Chair of Structural Mechanics

Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering

Technical University of Munich

Tutorial Structural Dynamics

Felix Schneider M.Sc.

summer term 2019

Contents
1 Description of vibrations using complex numbers 1
1.1 Complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Introduction to Fourier transformation 3

2.1 Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Representation of the load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Fourier transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Selected important Fourier integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Free vibration of linear systems with single degree of freedom 11

3.1 Undamped free vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.1 Interpretation of the solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Damped free vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.1 Critically damped system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2 Undercritically damped systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.3 Overcritically damped systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Forced vibration of linear systems with single degree of freedom 19

4.1 Harmonic excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.1 Real representation of the solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.2 Complex representation of the solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.3 Transmissibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Periodic excitation - Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.1 General procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.2 Procedure for the determination of the vibration response . . . . . . 27
4.3 Outlook to Fourier transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.1 Fourier transformation of the response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.4 Aperiodic excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.4.1 Unit impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.4.2 Response of the single degree of freedom system to arbitrary aperiodic
excitation - convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Bibliography 49

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List of Figures
1.1 Represenation in the complex plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.1 Periodic load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 Fourier series representation of the load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Rectengular function and its Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Dirac delta function and its Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1 First summand in Eq. (3.12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2 Complete solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.1 SDOF system and periodic load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.2 Fourier coefficients of the load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Amplification function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4 Fourier coefficients of the response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5 Displacement w(t) for different damping ratios D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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1 Description of vibrations using complex
numbers

1.1 Complex numbers

A complex number can be interpreted as a vector in the complex plane:

Im
Im(zb) |zb| zb

ϕ Re(zb) Re
−ϕ

− Im(zb) zb∗

Figure 1.1: Represenation in the complex plane

Representation in Cartesian coordinates:

(1.1)

Representation in polar coordinates:

(1.2)

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Applying Euler’s formula this can be written as

z = |z| (cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)) (1.3)

Comparing Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3), we can derive the following relations:

e iωt = cos (ωt) + i sin (ωt) (1.4)

e −iωt = cos (ωt) − i sin (ωt) (1.5)
1  iωt 
cos (ωt) = e + e −iωt (1.6)
2
i 
sin (ωt) = − e iωt − e −iωt (1.7)
2

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2 Introduction to Fourier transformation

2.1 Fourier series

Every periodic function f (t) can be represented as a sum of sine and cosine functions (Fourier
series):
∞
a0 X
f (t) = + (ak cos (ωk t) + bk sin (ωk t))
2 k=1

with ωk = kω0 and ω0 = 2π T

, where T represents the period of the periodic function. The above
is called Fourier series, and the terms ak and bk are obtained as follows:

T
2Z
ak = f (t) cos (ωk t) dt (2.1)
T
0
ZT
2
bk = f (t) sin (ωk t) dt (2.2)
T
0

The case k = 0 is included in Eq. (2.1), but for the sake of clarity we state it here:

T
2Z
a0 = f (t) dt (2.3)
T
0

For mechanical systems this means that the load f (t) that is applied to the system, as long
as it is periodic, can be replaced by sind and cosine functions with different frequencies and
amplitudes. The response of the system can be calculated for every sine and cosine term
separately. Then, for linear systems only, the total response can be found by superposition of
the separate terms.

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2.1.1 Representation of the load

• Fourier series representation of the periodic load f (t) with period T :

Every periodic function (finitely differentiable) can be expanded to a Fourier series with
infinitely many frequencies Ωk = kΩ1 .
∞
a0 X
f (t) = + (ak cos(Ωk t) + bk sin(Ωk t)) (2.4)
2 k=1
∞
c0 X
= + ck cos(Ωk t + ϕk ) (2.5)
2 k=1
2π
Ω1 = (2.6)
T
Ωk = kΩ1 (2.7)
2ZT
ak = f (t) cos(Ωk t) dt (2.8)
T 0
2ZT
bk = f (t) sin(Ωk t) dt (2.9)
T
q 0

ck = a2k + b2k (2.10)

