“DESIGN, FABRICATION AND ANALYSIS OF

CATALYTIC CONVERTER”
CAPSTONE PROJECT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement
For award of the degree
Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by:-
Chirag Lumba 11304213
Sathi Harsha Reddy 11307921
Gurnam Singh 11303302
Sandra Venkata Reddy 11304068

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Manish KumarTated(Assistant Professor)
UID 19483

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
PHAGWARA, PUNJAB (INDIA) -144411

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 Acknowledgment

There are so many people attached to it directly or indirectly and this project bears no exception
to this fact. On the completion of this project we take the opportunity to express our deep
gratitude and sincere thanks to our project mentor, Mr. Manish Kumar whose support and
guidance had always been there since the start of this project to the end. We are highly grateful
to him for his time-to-time feedbacks and precious suggestions. He taught us how to ask
questions and express my ideas and how to work in corporate world

On this occasion we would like to convey our special thanks to Mr. Gurpreet Singh Phull,
HOS, School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Punjab who gave
us a wonderful chance to do project and provided us an immense learning experience.
We cannot fully express our gratitude to Mr. Manish Kumar for providing us the required
theoretical knowledge and clearing our concepts prerequisite for undergoing this project.

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 Declaration
We hereby declare that the project work entitled “DESIGN, FABRICATION AND ANALYSIS
OF CATALYTIC CONVERTER” is an authentic record of our own work carried out as
requirements of Capstone Project for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING from Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, under the
guidance of Mr. Manish Kumar, during September to December 2016.

All the information furnished in this capstone project report is based on our own intensive work
and is genuine.

Project Group Number: MC086

CHIRAG LUMBA GURNAM SINGH

11304213 11303302
Dec 26, 2016Dec 26, 2016

SATHI HARSHA REDDY SANDRA VENKATA RAMIREDDY

11307921 11304068
Dec 26, 2016Dec 26, 2016

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 Lovely Professional University, Punjab
Certificate

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the Capstone project entitled
“Design,Fabrication and analysis of Catalytic Converter” in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of technology and submitted in Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Punjab is an authentic record of my
own work carried out during period of Capstone/Dissertation under the supervision of Mr.
Manish Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely
Professional University, Punjab.
The matter presented in this dissertation has not been submitted by me anywhere for the award of
any other degree or to any other institute. .

Date:

Chirag Lumba

Gurnam Singh

Sathi Harsha Reddy

Sandra Venkata Reddy

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to best of my
knowledge.

Date: Mr. Manish Kumar (Assistant Professor)

Supervisor

The B.Tech Automobile related mini project examination of Catalytic Converter, shall be held
on December 26, 2016.

Signature of Examiner

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 Table of contents
List of figures…………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
1. Introduction………………..……………………………………………………………………………………6
2. Review of Literature……………..…………….………………………………....……..…...……………...8
2.1 Emissions………………………………………………………………..…………….…………………..10
2.2 Types of Substrate…………………………………………………………………..………………….10
2.3 Types of Catalytic Converter………………………………………………………………………..11
2.4 Gasoline Fuel and Combustion Characteristics……….……………………………………..12
3. Scope of the study……………………..…………………….……...……………………………………….15
4. Objective and Hypothesis of the study…………...………………………...……………………….16
5. Research methodology………………………………………….….…….…………......………………..19
5.1 Flow Governing Equation……………………………………………………………………………19
5.2 Turbulence Modeling……………………………………………………………………..................20
5.3 Choosing an appropriate turbulence model for project……………………….…………23
5.4 Numerical Method Details…………………………………………………………………………..25
5.4.1 Numerical Model…………………………………………………………..………………....25
5.4.2 Interpolation Scheme…………………………………………………..……...…………...26

5.5 Results of CFD analysis………………………………………………………………………………….24

6. Results and discussions……………………………………………………………………………………...36
7. Catalytic converters and troubleshooting …………………………………………………………..37
8. Gantt chart…………………………………………………………………………………………………………38
9. References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………39

List of figures

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Fig 1.1: Formation of NOx, CO and UHCs in petrol Engine
Fig 2.1: Schematic diagram of a catalytic converter
Fig 2.2: Two Way catalytic converter
Fig 2.3: Three Way catalytic converter
Fig 2.4: Dual-bed catalytic converter
Fig 2.5: Gasoline fuel combustion characteristics
Fig 5.1: Flow Characteristics
Fig 5.2: Energy Cascading
Fig 5.3: 3D Geometry of catalytic converter.
Fig 5.4: Convention converter with its corresponding pressure drop
Fig 5.5: Relatively new model with its corresponding pressure drop.
Fig 5.6: Tail gate modified model with its corresponding pressure drop
Fig 5.7: The chosen model with its corresponding pressure drop.
Fig 5.8: The absolute pressure contour plot on the wall
Fig 5.9: The total pressure contour plot on the wall
Fig 5.10: Velocity plot on the substrate.
Fig 5.11 Substrate turbulence plot.
Fig 5.12 Contour turbulence plot on the whole wall.

