List of petroleum products

This is a list of products produced from petroleum. Types of unrefined petroleum

include asphalt, bitumen, crude oil, and natural gas. (See also fossil
fuel; hydrocarbon; oil; petrochemical; petroleum production; petroleum
refining; pitch lake; tar sand.)
Fuels
 butane
 diesel fuel
 fuel oil
 gasoline
 kerosene
 liquefied natural gas
 liquefied petroleum gas
 propane
Other Products
 microcrystalline wax
 napalm
 naphtha
 naphthalene
 paraffin wax
 petroleum jelly
 petroleum wax
 refined asphalt
 refined bitumen
Petroleum Derivatives: Synthesis and Application
Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil (petroleum) as it is processed in oil
refineries. Unlike petrochemicals, which are a collection of well-defined usually pure chemical
compounds, petroleum products are complex mixtures. The majority of petroleum is converted to
petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels.

According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market,
refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is
used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of fuel oil and gasoline. These fuels include or can be
blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil, and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less
volatile) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt, tar, paraffin wax, lubricating and other
heavy oils. Refineries also produce other chemicals, some of which are used in chemical
processes to produce plastics and other useful materials. Since petroleum often contains a few
percent sulphur-containing molecules, elemental sulphur is also often produced as a petroleum
product. Carbon, in the form of petroleum coke, and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum
products. The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery
processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulphurization.
  Lubricants & Friction Modifiers
 Paraffins Wax & Jellies
 Asphalt & Tar
 Petroleum Coke: Grading & Application
 Polymer derivatives from Petroleum
 High density Poly-ethylene
 Low Density Poly-Ethylene
 Linear low-density polyethylene
 Synthesis of Petroleum derivatives
 Application of Petroleum derivatives

Crude oil is composed of a complex mix of hydrocarbons, so the products formed from fractional distillation

will also be a mix of these complex molecules. However, the basic categories of distilled products are:

Crude oil virtually runs our daily lives; without it we would be crippled to live our ordinary lives.

What are side products of petroleum distillation?

There are no side products from petroleum distillation.  All parts of a barrel of oil that go through a
distillation unit are used to make products.

I grabbed this picture from the internet (source is Commercial and Technical Terms) and it really illustrates
the kinds of products that come from all parts of crude oil:
I remember seeing a similar diagram in one of my old "big book of science" type books of my youth.  Now
that I actually work on refining projects and have a much more intimate knowledge of what goes on in an
oil refinery, I know that in reality what's portrayed here is, as is often the case, a gross oversimplification. 
There are a lot of inaccuracies - for example, bitumen is not separated from the residual oil fraction until
another set of operations is performed.  The biggest thing that is missing from this diagram is all of the
upgrading processes that take things for which there is more supply then demand - things like fuel oil - and
turn them into things we want like gasoline or diesel.

One thing that I think this diagram does very well, though, is to point out how many of the fractions you get
out of an oil barrel overlap with each other.  To take one example, naphtha fits right into the gasoline range,
and in fact this is precisely what most naphtha is used for: a blendstock for gasoline.  Another one is the
large portion of the kerosene region that overlaps with middle distillates (in the diagram, diesel oils).  This
gives you an idea of the kind of choices faced by refineries in making a barrel of oil into products.

Distillation is in fact only one of many operations used in an oil refinery, although it is the earliest and most
fundamental of them all.  If there is truly any unwanted side product from any part of petroleum refining, I
would say that it is petroleum coke, a coal-like substance that is dirty and hard to get rid of.  That being
said, however, it doesn't come from distillation but from another operation called delayed coking.

What are the products obtained at different temperatures in fractional

distillation of crude oil?
Here you go.

Products in a crude oil fractionator are obtained in accordance with their boiling points. The lightest
product forms top product from the Column whereas the heaviest boiling product is the bottom product.

Starting from top of the fractionator, the products are as under

 Unstabilized naphtha, I.e a mixture of naphtha and LPG

 Kerosene
 Light gas oil ( Diesel)
 Heavy gas oil
 Reduced crude oil (Bottom product which is the feed for vacuum distillation unit)
I would also alike to mention that from the reflux drum of a crude fractionator we also get off gas (mixture
of methane and ethane). That is supplied to the refinery fuel gas header.

Hope this answers your question.