ϕk = atan2 (−bk ,ak ) (2.11)

• Remark: The formulas for the calculation of the coefficients ak and bk are found by
minimizing the mean square error between function and series representation.
• Fourier analysis in complex notation:
∞
f (t) = cbk e iΩk t (2.12)
X

k=−∞
1ZT
cbk = f (t)e −iΩk t dt (2.13)
T 0

It holds cb−k = cb∗k , and thus: f (t) takes real values. 1

The complex coefficients cbk and the real coefficients ak and bk have the following relation:

1
cbk = (ak − ibk ) (2.14)
2
1q 2
|cbk | = a + b2k (2.15)
2 k
ak = cbk + cb−k (2.16)
Bk = i(cbk − cb−k ) (2.17)
1 ∗
(·) denotes the complex conjugate number.

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 Example 2.1: Fourier series representation of a half sine wave

f (t)

f0

t
T T T
2 2 2

Figure 2.1: Periodic load

Task: Calculate the coefficients of the Fourier series representation of the load depicted
in Fig. 2.1.
The fundamental frequency of the load is Ω0 = 2π
T
.
Then the frequencies of the terms in the series representation are

2π
Ωk = k . (2.18)
T

The coefficients of the Fourier series of the load can be determined as follows:

ak =

bk =

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 2π 2p0
k=0: Ω0 = a0 = 0 b0 =
T π
2π p0
k=1: Ω1 = 1 · a1 = 0 b1 =
T 2
2π 2p0
k=2: Ω2 = 2 · a2 = − b2 = 0
T 3π
2π
k=3: Ω3 = 3 · a3 = 0 b3 = 0
T

The series representation of the load then finally reads:

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 1,2
f (t)
a0 , b1 (x)
1,0 a0 to a2 , b1 (x)
a0 to a4 , b1 (x)
a0 to a6 , b1 (x)
0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0

−0,2
0 T
2
T 3T
2
2T

Figure 2.2: Fourier series representation of the load

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2.2 Fourier transformation

2.2.1 Interpretation

The Fourier transformation of a function (e.g. load over time) gives a representation of the
function in the spectral space.
The function is then represented through infinitely many frequencies that lie infinitely close.
The discrete representation by frequencies ωk becomes a continuous one depending on ω.

Fourier transformation: (2.19)

Inverse Fourier transformation: (2.20)

Fourier notation:

f (t) p̃(Ω) (2.21)

Remark: There are more definitions of the Fourier transformation. The general notation is
given in Eqs. (2.22) and (2.23).

Z∞
v
|b|
u
Fouriertransformation f˜(ω) = f (t)e ibωt dt (2.22)
u
t
(2π)1−a
−∞
Z∞
v
|b|
u
inverse Fouriertransformation f (t) = f˜(ω)e −ibΩt ddω (2.23)
u
t
(2π)1+a
−∞

Usual choices for the parameters {a, b} are:

{0, 1} Modern physics

{1, − 1} Pure mathematics; system engineering
{−1, 1} classical physics
{0, 2π} signal processing

The Fourier transformation can alternatively given in terms of the frequency f = ω/2π:

Z∞
g̃(f ) = g(t)e −i2πf t dt (2.24)
−∞

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 Z∞
g(t) = g̃(f )e i2πf t df (2.25)
−∞

R∞
A necessary condition for the existence of the Fourier transform is that the integral |f (t)| dt
−∞
exists. For this to hold, the function has to be time bounded.
The advantage of the Fourier transformation lies in the fact that the calculation of a system
response in the frequency domain is often easier than in the time domain. In order to determine
the system response, first, the load f (t) is transformed from the time domain to the frequency
domain by means of a Fourier transform. In the frequency domain, the response w̃(ω) is
calculated and then the response in the time domain w(t) can be found by an inverse Fourier
transformation of w̃(ω).

