theodolite

4.2.3.2.1.3. At any given chainage, the Engineer shall ensure that elevations between
designed values as shown on engineering drawings and the actual values are
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matching.

4.2.3.2.2. Pipe joining control

There are two main types of joining techniques for uPVC pipes: use of injection
mould adhesive and pipes with rubber ringed sockets.

4.2.3.2.2.1. Where injection mould adhesives are to be used as a pipe joining technique,
the Engineer shall ensure that the required pipe joining processes as per the
instructions on the adhesive package are strictly followed to ensure high
quality joints.

4.2.3.2.2.2. Where joining of pipes using rubber ring sockets has been specified, the
Engineer shall visually check that the rubber rings are visible when viewing the
pipe internal details at the socket end

4.2.3.2.3. Water tightness check

The Engineer shall ensure that pressure testing for the pipeline is conducted
before burying the pipes to ensure that there are no leakages at joints along
the pipeline. The test shall be carried out by conveying water along the
targeted section using pressure that does not exceed one and a half times of
its maximum operating pressure. Inspections shall be carried out at all joints.

4.2.3.2.4. Backfilling control

4.2.3.2.4.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the width of trench accommodates the targeted
method of compaction when backfilling. Where either a hand rammer or
pedestrian roller will be used, the width of the trench shall accommodate their
sizes and required working space for the operator of these equipment. Thus,
for a hand rammer with diameter of 30cm, at least 50cm space on either side
of the laid pipe will suffice. As for a pedestrian roller, a working width of at least
650mm on either side of the laid pipe is adequate. Backfilling using a portable
hand rammer shall be carried out by simultaneously compacting fill material in
layers of 75mm. Thereafter , when fill material has been compacted up to
10cm above the crown level of the pipe, layers should be increased from 75 to
150mm until completion of the backfilling process.

4.2.3.2.4.2. The Engineer shall ensure that trench backfilling is done up to 50mm above
the original ground level to avoid formation of a depression along the trench
line once settlement of the fill material has occurred.

4.2.3.2.5. Stability of thrust blocks

4.2.3.2.5.1. The Engineer shall ensure that thrust blocks are constructed at the end of the
pipeline, where the pipeline changes direction and where the pipe branches
into two or more pipelines.

4.2.3.2.5.2. When constructing thrust blocks, the Engineer shall check that the right
concrete mix proportions as specified in the design are being used.

4.2.3.2.5.3. The Engineer shall check the stability of the constructed thrust blocks during
pressure testing of the pipelines

4.2.3.3. Quality control in other irrigation-related structures

The Engineer shall ensure that elevation and horizontal dimensions being
used during construction of irrigation structures are being maintained as
indicated in the construction drawings. Checks on elevation and horizontal
dimensions shall therefore be conducted during setting out, as construction is
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in progress and after completion of construction

4.2.3.3.1. Mortar and concrete mix control

4.2.3.3.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that mortar for joints of construction materials and
concrete for the structure being built are as specified in their relevant
construction drawings

4.2.3.3.1.2. The Engineer shall ensure that only Standard Gauge boxes measuring 300
mm x 300mm x 300mm are being used when mixing either mortar or concrete
components

4.2.3.4. Quality tools irrigation scheme construction

The Engineer shall utilise Control charts and statistical sampling as the two
main tools that in the analysis of results for compaction test and concrete
compressive test (see Annex B for descriptions of the tools).

A typical example of a control chart is displayed in Figure 16:

Figure 16 Control chart for concrete in line with BS 5323 requirements for concrete test results

4.2.4. Quality Assurance

The Engineer shall confirm quality control outcomes and determine trends and
countermeasures to address occurrences of non-conformity of constructed
structures. Records obtained from quality control activities shall be used to
perform quality assurance which is more of an audit on how quality standards
are being adhered to.

4.2.5. Cost Management

4.2.5.1. The Engineer shall ensure that that the total project cost also includes
contingencies which may be put to use when unforeseen developments
eventuate

4.2.5.2. The Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor produces a planned cost
analysis(S-curve) for the project which is in line with his/her programme of
works (see Annex A for a description on how this can be produced).The S-
curve for actual costs shall be superimposed on the S-curve for the planned
costs
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4.2.5.3. The Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor‘s progress report comprises a
section in which progress of costs and their forecasts in the project are
explained to a greater detail

4.2.5.4. The Engineer shall ensure that cost changes in the project undergo a due
process as described in the contract document .Involvement of the Project
Manager and other key stakeholders when making decisions for cost changes
shall be required as a means of ensuring transparency and accountability in
the project.

4.2.6. Environmental and Social Management in Irrigation Development

4.2.6.1. Relevant legal instruments, policies and Acts

Any form of construction brings about positive and negative impact upon the
environment and social status within the communities around the site.
Environmental and Social Management issues pertaining to construction of
irrigation schemes is governed by the following relevant instruments,
legislations, and policies:
• The Malawi Constitution, 1994
• Environmental Management Act (EMA), 1996
• National Environmental Policy, 2004
• Water Resources Act, 2013 and National Water Policy, 2005
• National Irrigation Policy (NIP) , 2016
• Irrigation Act, 2001
• Local Government Act, 1998
• Occupational Safety, Health and Welfare Act (1997)
• The Malawi National Health Policy (2012)
• Town and Country Planning Act, (1988)

4.2.6.1.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor adheres to the implementation
of the project‘s Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMPs) during
the entire project period. A sample of key construction related points in the
ESMP is in Annex C
.

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259
CHAPTER 5: CONSTRUCTION

5.1. Construction Materials

5.1.1. Individual construction materials

5.1.1.1. Cement
There are different types of cement depending on raw materials and additives
used. These additives may be incorporated to improve properties such as
setting times, durability, strength, working conditions and permeability. Most
commonly used is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Other types include
Sulphate- resisting Portland cement, Blast furnace slag cement and Portland
limestone cement.

5.1.1.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the appropriate cement is being used during
construction as specified

5.1.1.2. Fine aggregate

These are mainly obtained from three possible sources:
• Natural disintegration of rock
• Mechanical crushing or milling of rock
• A composite mixture of the two sources

5.1.1.2.1. The Engineer shall ensure that fine aggregates comprise at least 90% of its
particles that can pass through a 4.75 x 4.75mm hole on a sieve. Sand must
be free from organic content, too much dust or any other chemical that may
cause damage to concrete or steel reinforcement.

5.1.1.2.2. The Engineer shall ensure that key geotechnical tests to assess suitability of
sand for use in construction are conducted prior to use in accordance with BS
812 .The tests shall include Organic Content test and Particle Size Distribution
test (see Annex E for descriptions of the tests).

5.1.1.3. Coarse aggregate

The common coarse aggregate nominal sizes for irrigation construction works
are 9.5mm, 19mm and 40mm.

5.1.1.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure that two of the key tests to determine suitability of
coarse aggregate namely particle size analysis and aggregate crushing value
are conducted prior to use (Refer to Annex E for descriptions of the tests).

5.1.1.4. Steel products

The main products made from steel that are used in works within an irrigation
scheme include reinforcement, steel sections and steel sheets.

5.1.1.4.1. Steel reinforcement

Steel reinforcement provides tensile strength as concrete is only strong in
compression.

5.1.1.4.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that bar bending schedules for steel reinforcement
is incorporated

A typical bar bending schedule is shown in Figure 17.

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Member Bar Mark Type and No. in Total No. Total Bending
Size each Length (mm)
(mm)

Operating Deck Slab

80 80
(Total No. 1) 01 Y10 10 10 20600
1900

Operating Deck Slab (Total

80 80
No. 1) 02 Y10 20 20 21200
900

Figure 17 A typical bar bending schedule

Steel reinforcement is in two main forms:

• Mild steel bars – these have a smooth surface texture and their yield
tensile strength (strength at which steel loses its elasticity) is 250N/mm2. Mild
steel bars can also come in form of wire mesh for smaller diameters which are
used for reinforcement of concrete slabs
• High tensile bars –these have a ribbed surface texture with yield
strength of 450N/mm2 or more. These are produced in 12m lengths.

5.1.1.4.1.2. The Engineer shall reject the steel reinforcement is rusty, dusty or oily as these
disturbs the bonding capability between reinforcement and concrete.

All steel reinforcement come with a mill certificate from the factory which
shows the steel properties such as tensile strength, elasticity and ultimate
tensile strength.

5.1.1.4.1.3. The Engineer shall check the information on the mill certificates to confirm
whether the steel reinforcement‘s properties provided are matching with the
ones specified in the structural drawings and specifications.

5.1.1.4.2. Steel sections

Steel sections are used as beams for roofing and small footbridges. They are
also used as handles for structures such as steel gates and guard rails at
inspection gates for large headworks. Common steel sections include I-
sections, U-sections, angles, and hollow sections.

5.1.1.4.2.1. The Engineer shall check the information on the mill certificates to confirm
whether the steel section‘s properties provided are matching with the ones
specified in the structural drawings and specifications.

5.1.1.4.3. Steel sheets

Steel sheets for construction work are usually galvanized (i.e. coated with zinc)
during production to prevent corrosion. Steel sheets may be corrugated or in
inverted box ridge (IBR) form for roofing purposed or flat for use in irrigation
control structures such as sluice gates. Thickness of steel sheets required for
construction works is usually specified in the drawings or bills of quantities (26
gauge, 28 gauge, etc).

5.1.1.4.3.1. The Engineer shall check the information on the mill certificates to confirm
whether the steel sheet‘s properties provided are matching with the ones
specified in the structural drawings and specifications.

5.1.1.5. Timber
Timber can be used in small structures for irrigation systems such as canal
gates and rarely division boxes. Other uses of timber include partitioning,
roofing and formwork during construction of concrete structures. Hardwood

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timber is recommended for use in making canal gates for irrigation systems.

5.1.1.5.1. The Engineer shall ensure that timber protection from damage due to rotting,
termites or wood borers has been conducted through the use of wood
preservatives

5.1.1.6. Pipes and fittings

The most common pipes used in irrigation are un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride
(uPVC) and polyethylene (PE) pipes. Pipes can be subjected to and withstand
any given operating pressure, provided they are manufactured to withstand
that pressure.

5.1.1.6.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the pipes to be used have the manufacturer‘s
trade name or trade mark, the class of the pipe, the nominal size of the pipe
and batch identification whereas fittings shall in addition have the size, shape
and form of the thread in the case of threaded adapter bushes. Adhesives for
use in joining pipes shall also have the manufacturer‘s trade name or trade
mark of product suitable identification of the product, date of manufacture,
words such as ‗FLAMMABLE‘ and batch identification.

5.1.1.7. Fill material

Fill material in construction of irrigation infrastructure is mostly required during
embankment formation for a canal in fill. Soils for fill can be sourced from cuts
onsite or borrow pits located offsite.

5.1.1.7.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the fill material is suitable for embankment
formation by confirming that the following geotechnical parameters are met by
the sample of the proposed fill.

Table 29 Requirements for suitable fill material

No. Test Requirement
1 Sieve analysis No particle shoul be more than 100mm in size
40% should be the maximum percentage of
soil particles passing through 0.075mm sieve
2 Plasticity index Plasticity index should not be more than 30%
3 Maximum Dry Density(MDD) MDD should not be less than 1500kg/m3

5.1.2. Composite construction materials

Composite construction products are made from a mix of individual

construction materials. Such products include concrete and mortar.

5.1.2.1. Concrete
Concrete is formed from a mixture of specified proportions of cement, fine
aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (crushed stone or natural pebbles) and
water. It is the most preferred construction material because it can be formed
into almost any shape when it is still fresh, and when hardened it can achieve
the strength required for most types of structural work.

5.1.2.1.1. Properties and components

Concrete has three main constituents namely, cement, fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate. These are mixed using water.

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262
5.1.2.1.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that water used for making concrete is clean and as
a rule, water suitable for drinking is suitable for concreting

5.1.2.1.1.2. The Engineer shall disallow concreting without using a concrete mixer

5.1.2.1.1.3. The Engineer shall ensure that a vibrating poker is being used when casting
concrete to ensure high quality concrete.

5.1.2.1.2. Batching, concrete mixtures and mixing

5.1.2.1.2.1. The Engineer shall direct the Contractor to carry out trial mixes for concrete
classes required in the project prior to the actual construction of the structures
in order to ensure that the quality of concrete is not compromised in the
construction works. This shall normally be done during the mobilization period
in the presence of the Engineer and/or Site Inspector. The Engineer shall only
approve the mixes that meet the strength requirements for use in the
construction works.

5.1.2.1.2.2. The Engineer shall ensure that batching is being done correctly as it affects
the workability, strength and cost of concrete. The quantities for construction
materials shall either be measured by volume or by mass.