Fractional distillation

Figure 1. Diagram of a fractional distillation tower, showing where the different fractions will condense. [1] Note that the
temperature is higher at the bottom, so the longer carbon chains will fall out at the bottom, the shorter carbon chains will go
up the column until they hit a temperature at which they become liquid.
Fractional distillation is the process by which oil refineries separate crude oil into different, more
useful hydrocarbon products based on their relative molecular weights in a distillation tower. This is the first
step in the processing of crude oil, and it is considered to be the main separation process as it performs the
initial rough separation of the different fuels.[2] The different components that are separated out during this
process are known as fractions. Fractions that are separated out include gasoline, diesel, kerosene,
and bitumen.[3] Fractional distillation allows a lot of useful products to be made from crude oil, with many
environmental consequences for the use of those useful products!

Process
The process of fractional distillation is fairly simple, but is powerful in the way that it separates all the
different, complex components of crude oil. First, the crude oil is heated to vapourize it and is fed into the
bottom of a distillation tower. The resulting vapour then rises through the vertical column. As the gases rise
through the tower, the temperature decreases. As the temperature decreases, certain hydrocarbons begin
to condense and run off at different levels. Each fraction that condenses off at a certain level contains
hydrocarbon molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms. [4] These boiling point 'cuts' allow several
hydrocarbons to be separated out in a single process. [5] It is this cooling with the height of the tower that
allows for the separation.

After this rough refinement, individual fuels may undergo more refinement to remove any contaminants or
undesirable substances, or to improve the quality of the fuel through cracking.

Fractions
There are several ways of classifying the useful fractions that are distilled from crude oil. One general way
is by dividing into three categories: light, middle, and heavy fractions. Heavier components condense at
higher temperatures and are removed at the bottom of the column. The lighter fractions are able to rise
higher in the column before they are cooled to their condensing temperature, allowing them to be removed
at slightly higher levels.[3] In addition to this, the fractions have the following properties: [5]

 Light distillate is one of the more important fractions, and its products have boiling points around 70-200°C.
Useful hydrocarbons in this range include gasoline, naphta (a chemical feedstock), kerosene, jet fuel, and
paraffin. These products are highly volatile, have small molecules, have low boiling points, flow easily, and ignite
easily.[4]
 Medium distillate are products that have boiling points of 200-350°C. Products in this range
include diesel fuel and gas oil - used in the manufacturing of town gas and for commercial heating.
 Heavy distillate are the products with the lowest volatility and have boiling points above 350°C. These
fractions can be solid or semi-solid and may need to be heated in order to flow. Fuel oil is produced in this
fraction. These products have large molecules, a low volatility, flow poorly, and do not ignite easily.[4]

However, there are two major components that are not accounted for in these three categories. At the very
top of the tower are the gases that are too volatile to condense,such as propane and butane. At the bottom
are the "residuals" that contain heavy tars too dense to rise up the tower, including bitumen and other
waxes. To further distill these they undergo steam or vacuum distillation as they are very useful.
Oil refinery
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into
more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied
petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils.  Petrochemicals feed stock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced
[1][2][3]

directly by cracking crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha. [4][5]

Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying
streams of fluids between large chemical processing units, such as distillation columns. In many ways, oil refineries
use much of the technology, and can be thought of, as types of chemical plants.
The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot at or near
an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.
Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that involve many different processing units and auxiliary
facilities such as utility units and storage tanks. Each refinery has its own unique arrangement and combination of
refining processes largely determined by the refinery location, desired products and economic considerations.

An oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the petroleum industry.

Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic meters)
of crude oil per day.

According to the Oil and Gas Journal in the world a total of 636 refineries were operated on the 31 December 2014 for
a total capacity of 87.75 million barrels (13,951,000 m ). 3

Jamnagar Refinery is the largest oil refinery, since 25 December 2008, with a processing capacity of 1.24 million
barrels (197,000 m ). Located in Gujarat, India, it is owned by Reliance Industries.
3

Operation
Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low
viscosity, low sulfur) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of
seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore
hazardous, especially in warships. Instead, the hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are
separated in a refinery into components that can be used as fuels, lubricants, and feedstocks
in petrochemical processes that manufacture such products as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers,
and fibers such as nylon and polyesters.
Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships, automobiles, aircraft
engines, lawn mowers, dirt bikes, and other machines. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be
separated by distillation. Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion
engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value
products.