2.2.2 Selected important Fourier integrals

2.2.2.1 Rectangular function

Figure 2.3: Rectengular function and its Fourier transform

The rectangular function can be defined by two Heaviside step function (with the step from 0
to 1 at time t = −a and the step from 1 to 0 at time t = a):

ie iωa ie −iωa 2 sin (ωa) sin (ωa)

!
(H(t + a) − H(t − a)) − + = = 2a (2.26)
ω ω ω ωa

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2.2.2.2 Dirac function δ(t)

Figure 2.4: Dirac delta function and its Fourier transform

δ(t) 1 (2.27)

2.2.2.3 Sine and cosine function

The sine function is transformed to a pair of oppositely directed Dirac impulses, and the cosine
function is transformed to pair of equally directed Dirac impulses:

sin(Ωt) iπ (−δ(ω − Ω0 ) + δ(ω + Ω0 )) (2.28)

cos(Ωt) π(δ(ω − Ω0 ) + δ(ω + Ω0 )) (2.29)

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3 Free vibration of linear systems with
single degree of freedom
Single Degree of Freedom-System:

w(t)

c k

Description via homogeneous differential equation in terms of the displacement w (no load
term):

(3.1)

The equation of motion is found by any of the following methods (compare lecture):
• equilibrium
• principle of virtual displacements
• principle of Hamilton
The solution is found heuristically by an exponential approach:

(3.2)

with

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wb an unknown complex quantity
λ an unknown complex quantity.
Inserting of the approach in Eq. (3.2) into the differential equation Eq. (3.1) results in:

=0 (3.3)

Introducing

k
ωn2 = , (3.4)
m

we find the following characteristic equation that needs to be solved:

(3.5)

The characteristic of the solution depends on the damping value c.

3.1 Undamped free vibration

For undamped systems (c = 0) the solution to Eq. (3.5) is:

(3.6)

Then the solution to the differential equation (3.2) reads

(3.7)

We can apply Euler’s formula to rewrite Eq. (3.7):

w(t) = (Re(wb+ ) + i Im(wb+ )) (cos (ωn t) + i sin (ωn t)) +

+ (Re(wb− ) + i Im(wb− )) (cos (ωn t) − i sin (ωn t)) (3.8)

and further:

w(t) = (Re(wb+ ) + Re(wb− )) cos(ωn t) − (Im(wb+ ) − Im(wb− )) sin(ωn t)+

+ i [(Im(wb+ ) + Im(wb− )) cos(ωn t) + (Re(wb+ ) − Re(wb− )) sin(ωn t)] (3.9)

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Because the solution has to take real values, it must hold:

Im(wb+ ) = − Im(wb− ) Re(wb+ ) = Re(wb− ) (3.10)

Thus wb+ and wb− are complex conjugate numbers.

(3.11)

The solution to the differential equation (3.7) then reads:

w(t) = (Re(wb+ ) + i Im(wb+ ))e iωt + (Re(wb+ ) − i Im(wb+ ))e −iωt (3.12)

3.1.1 Interpretation of the solution

Figure 3.1: First summand in Eq. (3.12)

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 Figure 3.2: Complete solution

The imaginary parts of both parts cancel and Eq. (3.9) can be written as:

w(t) = 2 Re(wb+ ) cos(ωt) − 2 Im(wb+ ) sin(ωt) = w01 cos(ωt) − w02 sin(ωt) = 2|wb+ | cos(ωt + ϕ)
(3.13)

Reminder 3.1

For comparison: The notation known from the previous courses at the chair is:

w(t) = C1 cos(ωn t) + C2 sin(ωn t) (3.14)

with C1 = 2 Re(wb+ ) = w01 and C2 = −2 Im(wb+ ) = −w02 .