The most common used concrete mixes and their estimated 28 day strengths
are as shown in Table 30:
Table 30 Common concrete mix proportions
Cement:Sand:Agg Approx. strength at 28 days
Ratio (N/mm2)
1:1:2 35
1:2:3 25
1:2:4 20
1:3:6 15
1:4:8 10

Concrete shall be properly mixed to the required workability which depends on

the amount of water. The correct cement/water (c/w) ratio depends on the
concrete grade, nominal stone size and type of compaction used. Time
between addition of water to the mix and placing shall not exceed 60 minutes.

Loading of the material shall start with stone and most of the water followed by
cement, sand and water to make up to the required volume and mixing shall
be long enough to get the proper mixture normally 1.5 to 2 minutes. As a
guideline, the approximate time required for one mix of concrete in a small
mixer with a capacity of up to 500 litres is as follows:

Table 31 Approximate time for handing concrete

Activity Time
filling 3 minutes
mixing 2 minutes
offloading 3 minutes
Extra 2 minutes
The Contractor shall avoid overloading the concrete mixer and make sure that
the mixer is cleaned at the end of a shift. The concrete mixture shall not be
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
263
allowed to dry out. The entire batch shall be discharged from the mixer before
recharging.

5.1.2.1.3. Transporting, placing, compacting and curing concrete

5.1.2.1.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure that concrete is transported as quickly as is

possible so that the quality of the concrete is not affected by:
• drying up
• losing workability
• contamination by soil or dust
• dilution with water
• segregation of the components

5.1.2.1.3.2. The Engineer shall not allow concrete placing to take place under the following
conditions:
• When temperature is below 5 degrees Celsius or above 30 degrees
Celsius
• When it is raining .If the rains started whilst concreting was in progress,
the area where concrete has already been poured must be covered by plastic
sheets to prevent rain water from increasing water content in the concrete.
Concreting must only re-start after the rains have stopped
• When there are strong winds blowing

5.1.2.1.3.3. The Engineer shall ensure that the newly placed concrete is cured properly by
covering the concreted area with a wet sack cloth or by continuous application
of water for at least 2-4 weeks.

5.1.2.1.3.4. The Engineer shall ensure that any cavities in the concrete surface, caused by
form ties, minor honey combs, broken corners or other defects are thoroughly
cleaned, saturated with water for at least an hour and filled with mortar of 1:1
mix.

5.1.2.1.3.5. The Engineer shall ensure that concrete undergoes both slump test and
compressive strength tests (see Annex 13 for descriptions of the tests).

5.1.2.1.4. Removal of formwork and falsework

The Engineer shall ensure timely removal of both formwork and falsework for
concrete works. As a guide, the minimum days from date of casting concrete
to the date for removal is as follows:
• Beam sides, walls and unloaded columns: 1 day
• Slabs with props left in place: 4 days
• Beam soffits with props left in place: 7 days
• Slab props: 10 days
• Beam including beam cantilever props: 14 days

5.1.2.2. Mortar
The Engineer shall ensure that the mortar mix being used during construction
matches the specifications on construction drawings and bills of quantities

5.1.2.2.1. Properties of mortar

Mortar has two distinct, important sets of properties: those in the plastic state
and those in the hardened state. The plastic properties help to determine the
mortar‘s compatibility with brick and its construction suitability and include
workability, water retention, initial flow and flow after suction. Properties of
hardened mortar help to determine performance of the finished blockwork and
include flexural bond strength, durability, extensibility and compressive
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264
strength.

5.1.2.2.1.1. . The Engineer shall ensure that mortar is used within 2½ hours after initial
mixing

5.1.2.2.2. Common mortar mixes

Sand and cement shall be mixed dry, before adding water. Common
mortar mixes by volume are:

Table 32 Common mortar mixes by volume

Mortar
Cement Bags Fine Aggregate
Mix
3
(1 bag of 50 kg = 40 litres) m
1:2 14 1.12
1:3 10 1.2
1:4 8 1.28
1:5 7 1.4
1:6 6 1.44

5.1.2.3. Soil Stabilized Blocks (SSBs) and Concrete/Cement blocks

Burnt bricks, SSBs and Concrete/Cement blocks shall be used for building
vertical walls for irrigation structures. A desirable soil for use in production of
SSBs must consist of gravel, sand, silt and clay. The recommended range of
the fines content is from 20-30%.Concrete blocks are made from a mixture of
sand and cement. The blocks are compacted and cured properly.

5.1.2.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure that prior to mass production, samples of cement
blocks and SSBs to be used in the works meet the minimum expected
compressive strengths as specified in the drawings and other relevant
documents.

5.2. Construction works

5.2.1. Earthworks
5.2.1.1. General
Earthworks involve operations such as excavations, preparation of surfaces,
embankment or fill construction and compaction. However, there are other
activities that may be performed before earthworks construction begin such as
clearing and removal of top soil. Earthwork operations shall take into
consideration all archaeological, governmental, religious, cultural and
environmental issues.

5.2.1.2. Clearing
The Engineer shall ensure that clearing has been carefully planned and
executed with particular attention to both short and long term effects that may
be brought about due to soil erosion. From the start of the construction works,
attention should be paid to the effects of the construction works upon the
surrounding landscape. The haphazard bulldozing or dumping of cleared
vegetation should be prohibited. Unwarranted damage of vegetation around
the construction site should not be allowed. This also applies to the
management of borrow areas.

5.2.1.3. Removal of Topsoil

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The top 150mm of top soil is considered as agricultural soil with organic
content from roots of plants. This soil is not suitable for construction works.

5.2.1.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure that top soil up to the depth of 150mm is removed
and stockpiled for reuse at a later stage at both the construction site and
borrow pits

5.2.1.3.2. Volume of stripped top soil shall be measured jointly between the Contractor
and the Engineer to avoid disagreements on the quantities. The stripped soil
volume shall generally be established by multiplying the area stripped by the
average depth of stripped soil. Where other methods for calculation of volume
have been indicated in the technical specifications, the Engineer shall use
them.

5.2.1.4. Excavation Operations

5.2.1.4.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the Contractor is handling fill material during
excavation as specified in the bills of quantities. Where this is not clearly stated
in the bills of quantities, the Engineer shall determine the most economical
option to be used

The following are the options used when handling fill material during
construction:

• Cut to fill - where the material excavated can be re-used within the
project site
• Cut to spoil - where the material excavated is not suitable for the re-
use, and must be disposed of in the most appropriate way
• Cut to stock pile - where the material excavated can be re-used on a
later date.

5.2.1.4.2. The Engineer shall ensure that the excavated materials are correctly classified
as either rock or common excavation.

: These two classes are described below:

• Rock excavation- excavation in material which requires drilling and
blasting or use of hydraulic or pneumatic jackhammers to be loosened and to
be loaded for transportation to disposal, fill or stockpile.
• Common excavation-excavation in all materials other than rock as
defined above

5.2.1.5. Protection of excavated pits and trenches from collapsing

The Engineer shall ensure that bracings to support excavated sides against
collapsing through the use of planks and props is being carried out during
construction. Alternatively, excavating trenches with battered/slanting sides
must be used.

5.2.1.6. Drainage
The Engineer shall ensure that all necessary precautions are taken to secure
the site against the introduction of surface water, sub-surface of groundwater
where earthworks are being done. This operation frequently entails the
temporary diversion of natural drainage water or pumping away from the site
works. Precautions shall be taken to ensure that control of surface water within
the construction site does not interfere with or disrupt the water supply to
downstream users.

5.2.1.7. Identification of suitable Borrow material

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Borrow material as per the required quantities and geotechnical parameters
shall be identified at borrow pits and where possible, within the site where cuts
will be essential. Recommended geotechnical tests for samples of earth
material have been covered under Annex E. These tests shall be done to
ensure that only suitable earth material is being used in the construction
works.

5.2.1.7.1. The Engineer shall approve the borrow areas, indicating specific requirements
for working limits, access restraints, working method and final shape
characteristics.

5.2.1.7.2. The Engineer shall ensure timely acquisition of resource permits and
approvals to avoid unacceptable delays on the contract.

5.2.1.7.3. The Engineer shall ensure that the borrow areas conform to the adjoining
landform when finally restored

5.2.1.8. Dimensions of Cuts or Excavations

5.2.1.8.1. The Engineer shall ensure that dimensions of cut or excavations are in
accordance with details on the drawings which may be amended by an
instruction from the Engineer. In rock cuts or excavations, the rock shall be
excavated to the level that will allow the construction of the subsequent top
layers for the fill or embankment.

5.2.1.8.2. The Engineer shall order all cuts made outside the specified line of cut or
below the specified level without his/her approval to be backfilled with
approved material. This shall be compacted to the Engineer‘s satisfaction and
re-trimmed.

5.2.1.8.3. The Engineer shall ensure strict control of levels on site to avoid unnecessary
costs.

5.2.1.9. Undercutting
The Engineer shall ensure that all unsuitable material are excavated and
replaced by suitable material. The removal of unsuitable foundation material
from areas where filling is to be placed is classed as undercutting. Such
unsuitable foundation materials shall include materials which contain a high
percentage of organic matter (i.e. peat and soft plastic clays).

5.2.1.10. Construction plant/equipment for earthworks

The Engineer shall ensure that the plant/equipment earmarked for use are in
good working condition. Where this is not the case, the Engineer shall order
either replacement or repair of the plant/equipment

5.2.1.11. Filling
The Engineer shall ensure that fill material is being handled, laid and
compacted in manner that the specified compaction and shape requirements
on the finished product can be achieved.

5.2.1.12. Cut to Stockpile Material

The Engineer shall ensure that excavated material undergoes geotechnical
tests to ascertain its suitablitiy as fill material. Where the material is technically
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267
declared as being suitable for fill material, it should be used as such.
Excavated material that is unsuitable should be used as backfill.

5.2.1.13. Fill Compaction

Soil compaction increases the unit weight of soil through application of either
dynamic or static load. The load reduces air and water in the voids thereby
forcing solids into a tighter state. In any soil, there is a specific moisture
content that makes it to possess the maximum unit weight. This optimum
moisture content and its corresponding maximum dry density are determined
through Modified Proctor test in the laboratory (see Annex E). For canal
embankment formation, granular, well graded fill material is the most suitable
soil that produces best results. In irrigation canal embankments, 95% of the
maximum dry density is the recommended minimum for granular fill material.

5.2.1.13.1. The Engineer shall order a trial run for compaction works before the actual
compaction programme commences. The results of the trial run shall be used
as basis for compaction methodology to be used during construction. Annex E
describes compaction and trial run procedures

5.2.1.14. Material improvement

Earthworks material with the required properties may not always be available
to meet the required specifications. As such, existing material shall be
improved to make it suitable through soil stabilization.

5.2.1.14.1. The Engineer shall determine the soil stabilization technique to be used
whenever need arises.

The two main soil stabilization techniques namely mechanical and chemical
stabilization are described below:
• Mechanical Stabilization -improves soil properties by adding missing
components whereby insitu soil is mixed with imported materials and
compacted.
• Chemical Stabilization - Improves the properties by mixing with
materials such as cement or lime. Mixing can be done either by dynamic
machines such as grader or stationary plant such as a concrete mixer.

5.2.1.15. Canal construction

5.2.1.15.1. Setting out canals

The Engineer shall approve the setting out of the designed elevations, vertical
and horizontal alignments. Survey instruments such as dumpy level, total
station, RTK GPS and theodolites shall be used. Measuring tapes should also
be used to measure distances. Prior to approval, the Engineer shall check that
the following have been executed:
• Survey point intervals of not more than 20m have been established
along the canal alignments so that important details are not missed out. In
small farms, this interval shall be limited to 10m.
• Significant changes in elevation along the canal location have been
marked as key chainages even if their corresponding chainage do not coincide
with the chosen interval.
• The pegs at the established chainages have been painted to show the
embankment finish level.
• Transversely, pegs have been installed to show the extent of
embankment bottom width at each established chainage.

5.2.1.15.2. Canal construction

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268
5.2.1.15.2.1. The Engineer shall ensure that clearing and stripping off of unacceptable
material is done along the canal route. The strip shall be as wide as the bottom
width of the canal embankment.

5.2.1.15.2.2. Embankment formation shall be done either manually or mechanically

depending on either the specifications or direction from the Engineer. This
shall be achieved by using a grader/hoes/scraper when moving fill material
and compacting equipment when compaction is taking place.

5.2.1.15.2.3. After canal embankment formation is complete, the Engineer shall ensure that
excavation for the canal section is being done with control of wooden profiles
and/or survey equipment to achieve specified vertical and horizontal
dimensions. Excavation shall be done either manually using hoes or
mechanically using an excavator with a special bucket which can excavate to
required canal shapes. This process of excavating canal sections also applies
to canals in cut.