1. Introduction

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Air pollution is the presence of unwanted substances in air in sufficient concentration and for
sufficient time which poses threat to human, plant or animal life, or to property, or which
reasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. Transportation in
today’s world is the most inevitable part of daily life, thus eliminating fuel combustion
completely is not a viable solution. The high temperature and high pressure combustion gases
formed due to combustion of the fuel force the piston downwards, converting chemical energy
into mechanical energy. Automobiles form a significant source of a number of air pollutants,
namely, particulates, NOx, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide. These pollutants are produced when
fuel is burnt under less than ideal conditions. Non-uniform oxygen supply within the combustion
chamber and lower flame temperature leads to incomplete combustion releasing CO, HC and
unburnt particles in the exhaust. Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons,
compounds which contain hydrogen and carbon atoms.
In a perfect engine, oxygen in the air would convert all the hydrogen in the fuel to water and all
the carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide. Nitrogen in the air would remain unaffected. In reality,
the combustion process cannot be perfect and automotive engines emit several types of
pollutants. Combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder is carried out in presence of air.
Theoretically, the quantity of air required for complete combustion of fuel can be calculated if
the molecular formula of petrol is known:
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 + 3.76(x + y/4) N2 → xCO2 + (y/2)H2O + 3.76(x + y/4)N2

The actual combustion process involves unbalanced reactions which produces carbon monoxide
along with nitrogenous oxides during fuel combustion in vehicle engines, the amount of air
provided is not always consistent with the stoichiometric amount required. Insufficient
availability of air, and thus insufficient availability of oxygen, results in formation of carbon
monoxide (CO) instead of CO 2. While insufficient air is the major factor governing CO
formation, other factors also affect the process. These pollutants are harmful to human health and
in presence of sunlight, these substances result in formation of O3 at ground level. Prevention of
emission of these pollutants is thus crucial, by pre-combustion as well as post- combustion
techniques.

Fuel+ O2+ N 2 H 2 O+ CO 2+ N 2+ CO+ NO+ Unburnt HCs

Both of the catalyst materials & metallic core are inexpensive in comparison with conventional
catalysts (noble metals) such as palladium or platinum. In addition, the noble metals such as
platinum group metals are now identified as human health risk due to their rapid emissions in the
environment from various resources like conventional catalytic converter, jewelers and other
medical usages.

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 Fig 1.1: Formation of NOx, CO and UHCs in petrol Engine

Pollutant gases are made of harmful molecules, but those molecules are made from relatively
harmless atoms. So if a way of splitting up the molecules is obtained after they leave a car's
engine and before they get pumped out into the air, the problem of pollution can be eliminated.
That job is done by a catalytic converter. These devices are much simpler than they sound. A
catalyst is simply a chemical that makes a chemical reaction go faster without itself changing in
the process. In a catalytic converter, the catalyst's job is to speed up the removal of pollution. The
catalyst is made from platinum or a similar, platinum-like metal such as palladium or rhodium.

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 2.Review of Literature

 Catalytic convertors are mostly used in diesel operated vehicles due to the fact that the
emissions from the diesel engine constitutes high amount of CO due to incomplete
combustion of the fuel or limited amount of air supply.
 It also contains high level of NOx compounds because of the excessive temperature
achieved in the combustion chamber in the ranges of 1600o C. The atmospheric nitrogen
reacts with the oxygen at this temperature to form nitrogen oxides and dioxide which when
released into atmosphere reacts with the ozone layer resulting into its degradation.
Moreover it reacts with the atmospheric water vapor to form weak acidic ions which
subsequently result in acidic rainfall. The unburnt HC are also released from exhaust gases
which may tangle with the dust particles and form SPM hence forming smog over cities.
 A catalytic converter is a large metal box, bolted to the underside of your car that has two
pipes coming out of it. One of them (the converter's "input") is connected to the engine and
brings in hot, polluted fumes from the engine's cylinders (where the fuel burns and
produces power). The second pipe (the converter's "output") is connected to the tailpipe
(exhaust). As the gases from the engine fumes blow over the catalyst, chemical reactions
take place on its surface, breaking apart the pollutant gases and converting them into other
gases that are safe enough to blow harmlessly out into the air.
 One very important thing to note about catalytic converters is that they require you to use
unleaded fuel, because the lead in conventional fuel "poisons" the catalyst and prevents it
from taking up the pollutants in exhaust gases.
 Catalytic convertors which are mostly used in today’s vehicles contains a structure base
upon which the catalyst bed and rare earth metals are coated. Earlier catalytic converters
used pellet-type aluminum oxide as substrate; however the current practice is the use of
“honeycomb” monoliths. A monolith is essentially a ceramic or alumina (Al2O3) block
hollowed by a large number of parallel channels of small diameter (0.5 to 10 mm). Due to
large number of channels, the overall surface-to-volume ratio is very large, providing better
performance. Moreover, the straight path of the channels reduces pressure drop across the
converter.
 The monolith substrate in a catalytic converter contains two chambers namely reduction
chamber and oxidation chamber. In reduction chamber there is platinum embedded into a
ceramic structure which catalyzes the reduction process of NOx particles into its
constituting elements oxygen and nitrogen. The platinum used in convertors are very
precious and are excellent catalysts but works more efficiently at elevated temperatures of
about 300-350o C. The second chamber of catalytic convertor contains metals like
palladium and rhodium which catalyzes the oxidation reactions of HCs and CO and
converts them into less harmful CO2 and water vapor.