The calculation of the unknown coefficients w+ , w− or w01 , w02 is done with the help of the
initial conditions at time t = 0:

(3.15)

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The phase shift ϕ introduced in Eq. (3.13) can be calculated via:
!
ẇ(0)
ϕ = atan2 , w(0) = atan2 (Im(wb+ ), Re(wb+ )) (3.16)
ω

3.2 Damped free vibration

Continuing from Eq. (3.5) the solution for damped systems reads:
s
2
c c

λ1,2 =− ± − ωn2 (3.17)
2m 2m

Three cases can be distinguished that are discussed subsequently:

• critically damped system: expression under root = 0 =⇒ Section 3.2.1
• under critically damped system: expression under root < 0 =⇒ Section 3.2.2
• over critically damped system: expression under root > 0 =⇒ Section 3.2.3

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3.2.1 Critically damped system - aperiodic limit case

For this case:

(3.18)

From the condition that the expression under the root becomes zero, the critical damping
coefficient ccrit is obtained:

(3.19)

We introduce
c
δ= (3.20)
2m

and the damping ratio

δ c c
D= = = . (3.21)
ωn 2mωn ccrit

Therefore, for the aperiodic limit case the solutions of Eq. (3.17) are identical:

λ1 = λ2 = −ωn = −δ (3.22)

This leads to the following solution of the differential equation:

(3.23)

We can deduce that in this limit case no oscillations occur. Instead the displacement asymp-
totically tends to zero.

3.2.2 Undercritically damped systems - quasi-periodic case

For this case:

(3.24)

In building dynamics: D ≈ 0,05 − 0,20  1

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The solution of the characteristic equation (3.5) reads:
q q √
λ1,2 = −δ ± δ 2 − ωn2 = −δ ± i ωn2 − δ 2 = −δ ± iωn 1 − D2 = −δ ± iωD (3.25)

with the damped eigenfrequency wD :

(3.26)

The solution of the differential equation then reads:

h i 1h i
w(t) = wb+ e iωD t + wb− e −iωD t e −δt = (w01 + iw02 ) e iωD t + (w01 − iw02 ) e −iωD t e −δt
2
= [w01 cos (ωD t) − w02 sin (ωD t)] e −δt
= w0 cos(ωD t + ϕ)e −δt (3.27)

The above representations are all equivalent. Then unknowns wb+ , wb− or w01 , w02 or w0 ,
ϕ can be determined from the initial conditions. Exemplarily we give the results for the
representation using w0 and ϕ.
Amplitude w0 :
v
!2
ẇ(0) + w(0) δ
u
u
w0 = t
w(0)2 + (3.28)
ωD

Phase shift ϕ:

ẇ(0) + w(0)δ
!
ϕ = − arctan (3.29)
ωD w(0)

Remarks:
• For small damping values the damped eigenfrequency ωD is almost equal to the un-
damped eigenfrequency ωn . Then one can do calculations with the undamped eigenfre-
quency.
• Real damping characteristics are very complicated to trace. For this reason often equiv-
alent damping ratios are estimated or determined from measurements. One possibility
is to consider two consecutive maximum displacements of the vibrating system. Then
the logarithmic decrement Λ can be calculated, which is defined as the natural logarithm
of the ratio of those two consecutive values. The given approximation holds for small

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 values of D:

w0 cos(ωD t + ϕ)e −δt 2πD

   
 w   
n 
Λ= ln  = ln  = δT = √ ≈ 2πD (3.30)
  
w0 cos(ωD (t + T ) + ϕ)e −δ(t+T )  1 − D2
 
wn+1 

From this, the damping ratio D can be determined:

Λ Λ lin. wn − wn+1
D=√ 2 ≈ ≈ (3.31)
4π + Λ2 2π 2πwn+1

The last step is found by a linearization of the natural logarithm by truncating the power
series after the first term:
 2  3  n
wn
−1 wn
−1 wn
−1
  !
 w  wn
n  wn+1 wn+1 wn+1
ln  = −1 − + + ... + (−1)(n+1)

2 3

 wn+1  wn+1 n
(3.32)

3.2.3 Overcritically damped systems - aperiodic case

For this case:

(3.33)