5.2.1.15.2.4. Blinding
The Engineer shall ensure that the specified thickness and required sand
properties are being used during blinding

5.2.1.15.2.5. Concrete Lining

Lining canals improves durability and efficiency as it prevents seepage losses,
scour and erosion, excessive aquatic weed growth, reduction of maintenance
cost and allow for increased curvature. Concrete/stone masonry / earth
material shall be used for lining. In cases where weep holes have been
incorporated in the design, these and their filters shall be put in place before
lining is done.

Concrete lining shall be either cast in-situ or precast concrete

5.2.1.15.2.5.1. The Engineer shall recommend either in-situ lining where the canal sides are
not too steep and water is available for curing or precast concrete lining where
access to water along the targeted canal locations may be challenging.

5.2.1.15.2.5.2. For Pre-cast lining, the Engineer shall recommend size of slabs that are easy
to handle (3m maximum length). Formwork that is recommended for precast
slabs is either steel or timber. The ratio of cement/sand/stone for concrete
shall be as specified in the design.

5.2.1.15.2.5.3. The Engineer shall ensure that concrete canal panels shall be laid in alternate
bays. Construction of the middle panels must done at least after 24 hours.

5.2.1.15.2.5.4. After curing, the Engineer shall ensure that joints between concrete panels are
filled up with bitumen or any other recommended joint seal to avoid leakage.

5.2.1.15.2.5.5. The Engineer shall ensure that a layer of 50mm thick sand blinding is used
over a compacted canal base to protect the canal lining from cracking in cuts
occurring along sections comprising clayey soils.

5.2.1.15.2.6. Stone masonry lining

5.2.1.15.2.6.1. The Engineer shall ensure that stones selected for canal lining are dense,
smooth faced, durable and abrasion resistant.

5.2.1.15.2.6.2. The Engineer shall ensure that the mortar mix ratio and thickness of stone
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269
masonry canal as specified in the drawings and bills of quantities are being
used

5.2.1.16. Pipe laying

5.2.1.16.1. Setting out Pipelines

5.2.1.16.1.1. The Engineer shall approve the setting out of pipeline prior to commence of
excavation. The Engineer shall check that the following have been done before
approval:
• Centreline pegs for the pipeline including offsets indicating the extent of
excavation have been installed
• The centre line pegs of trenches match with coordinates indicated on
the horizontal alignment profile drawings
• The extent of trench excavation is to a width that can accommodate
pipe diameter and adequate working space (at least 0.5m).

5.2.1.16.1.2. The Engineer shall check the vertical alignment of invert levels for the pipeline
by referring to pipeline profiles.

5.2.1.16.2. Trenching
Trenches shall be dug either manually by using picks and shovels or
mechanically by using an excavator.

5.2.1.16.2.1. The Engineer shall order blasting where rock outcrops are encountered during
excavations and it is still deemed imperative to remove the outcrops. Local
techniques may also be considered by the Engineer when dealing with rock
outcrops, like heating and fast cooling to weaken the rocks and then hitting
them with a hammer.

5.2.1.16.3. Bedding
The Engineer shall ensure that the bottom of the trench is level or of a uniform
slope so as to accommodate the full length of the pipe. Where an uneven
trench bottom is encountered, especially in rocky or hard ground, a 10 cm (or
at least one third of nominal diameter) fine back-fill or bedding should be
provided. This layer shall be back-filled, using suitable bedding material such
as free-draining coarse sand, gravel, loam or a soil of friable nature, and be
levelled. In the case of fittings, excavation in the back-fill shall be made to
accommodate the fitting.

5.2.1.16.4. Pipe laying

For uPVC piping less than 200 mm in diameter, either an injection-mould
adhesive type of fitting or an integral rubber ring is be used. For sizes larger
than 250 mm diameter, a rubber ring end socket is used. Larger diameter
pipes shall be mechanically jointed.

5.2.1.16.4.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the pipes to be joined are clean of dirt.

5.2.1.16.4.2. The Engineer shall ensure that all the solvent cleaners, adhesives and
lubricants used in joining pipes are those recommended by the manufacturer
of the pipe or fitting. Caution shall be taken on the handling of solvent cleaners
and adhesives because they are highly volatile.

5.2.1.16.4.3. When joining pipes using adhesives, the Engineer shall ensure that the
lubricant have been applied up to the witness groove and the alignment of the
pipe up to the coupling. Where jointing is not done immediately, the pipes must
be temporarily closed in order to avoid the entrance of animals or dirt and
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
270
temporary closures shall be opened on re-commencement of pipe laying.

5.2.1.16.5. Back-filling
The Engineer shall ensure that side filling is being done in 75 mm thick layers,
using fine material for the fill after checking that the levels of all joints are
correctly set out. The layers must be tamped, ensuring that the joints are left
exposed. Tamping shall be done simultaneously on both sides of the pipe, in
order to avoid misalignment. This must continue up to a height of two thirds of
the pipe diameter, or up to 10 cm above the crown when the material is spread
over the whole length of the pipeline except the joints. Beyond that, the rest of
the back-filling shall be done in layers of 15-30 cm. The trenches shall be over-
filled to allow for settlement. The space between the joints must be backfilled
after the pipeline has been pressurized and the joints inspected to confirm that
that there are no leaks. All pipes shall be backfilled once they are installed in
order to prevent them from floating due to either rainwater or groundwater.

5.2.1.16.6. Pressure testing and flushing of the system

5.2.1.16.6.1. The Engineer shall ensure that testing of pipelines is done to ensure that the
pipe joints are water-tight and that the permanent concrete thrust blocks are
capable of resisting the load. Normally, at least 7 days shall be allowed after
constructing the last thrust block before the system is tested. By this time, the
last thrust block should be able to withstand the load.

5.2.1.16.6.2. When pressure testing, the Engineer shall ensure that the pressure being used
does not exceed one and half times the maximum working pressure. Valves
and all other outlets shall be opened and closed slowly.

5.2.1.16.6.3. The Engineer must ensure that flushing, which is intended to remove all the
dirt that inevitably gets into the system during pipe laying is done for a couple
of hours with the flush valves at the end of the lateral lines open. The flushing
process shall be stopped once clean water starts coming out of the valves.

5.2.1.17. Water Storage, Control and distribution structures

5.2.1.17.1. General
Water storage, control and distribution structures commonly used in irrigation
schemes include dams, night storage reservoirs, weirs, energy dissipating
chambers, distribution boxes, and spillway and drop structures.

Before any construction of water storage, control and distribution structures,

proper setting out must be done to avoid both horizontal and vertical
dimension errors. Pegs and survey equipment such as RTK GPS, Total
Station, Dumpy level and theodolites are used.

5.2.1.17.2. Dam embankment

5.2.1.17.2.1. The Engineer shall ensure that setting out commences with pegging along the
proposed location for embankment centerline, top and bottom widths. Where
the dam has been designed to have a key trench, its key dimensions in plan
must be also be set out to guide on the extent of excavations.

5.2.1.17.2.2. The Engineer shall ensure that excavation of key trench is carried out to
depths and sectional shape as provided in the drawings for the designed dam
.In most cases, mechanically operated machines such as excavators are used.
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271
However, manually digging the trench is also acceptable for very small dams.

5.2.1.17.2.3. The Engineer shall ensure that filling of key trench and the construction of dam
embankment is done as explained in 6.2.1.22 and Annex E where fill material
handling and compaction is discussed.

5.2.1.17.2.4. The Engineer shall ensure that the upstream side of the dam embankment is
protected with grass or stone pitching works or any other specified protective
measure to prevent erosion. The downstream side requires stone pitching to
avoid scouring of the embankment.

5.2.1.17.3. Water control and distribution structures

5.2.1.17.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure correct setting out so that the elevation and location
of the built structure matches with the specifications in the relevant drawings
for both the structure and entire system layout. Elevation and location of these
structures is critical as they are set to satisfy design requirements of the
operational aspects for the irrigation system.

5.2.1.17.3.2. The Engineer must ensure that care is being taken on selection and handling
of the materials as well as skill of the mason.

5.2.1.17.3.3. The Engineer shall ensure that the following steps are taken during
construction of infield water control and distribution structures such as division
boxes, tail end structures, drop structures, manholes and flumes:
• Setting out - The proposed site for the structure shall be set out to mark
the designed exact location, dimensions and elevations.
• Clearing and stripping off top soil-The area on which the structure is to
be constructed shall be cleared from existing vegetation and/or rubble.
Stripping off of top soil from the site shall be conducted thereafter.
• Construction of foundation -The foundation shall be laid as specified in
the drawings supplied by the Engineer. Foundation details shall include
foundation size, blinding, hard core, reinforcement and material requirements.
In cases where there are significant discrepancies between the design details
and the actual site conditions, the Engineer shall determine the required
modifications that should not negatively affect the functional requirements of
the structure.
• Walls -Walls shall be constructed following completion of foundation.
The walls shall be constructed as per the design specifications for material
type, mortar or concrete mix proportions, size and height.
• Plastering - Where plastering has been specified in the drawings, walls
shall be plastered using mortar mix proportions provided in drawings and/or
bills of quantities
• Curing - Plaster and concrete portions of the walls and foundation shall
be allowed to cure properly. This shall be achieved by covering
concrete/plastered wall with a wet sack cloth or by continuous application of
water for at least 2-4 weeks. Floor slabs shall be overlaid with 50mm thick
sand and frequently watered.
• Gates and Valves - For structures with gates and/or valves, installation
shall be based on their instruction manual

5.2.1.17.4. Erosion Protection Works

5.2.1.17.4.1. Stone Pitching

This type of protection gives a fairly smooth surface by firmly packed stones
which are secured in place by mortar between the stone joints.
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272
5.2.1.17.4.1.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the stones are laid perpendicular to the slope
with the thickness that has been specified in the drawings.

5.2.1.17.4.2. Rip rap

This is protection that is provided with broken rock or large stones of thickness
between 250 mm and 500 mm depending upon erosive force such as wave.
The individual stone pieces weighing between 5 and 25 kg shall be placed
loosely on top of the slope.

5.2.1.17.4.2.1. The Engineer shall ensure that before the stones are laid, at least 100 mm
thick layer of well-graded gravel is provided underneath the rip-rap when there
is a danger that fines may be washed away from the embankment material
through wave action.

5.2.1.17.4.3. Soding works

Erosion protection works also include seeding of grass, which is a cheap and
effective protective measure. Short growing or creeping varieties give good
results (e.g. star grass).

5.2.1.17.4.3.1. The Engineer shall ensure that at least 100mm thick top soil is laid before
seeding grass, particularly when poorly weathered sub-soil material is placed
in the embankment

5.2.1.17.4.4. Gabions
Gabions are a form of retaining wall produced from individual rectangular, wire
mesh boxes that are partitioned inside.

5.2.1.17.4.4.1. The Engineer shall ensure that gabion boxes are stacked in a stretcher bond
fashion as in brickwork and placed in layers against the surface which is being
retained.

A typical gabion placement arrangement is shown in Figure 18 below

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273
GABION WALL

Legend

gabion boxes
natural drainage takes place through stone filling
ground surface

Figure 18 General gabion placement arrangement

5.2.1.17.4.5. Reno mattresses

Reno mattresses are similar to gabions except the fact that they have lesser
thickness, smaller mesh and stone sizes. They are mainly used on surfaces
that are not very steep. Mattresses shall be mostly used next to water
channels where scour protection is essential.

5.2.1.17.4.5.1. The Engineer shall ensure that reno mattresses are stacked in a stretcher
bond fashion as in brickwork and placed in layers against the surface which is
being retained.

A typical reno mattress placement arrangement is shown in Figure 19 below

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274
MATTRESS WALL

Ma ttres s uni ts l a i d a cros s the joi nt the s l ope i n a s ta ggered fa s hi on

Legend

mattress
sloped and protected embankment
surface
The mattress is laid across the slopewith joints staggered

Water

Figure 19 General Reno mattress placement arrangement

5.2.1.17.5. Drainage Works

5.2.1.17.5.1. The Engineer shall ensure that drainage works are implemented on sites that
are potentially at risk from progressive drainage problems.

Such sites are characterized by the following:

• Poorly drained soils
• Flat surface gradients
• A water table which is close to the surface
• An underlying impermeable layer.

There are two main types of drains: surface and sub-surface drains:

5.2.1.17.5.2. Surface drains

These are drains that are constructed on the surface in order to:
• Prevent water from ponding on land surfaces or in surface drains that
are crossed by farm equipment
• Remove excess water in time to prevent damage to crops
• Accomplish the above without excess erosion.