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 Fig 2.1: Schematic diagram of a catalytic converter

The catalytic convertors are simple devices which do not contain any moving part or special
reaction mechanisms hence it does not affect the engine performance or impose any parasitic
load.
At ambient temperatures, a catalytic converter has no effect on the pollutant-laden gas
stream flowing through it. The catalyst bed must reach a temperature of300 oC to be effective.
When an engine is started, the engine as well as the catalyst bed are at ambient temperatures. As
the engine operates, it heats up and the hot exhaust gases emitted by the engine start heating up
the catalyst bed. The time period taken by the catalyst bed to reach operating temperature is
known as “Light-Off” period. Due to inability of the catalyst to convert the emissions during
light-off period, the emissions during this period are higher
The use of precious metals makes the manufacturing costs higher and subsequently the vehicle
cost. More research is being done nowadays to discover a cheaper alternative to the precious
metals and scientists have achieved success in doing so. The alternative material is mulita a
compound of silica and alumina which results in same output as in the case of platinum and
rhodium. Rather this compound is quite rare and has not been implemented till date. Cuprous
oxides along with Titanium dioxides were also used in submarines in past to cutoff harmful
emissions of engine but the problem with these were there less efficiency and consumption rate
were higher. The Petrol engine on the other hand does not involve extreme working temperatures
so there is no formation of NOx. The only pollutants in petrol engine emissions are CO and HC.
The CO however gets oxidized into CO2 which takes a month or two whereas HC particles get
attached to dust and settles down due to its higher density. Although the petrol emissions does
not pose much threat to the environment, there high amount of release can be troublesome.

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2.1 Emissions

Hydrocarbons (HC)
 Resulting from the release of unburned fuel into the atmosphere.
 Produced by incomplete combustion or by fuel evaporation.
 Mostly related to ignition problems.
 Effect could be eye, throat, and lung irritation, and, possibly cancer.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

 CO prevents human blood cells from carrying oxygen to body tissue.
 Symptoms are headaches, nausea, blurred vision, and fatigue.
 A rich air-fuel would increase CO; lean air-fuel mixture would lower CO emissions.

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

 Produced by extremely high temperatures during combustion.

 Air consist of about 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
 With enough heat (above 2500ºF / 1370ºC), nitrogen and oxygen
 In air-fuel mixture combines to form NOx emissions.
 An engine with high compression ratio, lean air-fuel mixture, and
 High-temperature thermostat will produce high combustion heat,
 Resulting in formation of NOx.

2.2 Types of substrates

Metal-core converter
Ceramic-core converter
The core is often a ceramic honeycomb in modern catalytic converters, but stainless steel foil
honeycombs are used, too. The honey-comb surface increases the amount of surface area
available to support the catalyst, and therefore is often called a "catalyst support".

 A wash coat is used to make converters more efficient, often as a mixture of silica and
alumina.
 The wash coat, when added to the core, forms a rough, irregular surface, which has a far
greater surface area than the flat core surfaces do, which then gives the converter core a
larger surface area, and therefore more places for active precious metal sites.
 The catalyst is added to the wash coat (in suspension) before being applied to the core.
 Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used.
 Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used.

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  Platinum and rhodium are used as a reduction catalyst.
 Platinum and palladium are used as an oxidization catalyst.
 Cerium, iron, manganese and nickel are also used.

2.3 Types of catalytic converter

1) Two Way Catalytic Converter

 A two-way catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks.
 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons(unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide
and water: CxH (2x+2) + [(3x+1)/2] O2 → xCO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion reaction)
 Unable to control NOx gases.

Fig 2.2: Two Way catalytic converter

2) Three Way Catalytic Converter

 Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx → xO2 + N2
 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water:
CxH (2x+2) + [(3x+1)/2]O2 → xCO2 + (x+1)H2O
 Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation of
odiferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia.

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 Fig 2.3: Three Way catalytic converter

3) Dual-bed Catalytic Converter (a three-way (reduction) and a two-way

(oxidation) catalyst)
 Mixing chamber is provided between the two.
 Air is forced into the mixing chamber to help burn the HC and CO emissions.

Fig 2.4: Dual-bed catalytic converter

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2.4 Gasoline fuel and combustion characteristics

Gasoline is C8H17
8 carbon atoms + 17 hydrogen atoms bonded together
There is no such thing as a single gasoline molecule. Gasoline is a very complex blend of several
different molecules. C8H17 is used to represent the average “gasoline molecule”.

Composition of air
1 part oxygen (o2) and 4 parts nitrogen (n2)
When gasoline is mixed with air and ignited in the combustion chamber it burns, and in doing
sore organizes the hydrogen, carbon and oxygen atoms. As these atoms are reorganized they can
form CO, CO2, H2O, NO (and other NOx), and of course if some of the gasoline is left
unburned, C8H17 or other forms of generic HC.
Optimum combustion occurs at an A/F ratio of about 14.64:1. If all of the fuel vaporizes
and takes part in combustion and no NOx is formed we would have perfect combustion. Perfect
combustion would result in the formation of nothing CO2, H2O.

Perfect combustion:
Air + Fuel 􀃆CO2 + H2O (and nothing else)
Unfortunately as more and more CO2 is formed the temperature goes up. As the temperature
increases, NOx is formed. NOx formation uses up the oxygen that is needed for CO2 formation.

Real World combustion:

Air + Fuel 􀃆CO2 + H2O + NOx + CO (and unburned HC, O2 & N2)
NOx emissions are at there highest between 14.64:1 and about 16.5:1

KEY CONCEPTS:
 The amount of oxygen present determines what emissions the fuel will produce when
burned.
 As we approach perfect combustion the increased temperature causes additional
pollutants to start forming CO emissions increase under conditions richer than 14.64:1
and when NOx emissions increase in air 14.64:1.

KEY CONCEPTS:
 An air/fuel mixture of 14.64:1 is the best compromise but it does not provide perfect
combustion.
 A 14.64:1 mixture gives the lowest CO and HC levels but it also produces very high NOx
levels.
 A 14.64:1 mixture also results in low oxygen levels.