The oscillator performs a decaying motion, that approaches the zero position. This happens
slower than for the case of critical damping (see Section 3.2.1). The solutions of the charac-
teristic equation (3.5) result in:
√
λ1,2 = −δ ± ωn D2 − 1 = −δ ± ω ∗ (3.34)

This leads to the following solution for the differential equation:

∗ ∗t
 
w(t) = e −δt w1 e ω t + w2 e −ω (3.35)

The unknown coefficients w1 and w2 can be determined from the initial conditions at time
t = 0:

ẇ(0) + (δ + ω ∗ )w(0)
w1 = (3.36)
2ω ∗
−ẇ(0) + (−δ + ω ∗ )w(0)
w2 = (3.37)
2ω ∗

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4 Forced vibration of linear systems with
single degree of freedom

4.1 Harmonic excitation

Equaion of motion:

mẅ + cẇ + kw = p0 cos(Ωt + ϕf ) (4.1)

Solution:

(4.2)

Homogeneous solution wh (t):

• solution of the homogeneous differential equation, necessary to satisfy initial conditions
• decays due to damping with the time function e −δt
• Vibration in the eigenfrequency ωn

Particular solution wp (t):

• Solution of the forced vibration
• Stationary case, steady state (the homogeneous part has decayed, t  T )
• Vibration in the excitation frequency Ω

4.1.1 Real representation of the solution

The two parts of the solution read:

wh (t) = [wh,01 cos(ωD t) + wh,02 sin(ωD t)] e −δt (4.3)

wp (t) = wp0 cos(Ωt + ϕw,p ) (4.4)

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with amplitude wp0 :

f0 f0
wp0 (Ω) = q = V (Ω) = V (Ω)wstat , (4.5)
((k − mΩ2 )2 + (cΩ)2 ) k

amplification function V (Ω):

k
V (Ω) = q (4.6)
((k − mΩ2 )2 + (cΩ)2 )

and the static displacement:

f0
wstat = (4.7)
k

The amplification is the ratio of the dynamic and the static displacement. It is frequency
dependent. The phase of the response is given by

(4.8)

with the phase shift:

 
∆ϕ = atan2 −cΩ,k − mΩ2 (4.9)

For the calculation with dimensionless parameters the dimensionless parameter η is introduced
that describes the ratio between excitation frequency Ω and eigenfrequency ωn .

(4.10)

The amplitude w0 (η) and amplification function V (η) are then given by:

wstat
wp0 (η) = V (η)wstat = q (4.11)
(1 − η 2 )2 + (2Dη)2
1
V (η) = q (4.12)
(1 − η 2 )2 + (2Dη)2

The phase shift of the response with respect to the load is given by:

−2Dη
tan(∆ϕ) = (4.13)
1 − η2

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Remark: The case η = 1 is of special importance. In this case the excitation frequency
Ω equals the eigenfrequency ωn and the system is excited in its natural frequency. This
case is called resonance case. For the undamped system the amplification function exhibits a
singularity for this case and its limiting values thus approach infinity from both sides. Through
this large amplitudes occur in the system that result in enormous loads, which can eventually
lead to a collapse of the structure. For this reason this case should be avoided.

4.1.2 Complex representation of the solution

The following complex approach for the force excited vibration of the SDOF system (wh = 0)
is made:

wp (t) = wbp+ e iΩt + wbp− e −iΩt (4.14)

The load function p(t) is also represented in complex notation:

f (t) = fb+ e iΩt + fb− e −iΩt (4.15)

The approaches are inserted into the equation of motion and separated for the two parts:

(−mΩ2 + iΩc + k)wbp+ e iΩt = fb+ e iΩt (4.16)

(4.17)

This leads to the complex dynamic stiffnesses for the harmonic excitation kb+ and kb− :

(4.18)

(4.19)

Thus, the complex response is given by

(4.20)

wb− = kb− f− = U (−Ω) fb−

−1 b
(4.21)

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with the complex transfer function

1 1
U (Ω) = = (4.22)
−mΩ2 + iΩc + k k (1 − η 2 + i2Dη)