5.2.1.17.5.2.1.
The Engineer shall ensure that setting out of surface drains is conducted in a
similar manner as setting out of canals as described in under 6.2.1.15.1.

5.2.1.17.5.2.2. The Engineer shall ensure that construction of surface drains is conducted in a
similar manner as construction of unlined open canals as described in
6.2.1.15.1 and 6.2.1.15.2.3 and leaving out the scope on construction of
embankment

5.2.1.17.5.2.3. The Engineer shall ensure that the gradient, elevation and dimensions of the
drains are matching those provided in the specifications of the design.

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5.2.1.17.5.3. Sub-surface drains
Subsurface drains are drains constructed below the ground. These drains are
preferred in fields with high water table. These drains are made from
perforated PVC pipes, reeds, rocks amongst others.

5.2.1.17.5.3.1. During setting out of sub surface drains, the Engineer shall ensure that the
drain route is marked longitudinally with pegs.

5.2.1.17.5.3.2. The Engineer shall ensure that vertical alignment for the drain is controlled at
design grade by utilizing grading devices i.e. survey equipment and wooden
profiles.

5.2.1.17.5.3.3. The Engineer shall check the final trench levels by using a minimum of four
targets that are set along any given line of continuous grade. Each target shall
be set for depth of cut as indicated by its respective grade stake. Alternatively,
manual grade control with visual sight bars and targets can be used for
trenching operations. To govern alignment, direction and grade stakes shall be
set 30 m or less apart on straight lines and 15 m or less on curves for all drain
lines to be constructed. They shall also be set at all intersections of mains and
points of grade change.

5.2.1.17.5.3.4. The Engineer shall ensure that the trench width is the minimum required to
permit installation of the drains and provide bedding conditions that are
suitable to support the load on the drain. If the trench is excavated below the
designed grade, it shall be filled with gravel and tamped sufficiently to provide
a firm foundation. The bottom of the trench shall be shaped to grade. A width
of 500mm is appropriate to provide for working space of installation personnel.

5.2.1.17.5.3.5. In unstable or fluid soil conditions, the Engineer shall ensure that bracings
have been provided to protect the sides of the trench from collapsing until the
drain has been properly laid and blinded. Excavation of these drains shall start
from the downstream end for easy drainage during construction.

5.2.1.17.5.3.6. Soon after excavation is complete, the Engineer shall ensure that drainage
installation begins immediately with proper bedding. In the case of perforated
PVC-piping, a layer of sand of 150mm shall be laid from trench bottom to the
design levels. These bedding finish levels shall be checked to ensure
conformance to design specifications. The following is the chronological order
of the subsequent steps to be followed:

• Commencement of back filling to avoid pipes floating in the water

logged conditions
• Covering of pipes with another layer of sand with minimum thickness of
150mm coarse grained material
• If tubing is used, inspection boxes shall be incorporated to clean
blockages at specified intervals.
• If rocks are used for the sub surface drainage, a filter (an impervious
mat) specified in the design shall be used to wrap around them to avoid soil
clogging up the system.
• A sand and gravel envelope designed as a filter may be used. Where
this type of filter material is not available, artificial prefabricated filter material
shall be used.
• Where fiber glass filter material is used, it should be the type that is
manufactured from borosilicate-type glass and it shall be certified suitable for
underground use. The fibers shall be of variable size, with some larger fibers
intertwined in the mat in a random manner. Any damaged areas shall be
replaced before backfilling.
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• Backfilling up to the finished level specified in the designs.

5.2.1.17.6. River Training Works

A stable section of the river is normally identified as the most suitable site for
constructing water abstraction structures. However, some interventions are
required in order to guide the river to flow within the channel, improve the flow
characteristics, without causing erosion of the banks.
River training shall be done in order to provide good flow characteristics
through a water abstraction structure. River bank protection is required
upstream and downstream of the structure.
These protection works include gabions and Reno mattresses which have
been discussed earlier

5.2.1.17.7. Irrigation Well

Irrigation well construction consists of the drilling operation, installing the well
inlet, and casing, packing material, and protecting the quality of the aquifer.

5.2.1.17.7.1. Placement of equipment and materials.

The Engineer shall ensure that all equipment and materials placed in the well
are installed in a manner which meets design specifications, unless some
good and sufficient reason is encountered during construction to deviate from
design specifications. Any change shall first be approved by the Engineer in
form of a variation order.

5.2.1.17.7.2. Borehole
The Engineer shall ensure that the borehole is round, plumb, straight, and of
adequate diameter to permit satisfactory and proper installation of the inlet,
well casing, and pack material.

5.2.1.17.7.3. Inlet
The Engineer shall ensure that the screen or perforated sections are handled
carefully and placed at the correct depths to match the desired formations.
When the well is to be packed, the entire length of the inlet shall be centered in
the borehole by the placement of centering guides at vertical intervals of about
6 m to insure that the pack material will fill the entire intake area uniformly. The
centering guides shall be placed 90 degrees apart circumferentially.

5.2.1.17.7.4. Casing
The Engineer shall ensure that the casing is relatively plumb and straight to
permit installation and operation of the pump. The usual requirement for
plumbness of casing and screen is that it shall not deviate from the vertical by
more than two-thirds the casing diameter per 30 m of depth as determined by
gaging. The deviations shall be reasonably consistent regarding direction. A
normal standard for straightness requires that a 12 m long bucket (bailing
bucket or pipe) with a diameter of 25 mm less than the casing be lowered
freely to the total depth of the well or to the deepest possible pump setting.

5.2.1.17.7.5. Pack material

The Engineer shall ensure that pack material is placed carefully to prevent
separation and bridging. The use of a tremie will help prevent layering of
material caused by different rates of settling, bridging of pack materials, and
non-uniform placement of pack material in the intake area. Thin packs that are
uniform in size shall be added from the surface if done very slowly.

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5.2.1.17.7.6. Drilling fluid additives
The Engineer shall ensure that unconsolidated formations are sealed in order
to prevent excessive loss of drilling fluids. Natural clays shall be placed in the
drilling fluid to temporarily seal the pores in the borehole walls. However, these
introduced materials shall be removed during the development process.

5.2.1.17.7.7. Aquifer protection

The Engineer shall ensure that the upper 3 to 6 m of the annular space
between the borehole and the well casing is carefully filled with material that
does not contain potentially harmful bacteria or chemicals. A cement grout
shall be used in this space to prevent surface water entering the aquifer
through the area around the well casing. If the natural water level in the ground
is less than 6 m, the cement grout shall extend down to the static water level.
Surface casing is appropriate for additional protection. State regulations shall
be consulted for additional requirements regarding aquifer protection.

5.2.1.17.7.8. Construction certification.

The Engineer shall issue a certification that the well was constructed in such a
manner as to satisfy all original design specifications. Any modifications of the
original specifications shall be included in the certification.

5.2.1.17.7.9. Well development

It is necessary to develop the well to obtain its maximum capacity for a given
drawdown. The developing process removes fine material from the formation
near the well screen, thereby opening the passages so that the water can
enter the well more freely. The process is accomplished by forcing water in
and out of the screen openings.

5.2.1.17.7.9.1. The Engineer shall ensure that all fine material pulled into the well during the
developing operation has been removed from the well before installing the test
pump.

5.2.1.17.7.10. Well development methods

Often, more than one method is used to successfully develop a well. The
method used to develop a well shall be selected based upon the geological
makeup of the aquifer.

• Development by surge block or swab- After the casing and filter pack (if
required) have been installed, the well is thoroughly surged or swabbed. The
surge block is alternated with the use of a bailer to keep the screen and casing
clean.
• Development by bailing-Although not a highly recommended method,
the bailer alone shall be used in a similar manner as that of a surge block in
wells with diameters greater than 200 mm. The bailing unit shall have a line
speed of at least 2.5 m/s during hoisting (5 m/s is recommended) and free-fall
during lowering of the bailer. The bailer shall fit closely inside the casing being
no less than 50 mm smaller than the well inlet. The bailing unit shall be
capable of removing at least 2 L/s continuously for 1 hour from 200 mm
diameter well to 8 L/s from 400 mm diameter wells.
• Development by pumping- Development by pumping shall be employed
as an additional or final development step when used in conjunction with other
methods. It is not recommended as a singular method of development. A
pump shall be supplied for this method and may be the same pump used for
the well test. The suggested procedure for pump development is to begin
pumping at about one-fourth or one fifth of the desired yield of the well and to
continue pumping until the water becomes clear. Then the well shall be surged
by turning off the pump, allowing the water to run back into the well, and then
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pumped again. This process of alternating pumping and not pumping
continues until no sand is pumped at the first discharge rate. The process is
repeated at 50, 75,100 and if possible 125% of the desired well yield.
• Development with chemicals-Numerous chemicals are used to aid in
well development. Several polyphosphates are available to disperse clays and
mud cakes. Acid may be used in limestone formations to enlarge openings and
improve production.
• Development by jetting -Development by high-pressure hydraulic jetting
shall be required to remove the foreign material and fines that accumulate in
the formation during the drilling process. If practical, the well shall be pumped
during the jetting process to remove the fine particles.
• Development by air pumping- Air pumping shall be accomplished by
injecting a high volume of compressed air in the well which causes an uplift
action which provides a surging effect. A more effective air pumping method
utilizes a double-packer tool to selectively develop the well inlet.

5.2.1.17.7.11. Well testing

The Engineer shall ensure that the well is adequately tested for discharge and
drawdown characteristics with a test pump after the well is developed and the
discharge is free of sand.

5.2.1.17.7.12. Static water level

The Engineer shall ensure that the static water level in the well is measured
with an air pressure device, wetted tape, or a standard electrical depth device
prior to test pumping. The measurement shall be made at least 12 hours after
any work has been done on the well that may have disturbed the water level.

5.2.1.17.7.13. Pumping water level

For test pumping purposes, the Engineer shall ensure that the water level is
lowered substantially below the desired or anticipated production pumping
level. The lowest level normally attempted is that which results from a rate
equal to 125% of the desired pumping rate after equilibrium is reached.

5.2.1.17.7.14. Pumping rates

5.2.1.17.7.14.1. Several patterns of pumping rates can be used in pump testing a well. The
Engineer shall ensure that the pattern selected is based on the type of
information desired such as aquifer constants, degree of well development,
maximum discharge within permissible drawdown, and acceptable discharge
for pump selection. It is important that the pumping test provides adequate
data for efficient pump selection. The required data include:
i. Maximum discharge -If problems in the continuity of the water supply
are not anticipated, the one flow rate which gives the lowest allowable
pumping water level is the maximum discharge rate. This flow rate shall be
maintained until the drawdown remains stable for a minimum of 1 hour, and
the entire test shall never be less than 8 hours. However, test periods of 24
hours or more are preferred, especially in aquifers with low permeability.
ii. Decreasing step-drawdown test-This pattern of pumping rates is
suitable for determining the range of acceptable discharges for selecting the
permanent pump. The first pumping rate and pumping time is described in
4.7.5.3(i). At the end of the first pumping period the rate is reduced to
approximately 80% of the initial pumping rate. This rate is continued until the
discharge and pumping water level in the well remain constant for at least 30
min. Then the process is repeated for pumping rates of 60, 40, and 20% of the
initial pumping rate. Each pumping rate shall continue until the discharge and
pumping water level remain constant for at least 30 min.
iii. Constant discharge test- A constant rate test may be specified to
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determine certain aquifer characteristic coefficients. The well is pumped at the
established rate or other specified rate criterion without substantial variations
in rate for the time period required. Periodic measurement of pumping rate
shall be recorded during the test period.

5.2.1.17.7.14.2. The Engineer shall ensure that pumping water levels are being measured and
recorded.
The following are the two recommended time schedules that can be used:

i. Regular intervals - Water level measurements shall be made every 5

min for the first 30 min of pumping, every 10 min for the next hour, every 30
min for the next 4.5 hours, then every hour for the duration of the test
measured in the same time sequence for at least 50% of the elapsed pumping
time.
ii. Logarithmic intervals- Pumping water levels shall be measured with
sufficient frequency so at least 10 data points are located throughout each
logarithmic graph cycle. For example, depth is measured at approximately 1,
1.2, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 min after the start of the test. Then
measurements are continued at all succeeding decimal multiples of these
intervals to the end of the test, e.g., 10, 12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80,
100, 120, 150 min.

5.2.1.17.7.15. Continuity
The Engineer shall ensure that the pump is not stopped during the pumping
test period. If the pump is stopped for less than 1 hour, the test may be
resumed, but measurements shall not be recorded until the water level in the
well has remained steady for 1 hour. If a constant rate test is being conducted
the test shall not be resumed until a sufficient recovery period has allowed the
static water table to return to its original level. The complete test shall then be
restarted.