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 Fig 2.5: Gasoline fuel combustion characteristics

Cerium is an element that attracts oxygen. Under high oxygen conditions the cerium will absorb
oxygen. Under low oxygen conditions the cerium will release its stored oxygen to increase the
oxidation efficiency of CO and HC. Cerium is very important in any 3-way catalyst.

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 3. Scope of the study

The aim of this project is to work on design configuration of catalytic converter. The device has
been designed keeping in consideration of emission of a petrol engine whose emission
constituents are quite different than that of a diesel engine. The convertor is designed to check
the pollutants in emission like CO and HC. The main focus is these two constituents of emission
as the other pollutants are negligible in comparison like SO 2 and NOx. The actual catalytic
convertor consists of ceramic substrate embedded with Nano crystals of palladium and titanium
which forms a honeycomb structure which is very complex with manufacturing point of view.
The cost of manufacturing and the machinery associated with it are also quite expensive
ultimately adding cost to the catalytic convertor as well as the vehicle.
In order to achieve the target various parameters of engine needs to be studied before
coming to any conclusion. First step is to analyze the engine’s maximum fuel ratings and its
exhaust namely volumetric flow of exhaust gases along with its mass flow rate done in order to
ensure no adverse effect such as back pressure is generated on the engine. Secondly to measure
the amount of pollutants emitted per second and design appropriate arrangements to eliminate
the pollutants. Third step is to select an inlet angle configuration so that pressure drop is
minimum, the pressure drop across the catalytic converter is measured by using CFD tools.

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 4. Objective and Hypothesis

 Conventional internal combustion engines are facing problem of producing higher

unburned hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. In order to oxidise
Hydrocarbons and Carbon monoxide gases using thermal system, a residence time of
greater than 50 ms and temperature excess of 600oC to 700oC are required (Heywood
1989).
 A catalytic converter is a device used to reduce the exhaust pollutant gases from an
internal combustion engine. The catalytic converter is placed between engine exhaust
manifold and exhaust tailpipe. Pollutant gases flowing out of the engine pass through it
and undergo chemical processes by which they are converted into relatively harmless
gases. Gas flows through the passages and reacts with catalyst within the porous wash
coat.
 Apart from reducing the pollutants from engine a catalytic converter must also be
designed in such a way that back pressure on the engine be as less as possible, as the
increase in back pressure will hamper the performance of the engine. Two different
configurations of catalytic converter are designed and analysed using design and CFD
tools to find out which configuration is best to reduce pressure drop and in turn the back
pressure. This is the main objective of our project.
 The conventional catalyst materials are mainly noble metals or platinum group metals
(PGMs). The PGMs comprise the rare metals such as platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and
rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), iridium (Ir) and osmium (Os).
 All these materials have the common properties like inert as regards biological reactions
or less chemical reactions; and to be immobile. However, the recent studies show that the
application of these materials have been extensively increased in vehicle exhaust catalyst,
industry, jewelleries, anticancer drug, in dentistry as alloy that cause their anthropogenic
emission and spread in the environment.
 Platinum content of road dusts can be soluble and consequently it enters the waters,
sediments, soil and finally the food chain. In addition, PGMs have also been associated
with asthma, nausea, increased hair loss, and increased spontaneous abortion, dermatitis
and other serious health problems in humans (Kielhornet al 2002; Merget&Rosner 2001;
Ravindraet al 2004; Whitely & Murray 2003).

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5. Research Methodology

5.1 Flow Governing Equations

1. Mass conservation in three dimension

∂ρ
+¿ ( ρu ) =0
∂t

2. Momentum Equation in three dimension

X-momentum
Du ∂(− p+ τ xx ) ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx
ρ = + + + S Mx
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
Y-momentum
Dv ∂ τ xy ∂(− p+τ yy) ∂ τ zy
ρ = + + + S My
Dt ∂ x ∂y ∂z
Z-momentum
Dw ∂ τ xz ∂ τ yz ∂(− p+τ zz)
ρ = + + + S Mz
Dt ∂x ∂ y ∂z

3. Naiver-Stoke Equation

Du −∂ p
ρ = +¿ (μgradu)+ S Mx
Dt ∂x

Du −∂ p
ρ = +¿ ( μgradv)+ S Mx
Dt ∂y

Du −∂ p
ρ = +¿ (μgradw)+ S Mx
Dt ∂z

Where
u, v and w the x, y and z components of velocity
ρ= density of fluid
P= pressure
τ ij=¿¿ Viscous stresses

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5.2 Turbulence Modeling

Turbulence is the random, disordered motion in the fluid when fluid is flowing with higher
velocity whereas laminar flow is regular, orderly motion of the fluid when fluid is flowing with
lower velocity. In laminar flow perturbations die down and not get amplified whereas in
turbulence flow perturbation amplified because inertia force dominant over viscous forces.
Viscous effect try to dampen out amplification of perturbation and inertia forces try to amplify
perturbation.

Important features of turbulence:-

 Randomness of transport variables (velocity, pressure) with respect to time or space.
 Strong mixing due to enhanced diffusivity of turbulence, it is due to interaction of
fluctuation quantities with transport variables where exchange of momentum occurs.
 Wide range of length scales and time scales.

Basic Entities in turbulent flow:-

Eddies are the lumps of rotating masses which can be differentiate on the basis of length scale.
Largest eddy in the flow is the order of system length scale and smallest eddy in the flow is the
order of molecular length scale.