The oil refinery in Haifa, Israel is capable of processing about 9 million tons (66 million barrels) of crude oil a year. Its two cooling
towers are landmarks of the city's skyline.
Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and
lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. While the
molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most
common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made
of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these
molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties, and it is this variety that makes crude oil
useful in a broad range of several applications.
Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further
processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet
specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade
of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons
producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics. Intermediate products such as gasoils can
even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms
of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in gasoline
production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet
product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils)
uses a devolatilization  process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material.
[permanent dead link]

Oil refineries are large scale plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of
crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing
in batches, at steady state or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also makes process
optimization and advanced process control very desirable

Major products

Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation. The fractions at the top of the fractionating column have lower boiling
points than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter, more useful products. All of the
fractions are processed further in other refining units.
A breakdown of the products made from a typical barrel of US oil. [26]

Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil (petroleum) as it is processed in oil refineries. The
majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels. [27]

Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as hydrogen, light
hydrocarbons, reformate and pyrolysis gasoline. These are not usually transported but instead are blended or
processed further on-site. Chemical plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries or a number of further chemical
processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in an ethylene plant, and the
produced ethylene is polymerized to produce polyethene.
Because technical reasons and environment protection demand a very low sulfur content in all but the heaviest
products, it is transformed to hydrogen sulfide via catalytic hydrodesulfurization and removed from the product
stream via amine gas treating. Using the Claus process, hydrogen sulfide is afterwards transformed to elementary
sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry. The rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the
other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical power plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up
the excess heat.
According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can
produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e.
various grades of fuel oil and gasoline. These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel
fuel, heating oil, and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less volatile) fractions can also be used to
produce asphalt, tar, paraffin wax, lubricating and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce other chemicals,
some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials. Since petroleum
often contains a few percent sulfur-containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum
product. Carbon, in the form of petroleum coke, and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products. The
hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such
as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization.
Petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle
distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax,
asphalt). These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives, providing short term storage,
and preparation for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars. This classification is based on the
way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions. [2]

 Gaseous fuel such as Liquified petroleum gas and propane, stored and shipped in liquid form under
pressure.
 Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required),
usually shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.
 Paraffin wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to
prepare as packaged blocks. Used for wax emulsions, construction board, matches, candles, rust protection,
and vapor barriers.
 Sulfur (or sulfuric acid), byproducts of sulfur removal from petroleum which may have up to a couple
percent sulfur as organic sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful industrial
materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum.
 Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing.
 Asphalt used as a binder for gravel to form asphalt concrete, which is used for paving roads, lots, etc. An
asphalt unit prepares bulk asphalt for shipment.
 Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon products like electrodes or as solid fuel.
 Petrochemicals are organic compounds that are the ingredients for the chemical industry, ranging from
polymers and pharmaceuticals, including ethylene and benzene-toluene-xylenes ("BTX") which are often sent
to petrochemical plants for further processing in a variety of ways. The petrochemicals may be olefins or
their precursors, or various types of aromatic petrochemicals.
 Gasoline
 Naphtha
 Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels
 Diesel fuel and Fuel oils
 Heat
 Electricity
Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products including: fertilizer, floor
coverings, perfume, insecticide, petroleum jelly, soap, vitamin capsules. See link to partial list of 144 by-products
listed by Ranken Energy

Chemical processes found in a refinery

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Storage tanks and towers at Shell Puget Sound Refinery (Shell Oil Company), Anacortes, Washington

 Desalter unit washes out salt from the crude oil before it enters the atmospheric distillation unit.
 Crude Oil Distillation unit (Atmospheric distillation): Distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions for further
processing in other units. See continuous distillation.
 Vacuum distillation further distills the residue oil from the bottom of the crude oil distillation unit. The vacuum
distillation is performed at a pressure well below atmospheric pressure.
 Naphtha hydrotreater unit uses hydrogen to desulfurize naphtha from atmospheric distillation. Naphtha must be
desulfurized before sending it to a catalytic reformer unit.
 Catalytic reformer converts the desulfurized naphtha molecules into higher-octane molecules to
produce reformate (reformer product). The reformate has higher content of aromatics and cyclic hydrocarbons which is a
component of the end-product gasoline or petrol. An important byproduct of a reformer is hydrogen released during the
catalyst reaction. The hydrogen is used either in the hydrotreaters or the hydrocracker.
 Distillate hydrotreater desulfurizes distillates (such as diesel) after atmospheric distillation. Uses hydrogen to
desulfurize the naphtha fraction from the crude oil distillation or other units within the refinery.
 Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC) upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling fractions from the crude oil distillation by converting
them into lighter and lower boiling, more valuable products.
 Hydrocracker uses hydrogen to upgrade heavy residual oils from the vacuum distillation unit by thermally cracking
them into lighter, more valuable reduced viscosity products.
 Merox desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing mercaptans to organic disulfides.
 Alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known, e.g. doctor sweetening process and caustic washing.
 Coking units (delayed coking, fluid coker, and flexicoker) process very heavy residual oils into gasoline and diesel fuel,
leaving petroleum coke as a residual product.
 Alkylation unit uses sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid to produce high-octane components for gasoline blending. The
"alky" unit converts light end isobutane and butylenes from the FCC process into alkylate, a very high-octane component of
the end-product gasoline or petrol.
 Dimerization unit converts olefins into higher-octane gasoline blending components. For example, butenes can be
dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form isooctane. There are also other uses for
dimerization. Gasoline produced through dimerization is highly unsaturated and very reactive. It tends spontaneously to
form gums. For this reason the effluent from the dimerization need to be blended into the finished gasoline pool
immediately or hydrogenated.
 Isomerization converts linear molecules such as normal pentane to higher-octane branched molecules for blending into
gasoline or feed to alkylation units. Also used to convert linear normal butane into isobutane for use in the alkylation unit.
 Steam reforming converts natural gas into hydrogen for the hydrotreaters and/or the hydrocracker.
 Liquified gas storage vessels store propane and similar gaseous fuels at pressure sufficient to maintain them in liquid
form. These are usually spherical vessels or "bullets" (i.e., horizontal vessels with rounded ends).
 Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment convert hydrogen sulfide from hydrodesulfurization into elemental
sulfur. The large majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from
petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants. [29][30]