5.2.1.17.7.16. Data recording

The Engineer shall ensure that the flow rates (discharge) and pumping water
levels are being measured accurately and recorded for each pumping rate test.
The rate shall be measured with a standard orifice, flow meter, or other
measuring device with an error of less than 5%. Water level measurements
shall be accurate to 30 mm, if possible.

5.2.1.17.7.17. Aquifer protection

During and after all testing work, the Engineer shall ensure that the well is
properly protected to prevent the entry of foreign material and contaminated
water from any source. This would include capping the well casing, covering
the well bore, and grading the land surface to prevent surface water entry.

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CHAPTER 6: EVALUATION OF A CONSTRUCTION PROJECT

6.1. General
Evaluation of project performance is conducted after completion of the project
as this is a very important aspect of ensuring continuous improvement by
every implementer.

6.2. Review and Analysis of construction project data

6.2.1. Review and Analysis sessions

6.2.1.1. The Engineer shall facilitate the review sessions aimed at reviewing how the
project has performed at any point in time.

Six main areas of focus on how the construction project has performed at any
given period are:

• Cost – how the actual costs varied with planned costs during the
project period and the causes of the variations
• Schedule – how planned schedule varied with actual progress and the
causes of the variations
• Cash flow – how planned cash flow varied with actual cash flow and
the causes of the variations
• Quality – patterns of quality data, frequency of failed tests, etc. and
causes of variations between planned and actual quality of deliverables
• Safety – how the frequency of occurrences of injury incidences faired
during project implementation
• Stakeholder satisfaction- the extent to which achieving expected results
excellently has delighted the Client, targeted end users and other key
stakeholders

6.2.1.2. The Engineer shall ensure that data related to these key areas of focus is well
managed and stored during the entire project period. Most of the key sources
for such data have been discussed in this document. These include:

Table 33 Sources of project data for performance review

Source Data
Work programme schedule data (both actual and planned)
Cash flow S-curve Cost data –actual versus planned, cumulative
actual versus cumulative planned
Control charts Quality data – test results and patterns
Site diary Safety incidences ,
Questionnaire Client/End-user/other key stakeholders‘ level of
survey satisfaction
Monthly Progress All relevant information can be retrieved from
Reports these reports
6.3. Documentation of lessons learnt
Findings and observations made during the review of project performance
shall be recorded. Recommendations made from these findings and
observations shall form basis for formulation of lessons learned document. A
lessons learned document enables the team undergoing its production, extract
key points which have proven to be practices worth adopting during
construction. These shall become the best practices for construction in the
subsequent projects.
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6.4. Project Completion Report

6.4.1. Report format

6.4.1.1. The Engineer shall prepare a comprehensive report regarding the ended
project which should have the following sections as a minimum:

• Executive summary – this is the summary of the report

• Review and analysis – this is a section that discusses issues described
in 7.2.1.1 and 7.2.1.2
• Recommendations – this section deals with presentation of major
improvement actions following review and analysis of the project data
• Lessons learned – description of lessons learned during execution of
the project as stated in 7.3
• Appendix – this section incorporates back up data or details of analysis
that other may wish to follow up

6.5. Project Technical Audit

6.5.1. General
The objective of a Technical Audit is to assess the performance of both the
Engineer and Contractor towards delivery of their services to the Client. It aims
at establishing the extent to which the Engineer and Contractor conducted
themselves in alignment with their contractual obligations. The technical audit
must be conducted by an Independent, Qualified and Experienced Registered
Engineer. In this Project Technical Audit Section, the term ―Engineer‖ shall
mean an Independent, Qualified and Experienced Registered Engineer who
has been assigned to undertake the Technical Audit.

6.5.2. Timing of conducting a Project Technical Audit

6.5.2.1. The Engineer shall ensure that the Technical Audit is conducted in a timely
manner and in accordance with his/her contractual obligations. The audit can
be done during the following stages, depending on the needs of the Client:
• Early stages of the construction period, after the Contractor has
established on site
• Around midway through the construction period, when the construction
works are at a maximum rate of production
• At the end of the project, at least four weeks before issuance of a
Certificate of Substantial Completion

6.5.2.2. The Engineer shall acquaint himself/herself in project related documentation

by undertaking the following actions:
• Read project documents to thoroughly understand the scope of works
• Carefully study tender documents, bills of quantities and tender
evaluation report
• Review contract documentation including the contract, drawings,
technical specifications, materials reports, test records, measurement and
payment data, site correspondence, minutes, monthly progress reports,
construction programme and its updates etc
• Conduct site visits to inspect how the works are being executed
• Assess the Consultant‘s quality assurance procedures including the
laboratory equipment , test methods and other general procedures

6.5.2.3. Based on findings obtained under 7.5.2.2, the Engineer shall analyse them
and produce recommendations
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6.5.2.4. The Engineer shall produce a Technical Audit Report that describes the
objectives, methodology, findings and recommendations

6.5.2.5. The Engineer shall acknowledge and confirm to the Client that the Contractor
and Consultant have addressed the issues raised in the report before the
Client issues a Certificate of Substantial Completion to the Contractor.

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ANNEXES

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Annex 1: Description of Gantt chart and a Demonstration on basics of how a construction
programme is built

General
A work programme is the backbone for monitoring construction progress and must therefore be
planned properly. The essence of a work programme is to ensure that:
 Timing for completion is being targeted as a key priority
 Cash flow requirements are planned and met in advance to avoid unexpected delays due to
financial problems
 Sequencing of activities is logical and realistic
 A baseline to determine whether good or bad progress is being attained in the course of the
project
In Malawi, construction programmes are generally produced in form of a Gantt/Bar chart. In this
code of practice this tool is recommended for construction activities due to its ease in being
integrated within simple computer programmes such as excel. Other tools such as PERT and
Network diagrams require advanced commercial software such as Microsoft Projects and Prima
Vera which may not be legally accessible to most organizations involved in irrigation projects in
Malawi.

Formulation of a Gantt Chart

Gantt Chart production undergoes the following major steps: Activity identification, Activity Duration
Estimates and Resource Needs Estimates and Production of a Gantt Chart
Activity Identification
Identification of activities that must be carried out to come up with any constructed facility requires
technical know-how as well as practical experience. Therefore, an Irrigation Engineer needs
exposure to every form of construction activity that is carried out on site. With such experience and
technical know-how, the Engineer determines the list of activities that need to be done to achieve
the project objectives. This also includes knowing about the logical sequencing of the activities that
have been identified.
Activity Duration Estimates
The Irrigation Engineer must be capable of estimating the time that each activity identified will take.
This information is very important as it helps in the determination of the realistic duration for the
project. Experience from similar projects or other technocrats who have been involved in same
kind of projects plays a pivotal role towards producing realistic estimates. Furthermore, most plant
and machinery have performance data which is incorporated in their specification. Some of the
general performance data for selected plant and machinery relevant to construction of irrigation
system can be accessed in Annex D.
Resource Needs Estimates
The Engineer must determine manpower, material , plant and equipment needs for each activity in
the project. This includes the time that each resource will be required for the activities to be
accomplished. Quality targets as specified upon the activities to be done is also the main
determinant factor when resource selection is being conducted.
Production of a Gantt Chart
Once the above data has been produced by the Engineer, a Gantt Chart can be drawn.
The chart, comprises the following key sections:
 Activity Code on the first row from the left side of the chart
 Activity Description on the second row from the left side of the chart
 Bars depicting the duration for each activity

A typical Gantt Chart is shown in Figure below:

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Gantt Chart

Example:
An Irrigation Engineer has been given a quick assignment to produce a work programme for a
small project aimed at extending a secondary canal in fill by 100m in order to increase the net area
for irrigation in the scheme. The budget that is available is MK5, 000,000.00 and the following are
the unit rates for available resources for the assignment.

Table 1 Available resource date

Resource Unit Rate(MK) Maximum
number
available
Chainman person day 900 2
Surveyor person day 5,500 1
Labourer person day 750 15
Materials technicians person day 3,000 2
D3 dozer & operator day 90,000 1
7 tonne tipper and operator day 75,000 3
Handbomag and operator day 30,000 3

Note: The rates used above are for illustration purpose only and not the actual rates to be
used

Solution:
Step 1: Production of a Gantt chart to ensure activities are logically sequenced
With the experience and knowledge on how a canal is constructed, the Irrigation Engineer
identifies a list of key activities that are done for this to be achieved. Duration estimates for
completing each activity are determined and these are represented by horizontal bars. These are
then incorporated in the Gantt chart as shown in Figure above.

Step 2: Identification of resource needs per activity

Once the first draft of the Gantt chart has been produced as above, the Engineer must ascertain
the resource needs per activity shown in the chart. The resource needs include man power, plant,
equipment and construction materials to be used. For each activity, a realistic estimate for the
magnitude of each resource must be determined. Such data may be available from past
experience from similar projects as well as plant and equipment performance data. The data for
resource needs is plotted directly below the Gantt chart in the form of a histogram as in Figure
below.:

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Days
Activity description
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Canal construction, 100m
Set out canal centre line and top embankment levels

Clear site

Strip off top soil, 150mm depth

Haulage of fill material from borrow pit to site, maximum distance 1km

Embankment formation, compaction to 95% maximum dry density

Excavate canal section to grade and profile along the embankment centre line

Resource Requirements

Note: 15No. Manual labourers 15

The resource requirements on the graphical presentation shown on the left
directly correspond to the activity schedule above it.For example, 15No. Manual
labourers correspond to the activity "clear site" which occurs on day 2

3No. 7 tonne tippers

2No.chainmen 5 No. labourers
3No. Handbomags
1No. Surveyor 2No. Materials technicians 5
1No. Surveyor
2No. Chainmen
1No. D3 dozzer

Figure 1Gantt chart and histogram for resource needs

As shown in the resource needs histogram, the vertical axis on the far right of the graph represents
quantities for the resources.

Step 3: Based on the duration, quantities and type of resources required for each activity, cost per
activity and cost per unit time (e.g. Cost per day) is calculated as displayed in Table 2

Table 2 Activity costing table

Activity Activity Activity Duration Cost per activity(MK) Total cost(MK) Activity cost
Code (days) per day
Materials D3 dozer & 7 tonne tipper Handbomag and
Chainman Surveyor Labourer Technician operator and operator operator

1 Canal construction

1.1 Set out canal centre line and top embankment levels 1 1,800.00 5,500.00 - - - - - 7,300.00 7,300.00

1.2 Clear site 1 11,250.00 - - - - - - 11,250.00 11,250.00

1.3 Strip off top soil, 150mm depth 1 - - - - 90,000.00 - - 90,000.00 90,000.00
Haulage of fill material from borrow pit to site,
1.4 maximum distance 1km 10 - - - - - 2,700,000.00 - 2,700,000.00 270,000.00
Embankment formation, compaction to 95% maximum
1.5 dry density 16 - - - 78,000.00 - - 1,440,000.00 1,518,000.00 94,875.00

Excavate canal section to grade and profile along the

1.6 embankment centre line 10 18,000.00 55,000.00 37,500.00 - - - - 110,500.00 11,050.00

Total cost estimate 31,050.00 60,500.00 37,500.00 78,000.00 90,000.00 2,700,000.00 1,440,000.00 4,437,050.00

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Step 4: Cost Activities
Having calculated daily cost per activity in the last column for Table 2, the Gantt chart bars
produced in Table must be replaced with its corresponding calculated daily cost. From this data, an
S-curve depicting the pattern of costs during the entire project period of 25 days can be produced.
Table 3 shows the cumulative cost patterns (on next page); a corresponding graph has been
produced here just below (Figure 2):

Figure 2 S-curve for project cumulative costs

As shown above, the project will begin at a slow pace then get intensified around midway.
Thereafter, the cost gradually decrease. This curve is termed as S-curve.

Once the Irrigation Engineer is satisfied that the construction programme will ensure project
delivery within the set cost, quality and time targets, it must be adopted as the plan to be followed
and will thus be a progress monitoring tool. The set schedule, time and cost aspects in the
construction plan become the baseline for monitoring and controlling the project.