Fig 5.1: Flow Characteristics

Energy Cascading:-
Mean flow have certain instability due to which large eddy extracts energy from it and later
triggered into the turbulence.
As we know that in large eddies inertia force dominates therefore large eddies are inviscid and
angular momentum is conserved during vortex stretching by mean flow due to which rotation
rate increases and radius of rotation decreases which forms the smaller eddies. Smaller eddies
are themselves stretched strongly by somewhat larger eddies and weakly by mean flow.

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 Fig 5.2: Energy Cascading

In our project we will be dealing with this energy cascading and large eddy simulation (LES)
where we need to identify the appropriate system scale model.
For that we have two types of Scales:-
1. Length Scale
2. Time Scale
Notation of these scales for smallest and largest eddy:-
Scale Smallest Eddy Largest Eddy
Length Scale Η l
Velocity Scale V u
Table 1: Notation of various length scales

Here we acknowledge that why larger eddy can’t dissipate the energy extracted from turbulent
mean flow and easily evolves into smaller eddies.
Largest Eddy is the order of system length scale and inertia forces dominate the viscous flow that
is why large eddies can’t dissipate the energy in the form of viscous dissipation.
For smallest eddies length scale is the order of molecular level, inertia force is also no longer
dominating and smallest eddy is good enough to dissipate the energy in the form of viscous
dissipation.
In smallest eddies inertia force is just be balanced by viscous force that is why Reynolds No.
(Ratio of inertia force to viscous force) is nearly equal to 1.
For smallest eddy ( ℜη= 1)

Rate of extraction of Turbulent Kinetic Energy (π per unit mass) from mean flow:-

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 1 1 1
π m u2 × ×
2 m t scale
……. (1)
Where
l
t scale= turn over time scale
u
1
mu 2= Turbulent Kinetic Energy
2
Put the value of turn over time scale in Eqn(1)
u3
π ….... (2)
l

Rate of Dissipation of Turbulent Kinetic Energy (ε) from smallest eddy:-

ε ϑ e ij e ij
….... (3)
Where
ϑ = kinematic viscosity
e ij = rate of deformation tensor associated with smaller eddies or velocity gradient in terms of
scales
v
e ij
η
….... (4)
2
v
ε ϑ 2
η
….... (5)
For dynamic balance rate of dissipation and extraction should be balanced therefore
π ε
ℜη 1
vη
1
ϑ
….... (6)

2 ϑ v2
η
ε
2 ϑ ϑ2
η
η2 ε
4 ϑ3
η
ε

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 1/ 4
ϑ3
η [ ] ε
….... (7)
n
Eq (6) is known as Kolmogorov Length Scale
Smallest Eddy Length Scale doesn’t depend on directly to the features of large eddy but it
depends on rate of dissipation of KE (ε) and Kinematic Viscosity (ϑ).
Now we can calculate system scale from Smallest Eddy Length Scale which comes out to be-

η
ℜ −3 /4
l [ l]
….... (8)
Where
ℜl = largest eddy length scale Reynolds No.

5.3 Choosing an appropriate turbulence model for project

 A turbulence model is a procedure to close the system of mean flow equations.
 For most engineering applications it is unnecessary to resolve the details of the turbulent
fluctuations.
 Turbulence models allow the calculation of the mean flow without first calculating the
full time-dependent flow field.
 We only need to know how turbulence affected the mean flow.
 In particular we need expressions for the Reynolds stresses.
 For a turbulence model to be useful it must have wide applicability, be accurate, simple
and economical to run.
 For CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) problems there are several turbulence model
available like Spalart-Allmaras, k-epsilon, k-omega, Low Reynolds number k-epsilon,
and SST models.

Spalart - Allmaras
The Spalart - Allmaras model adds a single additional variable for a Spalart-Allmaras viscosity
and does not use any wall functions, it solves the entire flow field. The model was originally
developed for aerodynamics applications and is advantageous in that it solves for only a single
additional variable. This makes it less memory-intensive than the other models that solve the
flow field in the buffer layer. Experience shows that this model does not accurately compute
fields that exhibit shear flow, separated flow, or decaying turbulence. Its advantage is that it is
quite stable and shows good convergence.

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K-epsilon
The k-epsilon model solves for two variables, k- the turbulent kinetic energy, and epsilon- the
rate of dissipation of kinetic energy. Wall functions are used in this model, so the flow in the
buffer region is not simulated. The k-epsilon model is very popular for industrial applications
due to its good convergence rate and relatively low memory requirements. It does not very
accurately compute flow fields that exhibit adverse pressure gradients, strong curvature to the
flow, or jet flow. It does perform well for external flow problems around complex geometries.
For example, the k-epsilon model can be used to solve for the airflow around a bluff body.

K-omega
The k-omega model is similar to k-epsilon, instead however, it solves for omega- the specific
rate of dissipation of kinetic energy. It also uses wall functions and therefore has comparable
memory requirements. It has more difficulty converging and is quite sensitive to the initial guess
at the solution. Hence, the k-epsilon model is often used first to find an initial condition for
solving the k-omega model. The k-omega model is useful in many cases where the k-epsilon
model is not accurate, such as internal flows, flows that exhibit strong curvature, separated flows,
and jets. A good example of internal flow is flow through a pipe bend.

Low Reynolds Number k-epsilon

The Low Reynolds number k-epsilon is similar to the k-epsilon model but does not use wall
functions, it solves the flow everywhere. It is a logical extension to k-epsilon and shares many of
its advantages, but uses more memory. It is often advisable to use the k-epsilon model to first
compute a good initial condition for solving the Low Reynolds number k-epsilon model. Since it
does not use wall functions, lift and drag forces and heat flux can be modeled with higher
accuracy.