 Sour water stripper Uses steam to remove hydrogen sulfide gas from various wastewater streams for subsequent
conversion into end-product sulfur in the Claus unit. [31]

 Cooling towers circulate cooling water, boiler plants generates steam for steam generators, and instrument air systems
include pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical substation.
 Wastewater collection and treating systems consist of API separators, dissolved air flotation (DAF) units and further
treatment units such as an activated sludge biotreater to make water suitable for reuse or for disposal. [32]

 Solvent refining use solvent such as cresol or furfural to remove unwanted, mainly aromatics from lubricating oil stock
or diesel stock.
 Solvent dewaxing remove the heavy waxy constituents petrolatum from vacuum distillation products.
 Liquified gas (LPG) storage vessels for propane and similar gaseous fuels at a pressure sufficient to maintain them in
liquid form. These are usually spherical vessels or bullets (horizontal vessels with rounded ends).
 Storage tanks for storing crude oil and finished products, usually vertical, cylindrical vessels with some sort of vapour
emission control and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills.

Petroleum refining processes are the chemical engineering processes and other facilities used in petroleum
refineries (also referred to as oil refineries) to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils. [1][2][3]

Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that involve many different processing units and
auxiliary facilities such as utility units and storage tanks. Each refinery has its own unique arrangement and
combination of refining processes largely determined by the refinery location, desired products and economic
considerations.

Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic
meters) per day of crude oil.

Processing units used in refineries

 Crude Oil Distillation unit: Distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions for further processing in other units.
 Vacuum distillation unit: Further distills the residue oil from the bottom of the crude oil distillation unit. The vacuum
distillation is performed at a pressure well below atmospheric pressure.
 Naphtha hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize the naphtha fraction from the crude oil distillation or other
units within the refinery.
 Catalytic reforming unit: Converts the desulfurized naphtha molecules into higher-octane molecules to
produce reformate, which is a component of the end-product gasoline or petrol.
 Alkylation unit: Converts isobutane and butylenes into alkylate, which is a very high-octane component of the end-
product gasoline or petrol.
 Isomerization unit: Converts linear molecules such as normal pentane into higher-octane branched molecules for
blending into the end-product gasoline. Also used to convert linear normal butane into isobutane for use in the alkylation
unit.
 Distillate hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize some of the other distilled fractions from the crude oil
distillation unit (such as diesel oil).
 Merox (mercaptan oxidizer) or similar units: Desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing undesired mercaptans to
organic disulfides.
 Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment for converting hydrogen sulfide gas from the hydrotreaters into
end-product elemental sulfur. The large majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was
byproduct sulfur from petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants. [11][12]

 Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit: Upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling fractions from the crude oil distillation by
converting them into lighter and lower boiling, more valuable products.
 Hydrocracker unit: Uses hydrogen to upgrade heavier fractions from the crude oil distillation and the vacuum
distillation units into lighter, more valuable products.
 Visbreaker unit upgrades heavy residual oils from the vacuum distillation unit by thermally cracking them into lighter,
more valuable reduced viscosity products.
 Delayed coking and fluid coker units: Convert very heavy residual oils into end-product petroleum coke as well as
naphtha and petrol oil by-products.