The absolute value |U (Ω)| and the phase shift ∆ϕ between load and response are calculated
as follows:
q 1
|U (Ω)| =U (Ω)U ∗ (Ω) = q
(1 − η 2 )2 + (2Dη)2
−2Dη
tan(∆ϕ) =
1 − η2

Then, the steady state response amplitude wp0 is then given by:

  f0 f0 1
wp0 = 2|wbp+ | = 2|U (Ω)|fb+  = b = q = wstat V (η) (4.23)
k+ k (1 − η 2 )2 + (2Dη)2

4.1.3 Transmissibility

The transmissibility (Durchgängigkeit, Übertragung) is defined as the ratio of the force acting
on the ground and the excitation force.

f (t)
m

(4.24)
c k

fg (t)

For the external force f (t) = fb+ e iΩt the resulting force acting on the ground is

fg (t) = fc (t) + fk (t) = (iΩc + k) w(t) = (iΩc + k) wb+ e iΩt (4.25)

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with

fb+
wb+ =
(k − mΩ2 ) + iΩc

Then the transmissibility reads

fg (t) (k + iΩc) w+ e iΩt (k + iΩc) 1 + i2Dη

T = = = = (4.26)
f (t) f+ e iΩt k − mΩ + iΩc
2 1 − η 2 + i2Dη

The absolute value of the transmissibility |T | is

v
1 + (2Dη)2
u
|T | = (4.27)
u
t
(1 − η 2 )2 + (2Dη)2

and the phase shift ∆ϕT is

 
∆ϕT = atan2 −2Dη 3 , 1 − η 2 + (2Dη)2 (4.28)

The transmissibility is an inverse measure for the shielding or isolation effect of the SDOF
system. Small values of T imply a small force fg compared to the excitation force and thereby
a high isolation effect.

Example 4.1

We want to tune the spring constant k such that the dynamic ground force is 5% of the
force amplitude f0 .

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 f (t)

m m = 1000 kg
f (t) = f0 cos(Ωt)
Ω = 20π 1s
k f0 = 1000 N
D=0

fg (t)

4.1.3.1 Remarks to the transmissibility

• For small Dη, |T | → |V |.

 √ 
• Independently of D it holds: T (η = 2) = 1


√
• For η > 2 the transmissibility is increased for increasing damping.

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 |T |

4
D1 = 0

D2
2
D3 > D2
D3
1
D2
η
0 √
2 D1 = 0

4.2 Periodic excitation - Fourier series

4.2.1 General procedure

The load is represented as a sum of periodic functions with specific frequency (comp. chapter
2.1.1). The response is then determined by superposition of the responses of the system to
each single term in the load decomposition.
The equation of motion for any periodic excitation given by its Fourier series can be written
as follows:
∞
a0 X
mẅ + cẇ + kw = f (t) = + (aj cos(Ωj t) + bj sin(Ωj t)). (4.29)
2 j=1

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Then the amplification function and phase shift of the response to the jth term with excitation
frequency Ωj is given by:

k
Vj = V (Ωj ) = q (4.30)
((k − mΩ2j )2 + (cΩj )2 )
 
∆ϕj = ∆ϕ(ηj ) = atan2 −cΩj , k − mΩ2j (4.31)

or in dimensionless notation:

1
Vj = V (ηj ) = q (4.32)
((1 − ηj2 )2 + (2D ηj )2 )
 
∆ϕj = ∆ϕ(ηj ) = atan2 −2Dηj , 1 − ηj2 (4.33)
Ωj
with ηj = (4.34)
ω

The response is then found by the sum of all single particular solution terms:

(4.35)

4.2.1.1 Amplitude spectrum, spectral representation

If only the maximum amplitudes max wj for the single frquencies Ωj is of interest, but not the
phase shift between the different solution terms, the following relations hold:
q
cj = a2j + b2j (4.36)
cj
max wj = Vj (4.37)
k

Remark: All information about the phase shifts is lost. The square root of the sum of squared
responses is a rough estimate of the maximum amplitude of the total response.
v
u∞  2
u X Cn
max w = t Vn (ηn ) (4.38)
n=0 k