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Table 3 Cash flow for planned canal construction project
Code Activity Description Days

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 Canal construction

1.1 Set out canal centre line and top embankment levels 7,300.00

1.2 Clear site 11,250.00

1.3 Strip off top soil, 150mm depth 90,000.00

Haulage of fill material from borrow pit to site,
1.4 maximum distance 1km 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00
Embankment formation, compaction to 95% maximum
1.5 dry density 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00
Excavate canal section to grade and profile along the
1.6 embankment centre line 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00

Daily total cost 7,300.00 11,250.00 360,000.00 270,000.00 270,000.00 364,875.00 364,875.00 364,875.00 364,875.00 364,875.00 364,875.00 364,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 94,875.00 105,925.00 105,925.00 105,925.00 105,925.00 105,925.00 105,925.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00 11,050.00
Cumulative total cost 7,300.00 18,550.00 378,550.00 648,550.00 918,550.00 1,283,425.00 1,648,300.00 2,013,175.00 2,378,050.00 2,742,925.00 3,107,800.00 3,472,675.00 3,567,550.00 3,662,425.00 3,757,300.00 3,863,225.00 3,969,150.00 4,075,075.00 4,181,000.00 4,286,925.00 4,392,850.00 4,403,900.00 4,414,950.00 4,426,000.00 4,437,050.00

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Annex 2: Analysis of Control Chart Data for Concrete compressive tests

Control charts are graphical presentations of how measurements deviate from the expected
measurement as specified in the design.
It shows maximum and minimum acceptable values for measurements as horizontal line and each
individual measurement is recorded along a time scale on the horizontal axis.

Control chart for concrete compressive tests

BS 5323 states that a passed compressive test for concrete shall meet these two conditions:
 The average strength determined from any group of four consecutive test results exceed the
specified characteristic strength by:
 3N/mm2 for concrete with characteristic strength of 20N/mm2 and above
 2N/mm2 for concrete with characteristic strength of 15N/mm2 and below

The compressive strength from any individual result must not be less than the specified
characteristic strength by:
 3N/mm2 for concrete of 20N/mm2 and above
 2N/mm2 for concrete of 15N/mm2 and below

Analysis of test results using the chart

Figure above shows how each individual test result relates to the minimum acceptable test result of
17 N/mm2 (i.e 3N/mm2 less than the specified strength of 20 N/mm2).The chart shows that all
individual test are above the line corresponding to the minimum acceptable strength. This means
that all individual tests passed the second criteria.
Figure above shows 24 test results captured consecutively in a project. In this project, the specified
concrete strength for a particular structure is 20N/mm2.This means that to meet the first condition
in BS 5323, the average test of any four consecutive test results must be 23N/mm2 or above (i.e
3N/mm2 more than the specified characteristic strength).
Table 1 below shows the pattern of these averages. This Table 1 shows that average tests
corresponding to sample numbers 6, 7, 8 and 16 as the last sample in the four consecutive results
failed to meet these criteria.

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Table 1: Analysis of test results

Test Sample Compressive test Designed Minimum Minimum limit Averages for
No result(kN/m2 ) characteristic limit for four for individual four
strength(N/mm2 ) average test consecutive
consecutive result(N/mm2 ) tests
tests
(N/mm2 )

1 25.0 20 23 17
2 27.0 20 23 17
3 20.0 20 23 17
4 25.0 20 23 17 24.3
5 21.0 20 23 17 23.3
6 17.7 20 23 17 20.9
7 22.8 20 23 17 21.6
8 25.6 20 23 17 21.8
9 26.0 20 23 17 23.0
10 25.5 20 23 17 25.0
11 23.0 20 23 17 25.0
12 24.0 20 23 17 24.6
13 21.0 20 23 17 23.4
14 24.0 20 23 17 23.0
15 24.0 20 23 17 23.3
16 20.0 20 23 17 22.3
17 24.5 20 23 17 23.1
18 25.0 20 23 17 23.4
19 23.1 20 23 17 23.2
20 24.9 20 23 17 24.4
21 22.0 20 23 17 23.8
22 23.4 20 23 17 23.4
23 25.0 20 23 17 23.8
24 22.9 20 23 17 23.3

From this analysis, it is clear that some of the tests failed to meet the first criteria. In such cases
the Engineer has the following options:
 Assess the strength requirements for the deficient part of the structure regarding its capacity to
still perform properly at a reduced strength
 Strengthen the concerned part
 Order demolition of the affected part

Ordering demolition is considered as the best option as it makes the Contractor realize how
serious it is when quality is compromised. The Contractor will obviously get serious on quality
matters in all subsequent constructions.

The Control chart can also be used to carry out investigations regarding the pattern of the test
results. Finding out unique things that happened on the days during which the low and high
concrete strengths were produced helps to make improvements upon the quality.

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Annex 3: An extract of an ESMP for irrigation scheme construction

Table 1: Sample of ESMP table for irrigation scheme construction

Recommended enhancement/mitigation/management
Environmental Impact identified Responsible Estimated Timeframe
measure
Cost
component No. organization
(MWK)

Positive Impacts

Construction
phase

Creation of Employ as many locals as possible to maximise project benefits

1 employment to the local Contractor/ Included in During
communities, and in particular look to include women and
opportunities vulnerable groups Supervision the project construction
Committee/DC budget

Purchase as many local materials as possible during the

2 Creation of business construction phase such as Contractor/ Included in During
opportunities quarry, cement, sand from approved sites, bricks etc Supervision the project construction
Committee/DC budget

Encourage members to take advantage to expand their business Community

activities members N/A
Supervision
Committee

Negative Impacts

Construction
Phase

1 Spread of Conduct awareness meetings Contractor/DC/S Included in During

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HIV/aids/sexually upervision the project construction

transmitted diseases Committee budget period

Distribution of condoms to workers

Development of and strict adherence to Code of Conduct for

workers

Generation of Siting and establishment of camps will be done in consultation

2 wastes with Supervision Contractor/Super Included in During
Committee vision Committee the project construction

Designate specific places for the disposal of waste in consultation budget period
with the district
council

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Annex 4: General Performance data for selected plant for construction

The manufacturer provides the data pertaining to the performance of a particular make of
machinery. A big difference can occur between the performance quoted by the supplier and the
actual performance. This can be attributed to a number of factors, such as the skilfulness of the
operator, availability of a continuous supply of spare parts, lubricants, fuel, maintenance and
repair, climatic factors and site conditions among others. These ultimately have a bearing on the
efficiency of the equipment.
As a guide, the following formula is used to estimate the anticipated output of plant and equipment:
Anticipated output = Optimum output x Task efficiency factor x Operator efficiency factor
Note: Optimum output and task efficiency factor are provided by the manufacturer. The
operator efficiency factor is generally estimated at about 75%.

Since time is needed for re-fuelling, repairs and other maintenance work on the machines, it can
be assumed that the actual working time per machine is 5 machine hours per shift of 8 hours.
Use of efficient machinery reduces downtime and therefore maintenance and servicing of
machinery is very important.

Bulldozer:
For an average dozing distance of 50 m, the performance would be:
 Average soil (loose): 60 m3/machine hour
 Average gravel: 40 m3/machine hour

Scraper:
The capacity of scrapers per load may vary from 6 m3 for a model 613B to 30 m3 for a model 851B,
thus the performance will also vary.

Grader:
With a relatively experienced operator, a grader can level approximately 1 ha per working day,
assuming a cut and fill of up to 20 cm. The required time depends on the soil type and the
distances of soil movement. It is estimated that 50 m of 1.5 m wide field drains together with 50 m
of 2.5 m wide infield roads can easily be done per hour.

Dragline:
Table 1 gives estimates of excavation quantities for draglines:

Table 1: Estimates for excavation volume by dragline

Description Bucket Size Excavation per

(Litres) Machine Hour
(m3)
Digging or clearing of drainage channels with heavy 350 20
weed infestation in wet conditions and dumping soil
sideways.
Digging or clearing of drainage channels with heavy 700 35
weed infestation in wet conditions and dumping soil
sideways.
Digging channel in average soil in dry conditions and 350 30
dumping soil sideways
Digging channel in average soil in dry conditions and 700 50
dumping soil sideways

It must be noted that there is need to be economical on selection of bucket size. The size must
correspond to the extent of the required excavation. For example, there is no need to use a large
dragline bucket for the excavation of a small channel.

Excavator:
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An excavator can be slightly more efficient than a dragline, but it has a smaller reach. A CAT215
excavator could perform as follows:
 Excavating and loading on a dump-cart or lorry: 45 m3/machine hour
 Excavating and side dumping of soil: 65 m3/machine hour

Front-end loader with backhoe:

The performance of a front-end loader with a backhoe depends on the power of the machine. The
buckets of a tractor-powered machine shall be much smaller than the ones of a large caterpillar
992C wheel loader with a bucket of up to 10.3 m3. Typical performance of a caterpillar 931B track-
type with a backhoe is as follows:
If using the front-end loader:
 Loading stockpiled average soil: 33 m3/machine hour
 Loading stockpiled gravel: 28 m3/machine hour
If using the backhoe:
 Excavating canal and loading tipper: 13 m3/machine hour
 Excavating canal and dumping soil sideways: 18 m3/ machine hour

Tipper:
The performance of tippers to carry materials such as soil depends very much on the distance
between the pit and the construction site, the road condition, etc. Under field conditions on dirt
roads, the average carrying capacity of a 7- ton tipper is 3.5 m3 and the average speed is
approximately 15 km/hr loaded and 30 km/hr empty.

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Annex 5: Descriptions of tests
Sand
Organic Content test:
In this test, the objective is to check whether the fine aggregate is has traces of organic content. In
the test, sand is filled in a 250ml cylinder up to the 90ml graduation on the cylinder. A 3% sodium
hydroxide is applied to the cylinder until it reaches 140ml gradation. After thorough mixing of the
sand and sodium hydroxide to facilitate complete mixing, the sample is left for 24 hours. After
expiry of the 24 hour period, the colour of the sample is observed.
 Where the colour of the sample has become darker than the standard colour of sodium
hydroxide, the sand contains organic impurities. Such sand is unsuitable for concrete work.
 Where the colour of the sand is not darker than the standard colour of sodium hydroxide, the
sand does not contain organic impurities. Such sand is suitable for construction
Particle size distribution test:
Fine aggregate that consists of 90-100% of its particles passing through a square aperture of
nominal size 4.75mm is suitable for concrete works. Any sand falling below this composition is not
suitable.

Coarse Aggregate
Particle size distribution test:
Coarse aggregate that consists of 85-100% of the nominal size particles passing through a square
aperture of its nominal size is suitable for concrete works. Any coarse aggregate falling below this
composition is not suitable.
Table 1 is an extract of coarse aggregate grading requirements for the common nominal sizes.

Table 1: Grading requirements for commonly used coarse aggregate

1 2 3 4
Requirement
Nominal size of aggregate
Property mm
Grading , mass percentage of
material that passess sieves of
nominal aperture size, mm 37.5 19 9.5
53 100
37.5 85-100
26.5 0-50 100
19 0-25 85-100
13.2 0-5 0-50 100
9.5 0-25 85-100
6.7 0-5 0-50
4.75 0-25
2.36 0-5

Aggregate crushing value (ACV) test:

This test aims at assessing the strength of coarse aggregate towards resisting from a gradually
applied compressive load. This test is done for coarse aggregate with nominal sizes ranging from
10 to 29mm.
The test commences with drying the sample of the aggregate in an oven. It is then let to cool down
before being placed and tamped with a road to make it well compacted. The sample is thereafter
compressed in a compression testing machine to a maximum force of 400kN in 10minutes.
A 2.36mm sieve is used to separate particles finer than 2.36mm from the main sample. The
aggregate crushing value (ACV), expressed as a percentage of fines emanating from the crushed
sample is calculated using the formula below:
ACV = (Mass emanating from the crushed sample/initial mass of sample) x 100

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Concrete
Slump test:
This is a concrete test aimed at assessing workability of concrete which is being cast. In a slump
test, a conical mould is used. The mould is placed on a flat surface then filled with concrete in three
layers. After filling each layer, a tamping road is used to stroke the layer 25 times. The last layer
get levelled at the top of the mould using the rod.
The mould is then carefully removed from the concrete sample by lifting it upwards. Slump is the
difference in height between the mould and the self-supporting sample which is measured in
millimetres.
Figure below shows the slump types that may occur when this test is carried out.

Possible slump test results

Slump

True slump Shear Slump Collapsed slump

True slump indicates a cohesive and highly workable mix. A shear slump indicates inadequate
mortar content. A collapsed slump indicates very wet mix with very high probability of leading to
segregation of concrete as it is a poor mix. Whenever, a shear or collapsed slump occurs, the test
needs to be re-done. If the result remains the same, it must be recorded and reported to the
Supervising Engineer.
Table 2 shows some of the expected slump values for some of the common concrete strengths:

Table 2: Slump values for true slump in common concrete grades

Concrete
Concrete strength Slump (mm) strength Slump (mm)
15N/mm2 75 25N/mm2 70
20N/mm2 75 30N/mm2 70

Concrete Compressive strength test:

The test is used to determine the concrete strength achieved at 7, 14 and 28 days after production.
Samples are made using 150mm x 150mm x 150mm cubes during casting of concrete. The cubes
are let to cure in a curing tank after 24 hours of being placed in the moulds. Each test requires a
set of three cubes that are crushed in the compressive test machine at 7, 14 and 28 days of their
age. The compressive strengths at which the three cubes fail are recorded and the average value
gives the sample compressive strength.