Auxiliary facilities required in refineries

 Steam reforming unit: Converts natural gas into hydrogen for the hydrotreaters and/or the hydrocracker.
 Sour water stripper unit: Uses steam to remove hydrogen sulfide gas from various wastewater streams for subsequent
conversion into end-product sulfur in the Claus unit. [13]

 Utility units such as cooling towers for furnishing circulating cooling water, steam generators, instrument air systems
for pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical substation.
 Wastewater collection and treating systems consisting of API separators, dissolved air flotation (DAF) units and some
type of further treatment (such as an activated sludge biotreater) to make the wastewaters suitable for reuse or for
disposal.[13]

 Liquified gas (LPG) storage vessels for propane and similar gaseous fuels at a pressure sufficient to maintain them in
liquid form. These are usually spherical vessels or bullets (horizontal vessels with rounded ends).
 Storage tanks for crude oil and finished products, usually vertical, cylindrical vessels with some sort of vapour emission
control and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain liquid spills.

The crude oil distillation unit

The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills
the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which are then processed further in
the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it
operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure. [1][2][14]

Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by
exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic salts
(primarily sodium chloride).

Following the desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and
other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398 °C and routed into
the bottom of the distillation unit.

The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the
incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat is removed from
the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below.
As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions
removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are
called sidecuts. Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil and heavy gas oil) is cooled by exchanging heat
with the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions (i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts and the bottom residue) are
sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further.

Schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries.

Flow diagram of a typical petroleum refinery

The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical petroleum refinery that depicts the various refining
processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final
end-products.

The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does
not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as
well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products. [1][2][15]
 A schematic flow diagram of a typical petroleum refinery.

Flow diagram of typical refinery

The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery  that depicts the various unit processes and the
[33]

flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products.
The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does
not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as
well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products. [1][34][35][36]
 Schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery

There are many process configurations other than that depicted above. For example, the vacuum distillation unit may
also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as: spindle oil used in the textile industry, light
machinery oil, motor oil, and various waxes.

The crude oil distillation unit

The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills
the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which are then processed further in
the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it
operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure. [1][2][37]
Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by
exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic salts
(primarily sodium chloride).

Following the desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and
other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398 °C and routed into
the bottom of the distillation unit.

The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the
incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat is removed from
the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below.

As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions
removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are
called sidecuts. Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil and heavy gas oil) is cooled by exchanging heat
with the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions (i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts and the bottom residue) are
sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further.

Schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries.

Location of petroleum refineries

A party searching for a site to construct a refinery or a chemical plant needs to consider the following issues:

 The site has to be reasonably far from residential areas.

 Infrastructure should be available for supply of raw materials and shipment of products to markets.
 Energy to operate the plant should be available.
 Facilities should be available for waste disposal.
Refineries which use a large amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water. Oil
refineries therefore are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a sea shore, nearby a port. Such location also gives
access to transportation by river or by sea. The advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident, and oil
companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline. Pipeline may not be practical for
products with small output, and rail cars, road tankers, and barges are used.

Petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing (fine fractionating) plants need spaces for further processing of a
large volume of refinery products for further processing, or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather
than at blending terminals.

Safety and environment

Fire-extinguishing operations after the Texas City Refinery explosion.

The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere (see AP 42 Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors) and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air
pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns,  risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion,
[32]

and noise health effects due to industrial noise. [38]

Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release, and most refineries
have installed the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection
regulatory agencies. In the United States, there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries, and no
major refinery has been built in the country since Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility in 1976. However, many
existing refineries have been expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent
construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States.  Additionally,
[39]

many refineries (more than 100 since the 1980s) have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the
industry itself.
Environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major
urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose
health risks. In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County, a shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the
early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas
in Richmond, Martinez, Pacheco, Concord, Pittsburg, Vallejo and Benicia, with occasional accidental events that
require "shelter in place" orders to the adjacent populations. A number of refineries are located in Sherwood Park,
Alberta, directly adjacent to the City of Edmonton. The Edmonton metro area has a population of over 1,000,000
residents.
NIOSH criteria for occupational exposure to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977. [40]

Worker health
Background
Modern petroleum refining involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions that produce a wide
variety of petroleum-based products.  Many of these reactions require precise temperature and pressure parameters.
[41][42]

  The equipment and monitoring required to ensure the proper progression of these processes is complex, and has
[43]

evolved through the advancement of the scientific field of petroleum engineering. [44][45]

The wide array of high pressure and/or high temperature reactions, along with the necessary chemical additives or
extracted contaminants, produces an astonishing number of potential health hazards to the oil refinery worker. [46]

  Through the advancement of technical chemical and petroleum engineering, the vast majority of these processes are
[47]

automated and enclosed, thus greatly reducing the potential health impact to workers.   However, depending on the
[48]
specific process in which a worker is engaged, as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which
he/she works, significant health hazards remain. [49]

Although U.S. occupational injuries were not routinely tracked/reported at the time, reports of the health impacts of
working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s. For instance, an explosion in a Chicago refinery killed
20 workers in 1890.  Since then, numerous fires, explosions, and other significant events have from time to time
[50]

drawn the public's attention to the health of oil refinery workers.  Such events continue today, with explosions
[51]

reported in refineries in Wisconsin and Germany in 2018. [52]

However, there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers.