SST
SST model is a combination of the k-epsilon in the free stream and the k-omega models near the
walls. It does not use wall functions and tends to be most accurate when solving the flow near
the wall. The SST model does not always converge to the solution quickly, so the k-epsilon or k-
omega models are often solved first to give good initial conditions.

Conclusion:-
Catalytic Converter design comprises of simple flow of exhaust gases through a duct which
doesn’t has complex bend and curvy structure therefore for this problem K-epsilon model is
appropriate model as it requires less memory and gives the higher convergence rate as compare
to other models. Also for Venturi and Air Pump flow CFD analysis and turbulence modeling, K-
epsilon model is effective model.

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Advantages
 Relatively simple to implement.
 Leads to stable calculations that converge relatively easily.
 Reasonable predictions for many flows

Disadvantages
 Poor predictions for swirling and rotating flows
 flows with strong separation
 axis symmetric jets
 certain unconfined flows
 fully developed flows in non-circular ducts
 Valid only for fully turbulent flows
 Requires wall function implementation
 Modifications for flows with highly curved stream lines

5.4 Numerical Method Details

5.4.1 Numerical Model

The majority of the CFD modeling applications can be assumed that the flow takes place in a
continuum manner and Navier-Stokes equations can be applied. It is complex and very difficult
to solve the problem on continuum. Instead of solving on continuum we break it up
(discretization) into small chunks and solve on that instead. Then, instead of solving the
continuous governing partial differential equations, we do approximation on discretized problem
and solve those easily.
There are so many different ways to discretize the governing equations.
 Finite Volume Method
 Finite Difference Method
 Finite Element Method
The finite volume method (FVM) is a discretization technique for partial differential equations,
especially those that arise from physical conservation laws. FVM uses a volume integral
formulation of the problem with a finite partitioning set of volumes to discretize the equations.
FVM is in common use for discretizing computational fluid dynamics equations. They describe
the relations between partial derivatives of unknown fields such as temperature, concentration,
pressure, probability density function, with respect to variables within the domain (space, time)
under consideration.
The principle of finite difference methods is close to the numerical schemes used to solve
ordinary differential equations. The domain is partitioned in space and in time and
approximations of the solution are computed at the space or time points. The error between the

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numerical solution and the exact solution is determined by the error that is committed by going
from a differential operator to a difference operator. This error is called the discretization
error or truncation error. The term truncation error reflects the fact that a finite part of a Taylor
series is used in the approximation.
Finite element method (FEM) is a numerical method for solving a differential or integral
equation. It has been applied to a number of physical problems, where the governing differential
equations are available. The method essentially consists of assuming the piecewise continuous
function for the solution and obtaining the parameters of the functions in a manner that reduces
the error in the solution.
Finite difference method leads to truncation error that’s why Finite Volume Method (SIMPLE
algorithm) is the best practice for computational fluid dynamics problem.

5.5 Results of CFD Analysis and Simulation

CFD process consists of Three Primary Steps:
 Pre-Processing: 
This is the first step of CFD simulation process which helps in describing the geometry in the
best possible manner. One needs to identify the fluid domain of interest. The domain of interest
is then further divided into smaller segments known as mesh generation step. There are different
popular Pre-Processing software available in the market including: Gridgen, CFD-GEOM,
ANSYS Meshing, ANSYS ICEM CFD, TGrid etc. We have ICEM CFD Hexa as it gives
immense control over the mesh and its quality.

 Solver: 
Once the problem physics has been identified, fluid material properties, flow physics model, and
boundary conditions are set to solve using a computer. There are popular commercial software
available for this including: ANSYS FLUENT, ANSYS CFX, Star CCM, CFD++, OpenFOAM
etc. All these software have unique pros and cons. We used fluent of ansys 14.5

 Post-Processing: 
The next step after getting the results is to analyze the results with different methods like contour
plots, vector plot, streamlines, data curve etc. for appropriate graphical representations and
report. Some of the popular post-processing software include: ANSYS CFD-Post, EnSight,
FieldView, ParaView, Tecplot 360 etc.The software used by us is CFD Post

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5.5.1Analysis and Results:

Figure 5.3Final Geometry of the catalytic converter

Work done to decide this geometry as final:

Comparison with conventional geometry and already available converter designs on the net.

Figure 5.4 Convention converter with its corresponding pressure drop.

This was an old model catalytic converter used in 90’s vehicles and even now in large trucks ,
this design is implemented as space available for exhaust is comparatively is larger in trucks and
back pressure will be effectively dealt with. But this design cannot be implemented in modern

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cars as a pressure drop of 734 pascals can drastically reduce fuel efficiency and performance of
the engine as well. The automotive industry since 90’s changed the design of catalytic converter
significantly and the following design is universal among the modern cars.

This design can be seen almost everywhere in modern cars , we have used this model as base
design and made a couple of modifications to reduce the pressure drop and in turn back pressure
in the exhaust system. Pressure drop in this system is :

Figure 5.5:Relatively new model with its corresponding pressure drop.

Modification made to this model:

Pressure drop in this case is:

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Figure 5.6: Tail gate modified model with its corresponding pressure drop

Further and final modification:

This modification is done referring to many research papers, reducing the taper angle at the inlet
will reduce the pressure drop as the sudden enlargement losses are mitigated. If the taper angle is
more flow recirculation occurs at the inlet of the substrate hence pressure drop will increase.

Hence we also decided to reduce the taper angle to mitigate pressure drop.

Pressure drop in this case:

Figure 5:7 the chosen model with its corresponding pressure drop.