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4.2.1.2 Fourier series in complex notation

Analogously to the decomposition of the load into a complex Fourier series, also the resulting
response can be represented by a complex Fourier series. Then the complex transfer function
can be applied for each term. In this case we also have to consider negative frequencies. The
Fourier series of the load is now given in complex notation:
∞
f (t) = cbj e iΩj t (4.39)
X

j=−∞

The transfer function for the excitation frequency Ωj given in terms of ηj is

1 1
Uj = U (ηj ) = . (4.40)
k (1 − ηj ) + (i 2Dηj )
2

The total vibration response is then obtained by superposition:

1 X ∞
wp (t) = Uj cbj e iΩj t (4.41)
k n=−∞

4.2.2 Procedure for the determination of the vibration response

The following step by step procedure can be applied to determine the vibration response of a
SDOF system to periodic loading:
• Determination of the eigenfrequency ωn of the system
• Determination of the excitation frequencies Ωj from (2.6) and (2.7)
• Calculation of the Fourier coefficients of the load aj and bj from Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9)
• Calculation of ηj as well as Vj and ∆ϕj from Eqs. (4.30) or (4.32) for all excitation
frequencies Ωj
• Determination of the vibration response w(t) by means of superposition from Eq. (4.35)

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 Example 4.2

The load introduced in example 2.1 shall be applied to an SDOF system.

F (t) f (t)  
m f (t) = f0 sin 2π
T
t
f0
w(t)

c k
t
T /2 T /2 T /2

Figure 4.1: SDOF system and periodic load

After we determined the Fourier series of the load in example 2.1, now we calculate the
response of the SDOF system.

Series representation of the load

The Fourier series of the load is given by:

f0 π 2π 2 2π 2 2π
      
f (t) = 1 + sin t − cos 2 t − cos 4 t −
π 2 T 3 T 15 T
2 2π
  
− cos 6 t − . . .
35 T

Calculation of the response for every Fourier series term

Response for c = 0 and ωn = 4

3
· 2π
T
:

Ω1 2π
3
η1 = = T
= V1 = 2,29 ∆ϕ1 = 0
ωn 4 2π
3 T
4

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 Ω2 2 2π 3
η2 = = 4 2π
T
= V2 = 0,8 ∆ϕ2 = π
ωn 3 T
2

η4 = 3 V3 = 0,125 ∆ϕ3 = π
9
η6 = V4 = 0,0519 ∆ϕ4 = π
2
...

Superposition of the single responses

f0 π 2π 2 2π
    
w(t) = 1 + 2,29 sin t − (−0,8) cos 2 t −
πk 2 T 3 T
2 2π 2 2π
    
− (−0,125) cos 4 t − (−0,0519) cos 6 t − . . .
15 T 35 T
f0 2π 2π
    
w(t) = 0,32 + 1,15 sin t + 0,17 cos 2 t +
k T T
2π 2π
    
+ 0,005 cos 4 t + 0,001 cos 6 t . . .
T T

Remark: Rough assessment of the amplitude by orthogonal addition:

q f0 f0 f0
max w = 0,322 + 1,152 + 0,172 · = 1,21 (exact value : 1,30 )
k k k

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 q
c
f0 cj = aj 2 + b j 2

c 0 = a0

0,5 c 1 = b1
0,5
b1 c 2 = a2

c3 = 0
0,32
a0 c4 = ...