Chemical exposures
Given the highly automated and technically advanced nature of modern petroleum refineries, nearly all processes are
contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to
earlier times.  However, certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms, and expose workers to
[48]

a number of chemical (see table above) or physical (described below) hazards.  Examples of these scenarios include: [53][54]

 System failures (leaks, explosions, etc.).

[55][56]

 Standard inspection, product sampling, process turnaround, or equipment maintenance/cleaning activities. [53][54]

Interestingly, even though petroleum refineries utilize and produce chemicals that are known carcinogens, the
literature on cancer rates among refinery workers is mixed. For example, benzene has been shown to have a
relationship with leukemia,  however studies examining benzene exposure and resultant leukemia specifically in the
[57]

context of oil refinery workers have come to opposing conclusions.  Asbestos-related mesothelioma is another
[58][59]

particular cancer-carcinogen relationship that has been investigated in the context of oil refinery workers. To date, this
work has shown a marginally significant link to refinery employment and mesothelioma.  Notably, a meta-analysis [60]

which included data on more than 350,000 refinery workers failed to find any statistically significant excess rates of
cancer mortality, except for a marginally significant increase in melanoma deaths.  An additional U.S.-based study [61]

included a follow-up period of 50 years among over 17,000 workers. This study concluded that there was no excess
mortality among this cohort as a result of employment  [59]

BTX stands for benzene, toluene, xylene. This is a group of common volatile organic compounds (VOC's) that are

found in the oil refinery environment, and serve as a paradigm for more in depth discussion of occupational exposure
limits, chemical exposure and surveillance among refinery workers. [62][63]

The most important route of exposure for BTEX chemicals is inhalation due to the low boiling point of these
chemicals. The majority of the gaseous production of BTEX occurs during tank cleaning and fuel transfer, which
causes offgassing of these chemicals into the air.  Exposure can also occur through ingestion via contaminated water,
[64]

but this is unlikely in an occupational setting.  Dermal exposure and absorption is also possible, but is again less
[65]

likely in an occupational setting where appropriate personal protective equipment is in place. [65]

OSHA, NIOSH, and ACGIH have all established occupational exposure limits (OEL's) for many of the chemicals

above that workers may be exposed to in petroleum refineries. [66][67][68]

OEL's for BTX Chemicals (from OSHA Annotated Permissible Exposure Limit Tables)  [66]

OSHA PEL (8-hour Cal/OSHA PEL (8-hour NIOSH REL (10-hour ACGIH TLV (8-hour
TWA) TWA) TWA) TWA)
Benzene 10 ppm 1 ppm 1 ppm 0.5 ppm

Toluene 10 ppm 1 ppm 10 ppm 1 ppm

Xylene 100 ppm 100 ppm 100 ppm 100 ppm

Benzene, in particular, has multiple biomarkers that can be measured to determine exposure. Benzene itself can be
measured in the breath, blood, and urine, and metabolites such as phenol, t,t-muconic acid (t,tMA) and S-
phenylmercapturic acid (sPMA) can be measured in urine.  In addition to monitoring the exposure levels via these
[69]

biomarkers, employers are required by OSHA to perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of some
of the feared hematologic outcomes, of which the most widely recognized is leukemia. Required testing
includes complete blood count with cell differentials and peripheral blood smear "on a regular basis".  The utility of [70]

these tests is supported by formal scientific studies. [71]

Potential Chemical Exposure by Process
Potential Chemical
Process Common Health Concerns [73]

Exposure [72]

Phenol [74]
Neurologic symptoms, muscle weakness, skin irritation.

Furfural [75]
Skin irritation
Solvent Extraction and
Dewaxing Central nervous system depression, weakness, irritation of the
Glycols
eyes, skin, nose, throat.

Methyl ethyl ketone [76]

Airway irritation, cough, dyspnea, pulmonary edema.

Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances,

Hydrogen sulfide [77]

eye pain.
Thermal Cracking
Carbon monoxide [78]
Electrocardiogram changes, cyanosis, headache, weakness.

Ammonia [79]
Respiratory tract irritation, dysnpea, pulmonary edema, skin burns.

Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances,

Hydrogen sulfide [77]

eye pain.