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5.5.2 Step by step process
Preprocessing: Meshing

Creation of points from base model Creation of cylinders from points

Completecylinders

Assigning mesh sizes

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Creation of 2d block by swept method

Resulting surface blocks with meshing number

Converting 2d to 3d blocking

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 Resulting blocks : Dark Blue-substrate block , teal blue-fluid blocks

After the conversion and transfer of blocks to respective cell zones , generation of premesh and
quality checks are performed . As we can see below the quality is above 0.25 which ensures
accurate results during the solving procedure.

5.5.3 SOLVING PROCEDURE:

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 1. Scaling the model to mm 2.Selection of mathematical model

Assigning material to fluid as nitrogen.

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 Substrate material definition ( nitrogen ) Velocity inlet boundary conditions(22.6m/s)

Pressure outlet boundary condition Solution Initialization

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 Scaled residuals after reaching the convergence at 73rd iteration.

Mesh size was also varied from 0.02 to 0.05 and changes observed were negilible but at 0.04 mm
mesh size , convergence is achieved faster , computational power required is also less as the
mesh is coarse , no hexa and tetrahedrals were around 7000 , for a 294 mm model , 7000
elements is mere perfect to obtain accurate results .

5.5.4 Post processing results:

Figure5.8:Absolute pressure contour plot on the wall.

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Figure5.9:Total pressure contour on the wall
Substrate Velocity plot.

Figure5.10Figure:5.11Turbulence plot

Figure5.12Complete wall turbulence plot

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5.6 Conclusion:
In this flow analysis, old models are downloaded, meshed and analysed with similar boundary
conditions, the old models flow characteristics are then compared with the new and modified
ones to get an idea of how effective an exhaust system can be made so that the engine delivers
more performance for the same fuel consumption. Though the structure is simple, the reduction
in back pressure is evident from the iterations of the software, further fillets and other features
can be added to the model to further reduce back pressure in the exhaust system but due to time
constraint and lack of computational power, we preferred to make simple and effective model of
a catalytic converter.
Majority of the effort we invested is in to reduce the turbulence present in the previous models,
the turbulence induced back flow can increase the back pressure, for this reduce we decreased
the taper angle at the inlet to prevent the losses due to sudden enlargement . Mesh size also
played an important role during the analysis, the mesh size was chosen to be 4 mm, as this size
act as a balance between required computational power and time as well.
Further, a venturi can also be used at the end of the catalytic converter, the pressure at the throat
must be lower than that of the inlet so as to suck more air and exhaust in, if this happens there
will be proper mixture of air and exhaust in the system which ensures further proper treatment of
the exhaust gases.

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6. Result and discussion
Learning curve during this project was steep and has positive slope, different types of mesh and
their effect on the results are also observed during this project. And ultimately found that hexa
meshing is best mesh suitable for this problem.The software used for pre-processing or meshing
is Ansys ICEM CFD hexa meshing, for solving Ansys fluent and for post processing CFD-post ,
the three modules provided the flexibility to change the setup and analyse different
configurations simultaneously.
The final model we have chosen with 25 degrees inlet configuration has very less pressure drop
when compared to the old model catalytic converters 750 pascal vs 320 pascal, the 400 pascal
difference will significantly improve the performance of the engine and also increase fuel
efficiency.The tail gate of the catalytic converter (the second model) which is bent creates flow
recirculation in the unit and is conducive to pressure drop. So the tail gate is modified as to
reduce the pressure drop.
The increase in inlet cone length decision was also made when we realized that
more the cone angle the more vorticity hence this leads to inactive zones inside substrate cell
zone that is in other words , whole substrate is not anticipating the catalytic reactions. So
decrease in cone angle also improves reaction rate of the converter.
Inlet angle can be further reduced to 20 degrees but due to this the outlet
section of the catalytic converter is getting skewed in the process or it is increasing the length of
the catalytic converter, both of these factors can again be conducive to pressure loss in the
system, so the optimum configuration chosen to be 25 degree inlet angle. From the research
papers the team studied, we observed that flow uniformity index increases with increase in inlet
cone length, this reduces the inactive zones in the catalytic converter. Flow uniformity is 0.8,
which is pretty close to 0.9 which is the possible flow uniformity index in the case of a catalytic
converter.
This model contains a single substrate cell zone, but for further reduction of
pollutants in the exhaust system, one can use two substrate cell zones. Calculation can be done
by considering all the parameters such as engine speed, substrate length and many others to
decide the inlet velocity but the main aim here is study the effect of inlet angle on the pressure
drop so it was decided to choose 22 m/s as the inlet velocity and change the configurations of the
converter. Generally the speed of inlet varies from 15m/s to 30m/s.
Residual Plots for X velocity , Y velocity , Z velocity , continuity , K and
epsilon were plotted for every iteration during the analysis and convergence is reached during the
73rd iteration itself , this means that the boundary conditions implied and mesh generated for the
unit were pertaining to practical scenario. Turbulence inside the converter is also less which is
evident from the turbulence plot for substrate and whole wall as well.

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7.1Catalytic Converters troubleshooting
7.1.1 Catalyst Poisoning

Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing
substances that coat the working surfaces, encapsulating the catalyst so that it cannot contact and
treat the exhaust.
Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons — raw or partially-
burnt fuel — to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature, bringing the
risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust
restriction has been minimized using the air compressor unit.

7.1.2 Performance Aspects

Some early converter designs created a great deal of restriction to the flow of exhaust, which
negatively affected vehicle performance, drivability, and fuel economy but there are no adverse
effect on engine as well as in the vehicle’s performance, no long warm-up time period, no light
off temperature.