Blocks, Cement blocks and Soil Stabilised Blocks (SSBs)

Compressive Test:
Burnt bricks, Cement blocks and SSBs must undergo compressive test to assess their strengths.
Those with an average compressive strength of 5N/mm2 from a sample of 12 randomly selected
brick/blocks are suitable for load bearing wall. Bricks/Blocks with compressive strength of more
than 3.5N/mm2 but less than 5N/m2 may be used only for non-load bearing walls such as
partitioning and fencing. Bricks/blocks with strength below 3.5N/mm2 are not suitable.

Absorption test:
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This test is only applicable for burnt bricks. Twelve bricks are selected randomly then oven dried at
1100C with the loss in water content being measured. The bricks are taken out of the oven when
the successive mass loss is less than 0.1%. The last mass measured is regarded as dry mass.
Once the dried 12 bricks have been air cooled for at least 2 hours, a 24 hour immersion in water
takes place. The bricks are removed and immediately weighed to get their wet mass. Water
Absorption percentage is obtained using the equation below:
Water absorption percentage = (Wet mass – Dry Mass)/Dry Mass) x 100
Any absorption rate more than 7% renders the bricks unsuitable for construction.

Pipes:
Before proliferation of several pipe manufacturers as well as fake products, pipe testing was not
seriously considered. This was the case because it was obvious that the few well known ISO-
certified manufacturers will be producing pipes to the required standards. These days, it is
recommended that pipes should be tested to check their suitability for the construction works as a
quality assurance strategy. Two types of tests are recommended for pipes. These are stress
rapture test and stress relief test.

Stress Rapture test:

In stress rapture test, a pipe sample is exposed to a hoop stress of 420 bars at 20 0C for a duration
of 1 hour. Where the pipe does not break or crack, the pipe is rendered suitable. A pipe that ends
up cracking or breaking after this test is not suitable.

Stress Relief test:

In a stress relief test, a pipe sample is placed in an oven at 1500C then cooled. A failed pipe test
will result in the pipe sample exhibiting excessive blisters, cracking or splitting.

Fill Material
Soil Compaction test:
The laboratory procedure for the test according to BS 1377 involves selection of a sample from the
proposed borrow pit. The sample is initially air dried and separated into four to six samples. The
moisture content for each sample is adjusted by adding water in 3%-5% increments. The soil is
placed in a 100mm diameter mould and compacted in three layers. Each layer receives 25 blows
from a 2.5kg hammer. The sample is then removed and tested for moisture content. Using results
from all samples, a graph of dry unit weight versus moisture content is produced. The highest dry
density on the plotted graph is the maximum dry density and its corresponding water content is the
optimum moisture content. This is illustrated in Figure below.

Typical graph from Modified Proctor test results

Insitu dry density test:

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The insitu dry density test used to determine the extent of compaction is sand cone test. In this
test, the surface of the compacted area to be tested is well levelled then excavated to the depth of
10cm and diameter of the hole for the soil plate which is an apparatus for this test. Sand of known
density and weight is poured into the hole to establish the volume of the hole. Once the excavated
soil‘s mass has been measured, its density (i.e. mass of soil/hole volume) can be established.
Relative density for compacted soil is determined using the following formula:
Relative density = field density/laboratory density x 100

Trial Run:
In the trial run, a section for embankment (at least 25m) is selected. The proposed granular fill is
laid and spread as the first layer above the stripped section to prepare it in readiness for
compaction. The proposed compaction equipment is then allowed to make passes along the trial
section. After each pass, the relative density for the compacted section is determined using sand
cone test and the results from the Modified Proctor test of the sample. The number of passes is
also counted until the pass at which the specified relative density has been achieved. This number
of passes becomes the recommended number of passes to achieve the desired level of
compaction. This principle can also be applied where hand rammers are being used .In this case,
the number of blows become the required measure to achieve desired compaction.

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PART 4: IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT STANDARDS

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Tables of contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 303
1.1. IMPORTANCE ...................................................................................................................................... 303
CHAPTER 2: IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT STANDARDS ................................................................................... 304
2.1. PIPES AND PIPE FITTINGS ..................................................................................................................... 304
2.2. PUMP AND PUMP FITTINGS .................................................................................................................. 305
2.3. SPRINKLERS ....................................................................................................................................... 311
CHAPTER 3: AVAILABLE MALAWI STANDARDS ......................................................................................... 312
CHAPTER 4: DRAFT MALAWI STANDARDS .......................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4.1. PIPES AND FITTINGS ................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4.2. PUMPS .................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Importance
The irrigation sector in Malawi uses irrigation equipment which are imported and those
manufactured locally. Some equipment parts modified locally during installation and
maintenance. Any piece of equipment should perform at an acceptable level regardless of its
origin. The same applies to modified equipment or parts.

Standards form the fundamental building blocks for product development by establishing
consistent protocols that can be universally understood and adopted. This helps fuel
compatibility and interoperability and simplifies product development. Standards also make it
easier to understand and compare competing products. The irrigation standards provide
people and organizations with a basis for mutual understanding. They are used as tools to
facilitate communication, measurement, commerce and manufacturing

It is only through the use of standards that the requirements of interconnectivity and
interoperability can be assured. Standards also disseminate knowledge in industries where
products and processes supplied by various providers must interact with one another.
Standardization is a voluntary cooperation among industry, consumers, public authorities,
researchers and other interested parties for the development of technical specifications
based on consensus. They thus form a basis for trust among the different stakeholders in
the irrigation sector.

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CHAPTER 2: IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT STANDARDS

2.1. Pipes and pipe fittings

A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, used mainly to convey substances which can
flow — liquids and gases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small solids. In irrigation
pipes are used to convey water and chemicals. The words pipe and tube are usually
interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, the terms are uniquely defined. A pipe is
specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter (OD) and a schedule that
defines the thickness. A tube is specified by the OD and wall thickness, but may be specified
by any two of OD or inside diameter (ID), and wall thickness. Pipes are generally
manufactured to one of several international and national industrial standards. Tubes on the
other hand are made to custom sizes and a broader range of diameters and tolerances.
Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipes and tubing.

The manufacture and installation of pipes are regulated by the available national standards.
Pipe installation requires the use and application of a variety of specialized tools, techniques,
and parts. Table 34 presents available international standards. They are used to regulate
pipes and tubes of different types.

Table 34 Pipes and fitting standards

Std No. Title Year
ISO 3183:2012 Petroleum and natural gas industries - Steel pipe for pipeline 2012
transportation systems
ISO 11678:1996 Agricultural irrigation equipment -Aluminium irrigation tubes 1996
ISO 14617-3:2002 Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 3: Connections and related devices 2002-09
ISO 559:1991 Steel tubes for water and sewage 1991-03
ISO 13460-1:2015 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Plastics saddles - Part 1: Polyethylene 2015
pressure pipes
ISO 16149:2006 Agricultural irrigation equipment -PVC above-ground low-pressure pipe for 2006
surface irrigation -Specifications and test methods
ISO 16438:2012 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Thermoplastic collapsible hoses for 2012-12
irrigation - Specifications and test methods
ISO 8224-1:2002 Traveller irrigation machines - Part 1: Operational characteristics 2002
and laboratory and field test methods
ISO 8224-2:1991 Traveller irrigation machines - Part 2: Softwall hose and couplings - Test 1991
methods
ISO 8779:2010 Plastics piping systems - Polyethylene (PE) pipes for irrigation – 2010-03
Specifications
ISO 8796:2004 Polyethylene PE 32 and PE 40 pipes for irrigation laterals - Susceptibility to 2004-06
environmental stress cracking induced by insert-type fittings - Test method
and requirements
ISO 1401:2016 Rubber hoses for agricultural spraying 2016
ISO 10508:2006 Plastics piping systems for hot and cold water installations - Guidance for 2006
classification and design
ISO 13783:1997 Plastics piping systems - Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) end- 1997
load-bearing double-socket joints - Test method for leak tightness and
strength while subjected to bending and internal pressure
ISO 13846:2000 Plastics piping systems - End-load-bearing and non-end-load-bearing 2000-10
assemblies and joints for thermoplastics pressure piping - Test method for
long-term leak tightness under internal water pressure
ISO 1452-1:2009 Plastics piping systems for water supply and for buried and 2009
above-ground drainage and sewerage under pressure -
Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) - Part 1: General
ISO 1452-3:2009 Plastics piping systems for water supply and for buried and above-ground 2009
drainage and sewerage under pressure - Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC-U) - Part 3: Fittings
ISO 1452-4:2009 Plastics piping systems for water supply and for buried and above-ground 2009
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Std No. Title Year

drainage and sewerage under pressure - Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC-U) -Part 4: Valves
ISO 1452-5:2009 Plastics piping systems for water supply and for buried and above-ground 2009
drainage and sewerage under pressure - Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC-U) - Part 5: Fitness for purpose of the system
ISO 15874-1:2013 Plastics piping systems for hot and cold water installations - Polypropylene 2013
(PP) - Part 1: General
ISO 15874-2:2013 Plastics piping systems for hot and cold water installations - Polypropylene 2013
(PP) - Part 2: Pipes
ISO 15874-3:2013 Plastics piping systems for hot and cold water installations - Polypropylene 2013
(PP) - Part 3: Fittings
ISO 15874-5:2013 Plastics piping systems for hot and cold water installations - Polypropylene 2013-02
(PP) - Part 5: Fitness for purpose of the system
ISO 28921-1:2013 Industrial valves - Isolating valves for low-temperature applications - Part 1: 2013-05
Design, manufacturing and production testing
ISO 10522: 1993 Agricultural irrigation equipment -Direct-acting pressure- 1993
regulating valves
ISO 7714:2008 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Volumetric valves - General requirements 2008-09
and test methods
ISO 9635-1:2014 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Irrigation valves - Part 1: 2014 - 11
General requirements
ISO 9635-2:2014 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Irrigation valves - Part 2: 2014 - 11
Isolating valves
ISO 9635-3:2014 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Irrigation valves -Part 3: Check valves 2014-11
ISO 9635-4:2014 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Irrigation valves -Part 4: Air valves 2014-11
ISO 9635-5:2014 Agricultural irrigation equipment -Irrigation valves -Part 5: Control valves 2014-12
ISO 9644:2008 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Pressure losses in irrigation valves - Test 2008-07
method
ISO 9911:2006 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Manually operated small plastics valves 2006
ISO 13693-1:2013 Irrigation equipment -Safety devices for chemigation - Part 1: Small plastics 2013
valves for chemigation
ISO 13693-2:2015 Irrigation equipment - Safety devices for chemigation - Part 2: Chemigation 2015
valve assemblies from DN 75 (3") to DN 350 (14")
ISO 11738:2000 Agricultural irrigation equipment -Control heads 2002
ISO 12374:1995 Agricultural irrigation - Wiring and equipment for electrically driven or 1995
controlled irrigation machines
ISO 15873:2002 Irrigation equipment - Differential pressure Venturi-type liquid additive 2002
injectors
ISO 16399:2014 Meters for irrigation water 2014-05

ISO 9912-3:2013 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Filters for micro-irrigation - Part 3: 2013-10
Automatic flushing strainer-type filters and disc filters

ISO 9912-1:2004 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Filters for micro-irrigation - Part 2004
1: Terms, definitions and classification
ISO 9912-2:2013 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Filters for micro-irrigation - Part 2013-11
2: Strainer-type filters and disc filters

2.2. Pump and Pump Fittings

A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by

mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method
they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.

Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy
to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources,
including manual operation, electricity, wind or solar power among others. Pumps come in
many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial pumps.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications.
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Pumps may be classified on the basis of the applications they serve, the materials from
which they are constructed, the liquids they handle, and even their orientation in space. All
such classifications, however, are limited in scope and tend to substantially overlap each
other. A more basic system of classification defines the principle by which energy is added to
the fluid, goes on to identify the means by which this principle is implemented, and finally
delineates specific geometries commonly employed.

Under this system, all pumps may be divided into two major categories:
(i) dynamic, in which energy is continuously added to increase the fluid velocities within
the machine to values greater than those occurring at the discharge such that subsequent
velocity reduction within or beyond the pump produces a pressure increase, and
(ii) displacement, in which energy is periodically added by application of force to one or
more movable boundaries of any desired number of enclosed, fluid-containing volumes,
resulting in a direct increase in pressure up to the value required to move the fluid through
valves or ports into the discharge line.