Carbon monoxide [78]

Electrocardiogram changes, cyanosis, headache, weakness.

Phenol [74]
Neurologic symptoms, muscle weakness, skin irritation.
Catalytic Cracking Ammonia [79]
Respiratory tract irritation, dysnpea, pulmonary edema, skin burns.

Cyanosis and narcosis, irritation of the respiratory tract, skin, and

Mercaptan [80][81]

eyes.

Headache, teratogen, weakness, chest/abdominal pain. Lung and

Nickel carbonyl [82]

nasal cancer.

Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances,

Hydrogen sulfide [77]

Catalytic Reforming eye pain.

Benzene [83]
Leukemia, nervous system effects, respiratory symptoms.

Hydrochloric acid Skin damage, respiratory tract irritation, eye burns.

Isomerization
Hydrogen chloride Respiratory tract irritation, skin irritation, eye burns.

Sodium hydroxide [84]

Irritation of the mucous membranes, skin. Pneumonitis.
Polymerization
Phosphoric acid Skin, eye, respiratory irritation.

Sulfuric acid Eye and skin burns, pulmonary edema.

Alkylation
Hydrofluoric acid Bone changes, skin burns, respiratory tract damage.

Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances,

Hydrogen sulfide [77]

Sweetening and Treating eye pain.

Sodium hydroxide [84]

Irritation of the mucous membranes, skin. Pneumonitis.
 Monoethanolamine (MEA) Drowsiness, irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.
Unsaturated Gas Recovery
Diethanolamine (DEA) Corneal necrosis, skin burns, irritation of the eyes, nose, throat.

Monoethanolamine (MEA) Drowsiness, irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.

Diethanolamine (DEA) Corneal necrosis, skin burns, irritation of the eyes, nose, throat.
Amine Treatment Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances,
Hydrogen sulfide [77]

eye pain.

Carbon dioxide Headache, dizziness, paresthesia, malaise, tachycardia.

Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances,

Saturated gas extraction Hydrogen sulfide [77]

eye pain.

Carbon dioxide [85]

Headache, dizziness, paresthesia, malaise, tachycardia.

Diethanolamine Corneal necrosis, skin burns, irritation of the eyes, nose, throat.

Sodium hydroxide [84]

Irritation of the mucous membranes, skin. Pneumonitis.

Carbon monoxide [78]

Electrocardiogram changes, cyanosis, headache, weakness.
Hydrogen Production
Carbon dioxide [85]
Headache, dizziness, paresthesia, malaise, tachycardia.

Physical hazards
Workers are at risk of physical injuries due to the large number of high-powered machines in the relatively close
proximity of the oil refinery.  The high pressure required for many of the chemical reactions also presents the
possibility of localized system failures resulting in blunt or penetrating trauma from exploding system components.
 However, Bureau of Labor (BLS) statistical reports indicate that petroleum refinery workers have a significantly
[86]

lower rate of occupational injury (0.7 OSHA-recordable cases per 100 full-time workers) than all industries (3.1), oil
and gas extraction (1.0), and petroleum manufacturing in general (1.6). [87]

Heat is also a hazard. The temperature required for the proper progression of certain reactions in the refining process
can reach 1600 degrees F.   As with chemicals, the operating system is designed to safely contain this hazard without
[48]

injury to the worker.  However, in system failures this is a potent threat to workers’ health.  Concerns include both
direct injury through a heat illness or injury, as well as the potential for devastating burns should the worker come in
contact with super-heated reagents/equipment. [48]

Noise is another hazard. Refineries can be very loud environments, and have previously been shown to be associated
with hearing loss among workers.  The interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 dB.
[88] [89]

 An average of 90 dB is the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for an 8 hour work-day.  Noise exposures that
[38] [90]

average greater than 85 dB over an 8 hour require a hearing conservation program to regularly evaluate workers'
hearing and to promote its protection.   Regular evaluation of workers’ auditory capacity and faithful use of properly
[91]

vetted hearing protection are essential parts of such programs. [92]

While not specific to the industry, oil refinery workers may also be at risk for hazards such as vehicle-related
accidents, machinery-associated injuries, work in a confined space, explosions/fires, ergonomic hazards, shift-work
related sleep disorders, and falls. [93]

Hazard controls
The theory of hierarchy of controls can be applied to petroleum refineries and their efforts to ensure worker safety.
Elimination and substitution are unlikely in petroleum refineries, as many of the raw materials, waste products, and
finished products are hazardous in one form or another (e.g. flammable, carcinogenic). [72][94]