Summary is as follows:-

1. A wire meshed catalytic converter is an after-treatment device that reduces exhaust

emissions CO and HC outside of the engine.
2. A catalyst is an element that starts a chemical reaction but is not consumed in the process
and is embedded in wire mesh substrate.
3. The catalyst materials used in a catalytic converter include rhodium, palladium, and
platinum conventionally which has been researched and can be replaced by Cuprous
oxide with cerium oxide using alumina silicate as binder
4. A catalytic converter has to be over 260°C before it starts to become effective, and is
therefore mounted as close as possible to the exhaust parts of the engine.
5. Installation of a catalytic converter reduces the brake thermal efficiency but mitigates the
brake specific fuel consumption, fuel flow rate

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8. References

1) Agrawal, A. K., Singh, S. K., Sinha, S., Shukla, M. K., 2004. "Effect of EGR on the
Exhaust Gas Temperature and Exhaust Opacity in Compression Ignition Engines."
Sadhana - Academy Proceedings in Engineering Sciences vol. 29 (3), pp. 275-284. Amin,
M. C., Goswami, J. J., Rathod, P. P., 2011:
2) “Copper - Based Catalytic Converter”, International Journal of Engineering Research and
Technology, Vol. 1, Issue 3. Bartholomew, C. H., 2001.
3) "Mechanisms of Catalyst Deactivation." Applied Catalysis A: General, vol. 212, Issues 1-
2, pp. 17-60. Benjamin, M., 2002: Water Chemistry. Boston: McGraw-Hill, c2002.
Benson, D. K., Potter, T. F., Tracy, C. E., 1994.
4) "Design of a Variable-Conductance Vacuum Insulation." SAE Technical Papers.
Birgersson, H., 2006:
5) Development and Assessment of Regeneration Methods for Commercial Automotive
Three-Way Catalysts. PhD Diss., KTH – Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden. Bleiwas, D.I., 2013, Potential for recovery of cerium contained in automotive
catalytic converters: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2013 – 1037, pp. 10.
Blumenthal, D. L., White, W. H., Smith, T. B., 1978.
6) Anatomy of a Los Angeles Smog Episode: Pollutant Transport in the Daytime Sea
Breeze Regime. Atmospheric Environment vol. 12 (4), pp. 893-907
7) Bokde, K., Waghmare, A., 2013: “Cold Start Performance Enhancement of Motorcycle
Catalytic Convertor by Latent Heat Storage System.” International Journal of Innovative
Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, vol. 2 (2), pp. 372
8) Agrawal, A. K., Singh, S. K., Sinha, S., Shukla, M. K., 2004. "Effect of EGR on the
Exhaust Gas Temperature and Exhaust Opacity in Compression Ignition Engines."
Sadhana - Academy Proceedings in Engineering Sciences vol. 29 (3), pp. 275-284. Amin,
M. C., Goswami, J. J., Rathod, P. P., 2011:
9) “Copper - Based Catalytic Converter”, International Journal of Engineering Research
and Technology, Vol. 1, Issue 3. Bartholomew, C. H., 2001. "Mechanisms of Catalyst
Deactivation." Applied Catalysis A: General, vol. 212, Issues 1-2, pp. 17-60. Benjamin,
M., 2002: Water Chemistry. Boston: McGraw-Hill, c2002. Benson, D. K., Potter, T. F.,
Tracy, C. E., 1994. "Design of a Variable-Conductance Vacuum Insulation." SAE
Technical Papers. Birgersson, H., 2006:
10) Development and Assessment of Regeneration Methods for Commercial Automotive
Three-Way Catalysts. PhD Diss., KTH – Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden. Bleiwas, D.I., 2013, Potential for recovery of cerium contained in automotive
catalytic converters: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2013
11) 1037, pp. 10. Blumenthal, D. L., White, W. H., Smith, T. B., 1978.
12) Anatomy of a Los Angeles Smog Episode: Pollutant Transport in the Daytime Sea
Breeze Regime. Atmospheric Environment vol. 12 (4), pp. 893-907

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13) Bokde, K., Waghmare, A., 2013: “Cold Start Performance Enhancement of Motorcycle
Catalytic Convertor by Latent Heat Storage System.” International Journal of Innovative
Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, vol. 2 (2), pp. 372
14) Ronney, P.D., 2007:
15) Hydrocarbon-fueled internal combustion engines: the worst form of vehicle propulsion,
except for all the other forms
16) . Conference on Alternative Futures for the Automobile, May 23-24, 2007, Los Angeles,
CA. Rood, M. J., 2012: Air Quality Engineering and Science (AQES) Research Group at
University of Illinois at Urbana-
17) Champaign, “CEE 446: Air Quality Engineering, Fall Semester 2013, Lecture Notes”.
18) http://aqes.cee.illinois.edu/classes/CEE446/Coursenotes.pdf, Accessed 30th Nov, 2013.
Sawyer, C. N., McCarty, P., Parkin, S., 2003:
19) Chemistry for Environmental Engineering and Science. Boston: McGraw-Hill, c2003.
20) Searles, R.A., Bosteels, D., 2002: “Emission Control Technologies to Meet Current and
Future European Vehicle Emission Legislation”, Journal of KONES Internal Combustion
Engines 2002 No. 1
21) -2 ISSN 1231-4005. Sluder, C. S., Storey, J. M. E., Lewis, S. A., Wagner, R. M., 2004.
"A Thermal Conductivity Approach for Measuring Hydrogen in Engine Exhaust." SAE
Technical Papers.

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