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Figure 20 Classification of dynamic pumps

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Figure 21 Classification of displacement pumps

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Development of the Irrigation Code of Practice (ICoP) AGRER-TYPSA

ISO standards for pumps and pump fittings are preferred. Where ISO standards are not
available other international standards are used. Table 38 shows the list of relevant ISO
pump standards that have been published and whether or not are currently available in
Malawi.

Table 35 Pumps and fittings standards

Std No. Title Year
ISO 14617-9:2002 Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 9: Pumps, 2002-09
compressors and fans.
ISO 14847:1999 Rotary positive displacement pumps -Technical requirements 1999-04
ISO 15783:2002 Seal-less rotodynamic pumps -Class II -Specification 2002-02
ISO 15783:2002/Amd Seal-less rotodynamic pumps -Class II –Specification 2008-11
1:2008 (Amendment)
ISO 16330:2003 Reciprocating positive displacement pumps and pump units - 2003-05
Technical requirement
ISO 17769-1:2012 Liquid pumps and installation - General terms, definitions, 2012-07
quantities, letter symbols and units - Part 1: Liquid pumps
ISO 17769-2:2012 Liquid pumps and installation - General terms, definitions, 2012-07
quantities, letter symbols and units - Part 2: Pumping system
ISO 20361:2015 Liquid pumps and pump units - Noise test code -Grades 2 2015-06
and 3 of accuracy
ISO 21049:2004 Pumps - Shaft sealing systems for centrifugal and rotary 2004-02
pumps
ISO 21630:2007 Pumps -Testing -Submersible mixers for wastewater and 2007-08
similar applications
ISO 2858:1975 End-suction centrifugal pumps (rating 16 bar) - Designation, 1975-02
nominal duty point and dimensions
ISO 3069:2000 End-suction centrifugal pumps -Dimensions of cavities for 2000-11
mechanical seals and for soft packing

ISO 3661:1977 End-suction centrifugal pumps – Base plate and installation 1977-02
dimensions
ISO 5198:1987 Centrifugal, mixed flow and axial pumps -Code for hydraulic 1987-07
performance tests - Precision grade
ISO 5199:2002 Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class II 2002-03
ISO 9905:1994 Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class I 1994-05
ISO 9905:1994/Amd Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class I 2011
1:2011 (Amendment)
ISO 9905:1994/Cor Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps–Class I 2005
1:2005 (Amendment)
ISO 9906:2012 Rotodynamic pumps- Hydraulic performance acceptance 2012
tests- Grades 1, 2 and 3
ISO 9908:1993 Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class III 1993-11
ISO 9908:1993/Amd Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class III 2011
1:2011
ISO/ASME Pump system energy assessment 2015-04
14414:2015
ISO/ASME Pump system energy assessment 2016
14414:2015/Amd

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Development of the Irrigation Code of Practice (ICoP) AGRER-TYPSA

Std No. Title Year

1:2016
ISO/DIS 21049 Pumps - Shaft-sealing systems for centrifugal and rotary 2004
pumps
ISO 5198:1987 Centrifugal, mixed flow and axial pumps -Code for hydraulic 1987
performance tests-Precision grade

ANSI/HI 9.6.6-2016 Rotodynamic Pumps for Pump Piping 2016

ANSI/HI 11.6 – 2012 Procedures for performance of submersible pumps 2014
ANSI/HI 9.6.3-2017 Rotodynamic (Centrifugal And Vertical) Pumps - Guideline 2017
For Allowable Operating Region
HI 40.6-2016 Methods for rotodynamic pump efficiency testing 2016
SAC - GB/T 16750.1- The types, general parameters and conjunction sizes 1997-03-
97 of electrical submersible pumping equipment 04
SAC - GB/T 16750.2- Electrical submersible pump-technical specifications 1997-03-
97 04
SAC - GB/T 16750.3- The test method for electrical submersible pump 1997-03-
97 04

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

310
Development of the Irrigation Code of Practice (ICoP) AGRER-TYPSA

2.3. Sprinklers

Irrigation systems differ greatly depending on what they are going to be used for. They range
from the simple hand watering method used in most home gardens and nurseries to the
huge surface and overhead irrigation systems found in large-scale production.

In a sprinkler irrigation system, water is applied above the ground surface as a spray
somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water under pressure
through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping, although it
may be by gravity if the water source is high enough above the area to be irrigated. A typical
sprinkler set includes the sprinkler, the standpipe, the lateral pipe, the main pipe and often
the pumping plant.

In order to properly design, install, operate and maintain a sprinkler system, some standards
are available for use. Table 36 shows the ISO standards available.

Table 36 ISO Sprinkler standards

Std. No. Title Year
ISO 15886-1:2012 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Sprinklers - Part 1: Definition 2012
of terms and classification
ISO 15886-3:2012 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Sprinklers -Part3: 2012
Characterization of distribution and test methods
ISO 15886-4:2012 Irrigation equipment - Irrigation sprinklers -Part 4: Test methods 2012
for durability
ISO 11545:2009 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Centre-pivot and moving 2009
lateral irrigation machines with sprayer or sprinkler nozzles -
Determination of uniformity of water distribution
ISO 7749-1:1995 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Rotating sprinklers - Part 1: 1995-4
Design and operational requirements
ISO 8026:2009 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Sprayers - General 2009-12
requirements and test methods
ISO 9261:2004 Agricultural irrigation equipment - Emitters and emitting pipe - 2005
Specification and test methods
ISO 15155:2005 Test facilities for agricultural irrigation equipment 2005

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311
Development of the Irrigation Code of Practice (ICoP) AGRER-TYPSA

CHAPTER 3: AVAILABLE MALAWI STANDARDS

Malawi Bureau of Standards has developed and published a number of standard that are
used by various regulatory agencies. Table 37 shows the irrigation-related Malawi Standards
that are currently in use.
Table 37 Irrigation Related Malawi Standards
Std No. Title Year

MS 3:2004 UNPLASTICIZED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE, (UPVC) SEWER AND 2004

DRAIN PIPES AND PIPE FITTINGS – SPECIFICATION (Third
Edition) (32 p) M
MS 4:1993 UNPLASTICIZED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (UPVC) TYPE 1, 1993
PRESSURE PIPES AND FITTINGS (FOR COLD WATER
SERVICES) – SPECIFICATION (Second edition) (21 p) M
MS 5:1993 UNPLASTICIZED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (UPVC) PIPES AND 1993
PIPE FITTINGS FOR USE ABOVE GROUND IN DRAINAGE
INSTALLATIONS – SPECIFICATION (Second Edition) (14 p) M
MS 7:1980 UNPLASTICIZED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (UPVC) PIPES 1980
INSTALLATION – CODE OF PRACTICE (30 p)M
MS 374-1:1992 BLACK POLYETHYLENE PIPES FOR THE CONVEYANCE OF 1992
LIQUIDS – SPECIFICATION
Part 1: Low Density Polyethylene Pressure Pipes (10 p) M
MS 374-2:1992 BLACK POLYETHYLENE PIPES FOR THE CONVEYANCE OF 1992
LIQUIDS – SPECIFICATION Part 2: High Density Polyethylene
Pressure Pipes (14p) M
MS 374-3:1992 BLACK POLYETHYLENE PIPES FOR THE CONVEYANCE OF 1992
LIQUIDS – SPECIFICATION
Part 3: High Density Polyethylene PE 80 Pressure Pipes (14p) M
MS 407:1992 BLACK POLYETHYLENE PIPES FOR THE CONVEYANCE OF 1992
LIQUIDS – METHODS OF TEST (20 p) V
MS 414-1:2002 MASONRY CEMENT – SPECIFICATION (10 p) M 2002
MS 456:1993 UNPLASTICIZED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (UPVC) PIPES AND 1993
FITTINGS – METHODS OF TEST (19 p) V
MS 458:2002 RUBBER SEALS – JOINT RINGS FOR WATER SUPPLY, 2002
DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE PIPELINES MATERIAL –
SPECIFICATION (13.p) M
MS 617-1:1998 PIPES AND FITTINGS MADE OF UN-PLASTICIZED POLY (VINYL 1998
CHLORIDE) (PVC-U) FOR WATER SUPPLY – SPECIFICATION
Part 1: General (2 p) M
MS 617-2:1998 PIPES AND FITTINGS MADE OF UN-PLASTICIZED POLY (VINYL 1998
CHLORIDE) (PVC-U) FOR WATER SUPPLY – SPECIFICATION
Part 2: Pipes (with or without integral sockets) (2 p) M
MS 617-3:1998 PIPES AND FITTINGS MADE OF UN-PLASTICIZED POLY (VINYL 1998
CHLORIDE) (PVC-U) FOR WATER SUPPLY – SPECIFICATION
Part 3: Fittings and joints (4 p) M
MS 666-1:2002 COMPONENTS OF PRESSURE PIPE SYSTEMS (PVC-U) − 2002
SPECIFICATION Part 1: Unplasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC-U)
pressure pipes (33 p) M
MS 666-2:2002 COMPONENTS OF PRESSURE PIPE SYSTEMS (PVC-U) − 2002
SPECIFICATION Part 2: Modified poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC-M)
pressure pipe systems (30 p) M
MS 688:2004 UNPLASTICIZED POLY (VINYL CHLORIDE) (PVC-U) SOIL, 2004
WASTE AND VENT PIPES AND PIPE FITTINGS –
SPECIFICATION (31 p) M
Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards
312
Development of the Irrigation Code of Practice (ICoP) AGRER-TYPSA

Std No. Title Year

MS 689:2004 THE INSTALLATION OF POLYETHYLENE AND POLY (VINYL 2004

CHLORIDE) (PVC-U) AND (PVC-M) PIPES – CODE OF PRACTICE
(29 p) M
MS 713:2005 PLASTIC PRODUCTS – GUIDELINES FOR SAFE MANAGEMENT 2005
AND DISPOSAL (12 p) M
MS 719:2005 HAZARDOUS WASTE – MANAGEMENT, CLASSIFICATION AND 2005
DISPOSAL – CODE OF PRACTICE (59p) M
MS 736:2011 TRANSPORTATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS – INTERMEDIATE 2011
BULK CONTAINERS FOR ROAD AND RAIL TRANSPORT (47 p) M
MS 737:2011 INDUSTRIAL EMMISSIONS – EMISSIONS FROM MOBILE 2011
STATIONERY SOURCES - SPECIFICATION (30 p) M
MS 779:2007 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) WIND HYBRID SYSTEM – 2007
SPECIFICATION (10 p) M
MS 780:2007 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) WATER PUMPING SYSTEM – 2007
SPECIFICATION (15p) M
MS 877:2011 ENERGY MAMNAGEMENT SYTEMS REQUIREMENTS WITH 2011
GUIDANCE FOR USE (22p) V
MS 912-1:2014 PLASTICS PIPING SYSTEMS FOR HOT AND COLD WATER 2014
INSTALLATIONSPOLYPROPYLENE (PP)
Part 1: General (9p)
MS 912-2:2014 PLASTICS PIPING SYSTEMS FOR HOT AND COLD WATER 2014
INSTALLATIONSPOLYPROPYLENE (PP)
PART 2: PIPES (first ed) (18p) M
MS 912-3:2014 PLASTICS PIPING SYSTEMS FOR HOT AND COLD WATER 2014
INSTALLATIONSPOLYPROPYLENE (PP)
PART 3: FITTINGS (first ed ) (14p) M
MS 912-5:2014 PLASTICS PIPING SYSTEMS FOR HOT AND COLD WATER 2014
INSTALLATIONSPOLYPROPYLENE (PP)
PART 5: FITNESS FOR PURPOSE OF THE SYSTEM (first ed )
(10p) M
MS 912-7:2014 PLASTICS PIPING SYSTEMS FOR HOT AND COLD WATER 2014
INSTALLATIONSPOLYPROPYLENE (PP)
Part 7: Guidance for the assessment of conformity (12 p)
MS-ISO/TS STEEL NAMES BASED ON LETTER SYMBOLS (8 p) 2003
4949:2003
MS- CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT-REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 2014
17020:2014 OPERATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF BODIES PERFORMING
INSPECTION (18p) M
MS CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT –REQUIREMENTS FOR BODIES 2013
17065:2013 CERTIFYING PRODUCTS, PROCESSES AND SERVICES (first ed)
27p
MS-IEC 61721 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF A PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) MODULE TO
ACCIDENTAL IMPACT DAMAGE (RESISTANCE TO IMPACT
TEST) (M)
MS-IEC 61724 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM PERFORMANCE MONITORING –
GUIDELINES FOR MEASUREMENT, DATA EXCHANGE AND
ANALYSIS (M)
MS-IEC 61727 PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEMS – CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
UTILITY INTERFACE (M)
MS-IEC 61836 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY SYSTEMS – TERMS AND
SYMBOLS

Irrigation Code of Practice and Equipment Standards

313

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