Examples of engineering controls include a fire detection/extinguishing system, pressure/chemical sensors to

detect/predict loss of structural integrity,  and adequate maintenance of piping to prevent hydrocarbon-
[95]

induced corrosion (leading to structural failure).  Other examples employed in petroleum refineries include the
[55][56][96][97]
post-construction protection of steel components with vermiculite to improve heat/fire resistance.
 Compartmentalization can help to prevent a fire or other systems failure from spreading to affect other areas of the
[98]

structure, and may help prevent dangerous reactions by keeping difference chemicals separate from one another until
they can be safely combined in the proper environment. [95]

Administrative controls include careful planning and oversight of the refinery cleaning, maintenance, and turnaround
processes. These occur when many of the engineering controls are shut down or suppressed, and may be especially
dangerous to workers. Detailed coordination is necessary to ensure that maintenance of one part of the facility will not
cause dangerous exposures to those performing the maintenance, or to workers in other areas of the plant. Due to the
highly flammable nature of many of the involved chemical, smoking areas are tightly controlled and carefully placed. [53]

Personal protective equipment may be necessary depending on the specific chemical being processed or produced.
Particular care is needed during sampling of the partially-completed product, tank cleaning, and other high-risk tasks
as mentioned above. Such activities may require the use of impervious outer wear, acid hood, disposable coveralls,
etc.  More generally, all personnel in operating areas should use appropriate hearing and vision protection, avoid
[53]

clothes made of flammable material (nylon, Dacron, acrylic, or blends), and full-length pants/sleeves. [53]

Regulations
Worker health and safety in oil refineries is closely monitored by both OSHA and NIOSH.  CalOSHA has been
[99][100]

particularly active in regulating worker health in this industry, and adopted a policy in 2017 that requires petroleum
refineries to perform a Hierarchy of Hazard Controls Analysis (see above "Controls" section) for each process safety
hazard. [101]

Below is a list of the most common regulations referenced in petroleum refinery safety citations issued by OSHA: [102]

 Flammable and Combustible Liquids (29 C.F.R. 1910.106)

 The Hazard Communication (HazCom) standard (29 C.F.R. 1910.1200)
 Permit-Required Confined Spaces (29 C.F.R. 1910.146)
 Hazardous (Classified) Locations (29 C.F.R. 1910.307)
 The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) standard (29 C.F.R. 1910.132)
 The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout) standard (29 C.F.R. 1910.147)

Corrosion
Refinery of Slovnaft in Bratislava.

Oil refinery in Iran.

Corrosion of metallic components is a major factor of inefficiency in the refining process. Because it leads to
equipment failure, it is a primary driver for the refinery maintenance schedule. Corrosion-related direct costs in the
U.S. petroleum industry as of 1996 were estimated at US $3.7 billion. [97][103]

Corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process, such as pitting corrosion from water droplets, embrittlement
from hydrogen, and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack.  From a materials standpoint, carbon steel is used
[104]

for upwards of 80 per cent of refinery components, which is beneficial due to its low cost. Carbon steel is resistant to
the most common forms of corrosion, particularly from hydrocarbon impurities at temperatures below 205 °C, but
other corrosive chemicals and environments prevent its use everywhere. Common replacement materials are low alloy
steels containing chromium and molybdenum, with stainless steels containing more chromium dealing with more
corrosive environments. More expensive materials commonly used are nickel, titanium, and copper alloys. These are
primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high temperatures and/or very corrosive chemicals are
present.
[105]

Corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring, preventative repairs and careful use of materials. Monitoring
methods include both offline checks taken during maintenance and online monitoring. Offline checks measure
corrosion after it has occurred, telling the engineer when equipment must be replaced based on the historical
information they have collected. This is referred to as preventative management.

Online systems are a more modern development, and are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached. There are
several types of online corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance, electrochemical
noise and electrical resistance. Online monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past (minutes or hours)
and been limited by process conditions and sources of error but newer technologies can report rates up to twice per
minute with much higher accuracy (referred to as real-time monitoring). This allows process engineers to treat
corrosion as another process variable that can be optimized in the system. Immediate responses to process changes
allow the control of corrosion mechanisms, so they can be minimized while also maximizing production output.  In an
[96]

ideal situation having online corrosion information that is accurate and real-time will allow conditions that cause high
corrosion rates to be identified and reduced. This is known as predictive management.
Materials methods include selecting the proper material for the application. In areas of minimal corrosion, cheap
materials are preferable, but when bad corrosion can occur, more expensive but longer lasting materials should be
used. Other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and the equipment
metals. These can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard Portland cement or other special acid-
resistant cements that are shot onto the inner surface of the vessel. Also available are thin overlays of more expensive
metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion without requiring lots of material.