0,21
a2 0,04 0,02 0,01
a4 a6 a8
η
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
η1 = 3
4 η2 = 3
2

Figure 4.2: Fourier coefficients of the load

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 |V |

4
V (η) = 1
1−η 2

2,29
2

1 0,8

0,125 0,05 0,03

0 η
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 4.3: Amplification function

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 ωk
f0

wmax = kc |V |

0,5 · 2,29 = 1,15

0,32 · 1

0,21 · 0,8 = 0,17 0,02 · 0,05 = 0,001

0,04 · 0,125 = 0,005 0,01 · 0,03 = 0,0003
η
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 4.4: Fourier coefficients of the response:
“Amplitude spectrum”

4.3 Outlook to Fourier transformation

4.3.1 Fourier transformation of the response

Also the system response w(t) can be transformed from the time to the frequency domain by
means of a Fourier transformation.
Z∞
Fourier transformation: w̃(ω) = w(t)e −iωt dt (4.42)
−∞
∞
1 Z
Inverse Fourier transformation: w(t) = w̃(ω)e iωt dω (4.43)
2π
−∞

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In the frequency domain, the system response can be obtained by multiplication of the Fourier
transformed load f˜(ω) with the transfer function h̃(ω), i.e.

w̃(ω) = h̃(ω)f˜(ω), (4.44)

with the transfer function h̃(ω):

1
h̃(ω) = (4.45)
−mω 2 + icω + k

The response in the time domain is obtained by the inverse Fourier transformation
∞
1 Z
w(t) = h̃(ω)f˜(ω)e iωt dω . (4.46)
2π
−∞

4.4 Aperiodic excitation

4.4.1 Unit impulse

Impulse:

dI
= I˙ = F (4.47)
dt Z
I = F dt = mv (4.48)

We now consider a constnat impulse I = const, which results from a constant force F0 = const
over a finite time interval tI . It holds:

I = F0 tI = const. (4.49)

Considering the limit tI → 0, we observe that F0 has to approach infinity to satisfy the
condition I = const.
Unit impulse I = 1, tI → 0 ⇒ Dirac delta function.

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 f (t)

I · δ(t)

t
0

This condition is satisified by the Dirac delta function. A definition for the Dirac delta function
can be given in different ways. A descriptive definition is given by the Eqs. 4.50 and 4.51.

(4.50)

(4.51)

A mathematically more rigid description is given by Eq. (4.52).

Z∞
f (t)δ(t − t0 ) dt = f (t0 ) (4.52)
−∞

Eq. (4.51) follows from Eq. (4.52) for f (t) = 1 and arbitrary t0 .
The Dirac delta function is often also called unit impulse function.

4.4.1.1 Response of the SDOF system to impulse

A SDOF system subjected to a impulse force with impulse I is considered as a free SDOF
system with initial conditions that can be determined from the impulse at t = t0 .

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 f (t) w(t)

I · δ(t)

v0
0
t t
0

The initial conditions are obtained from the conservation of momentum, m v +I = m V , where
v is the velocity just before the impact (assume to be zero) and V = v(t0 ) is the velocity just
after the impact. We consider the case t0 = 0. Then the initial conditions of the SDOF system
read:

w(0) = 0 (4.53)
I
0 + I = mẇ(0) ⇒ ẇ(0) = v(0) = (4.54)
m

Then the response of the system is given by:

(4.55)

with the unit impulse response function h(t)


0
 for t < 0,
h(t) =  1 . (4.56)
sin(ωD t)e −δt for t ≥ 0
mωD


Thus, it holds:

(4.57)

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4.4.1.2 Response to an impulse at time τ

f (t) w(t)

I · δ(t)

I · h(t − τ )

0
t t
0 τ τ

Vibration resposne:

w(t) = Ih(t − τ ) (4.58)


0
 for t < τ
h(t − τ ) =  1 (4.59)
sin (ωD (t − τ )) e −δ(t−τ ) for t ≥ τ
mωD


with

τ . . . time of impulse
t . . . observation time

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4.4.2 Response of the single degree of freedom system to arbitrary
aperiodic excitation - convolution

f (t)
continuous

f (t) = 0 für t < 0

t
τ dτ

f (t)

dI = f (τ ) dτ

I(t) discrete

dw (t)
dI = p(τ ) dτ

dw (t) = dI h(t − τ )

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Procedure:
• The load f (t) is decomposed into single impulses.
• For every single impulse the response is determined by Eqs. (4.57) or (4.58).
• The superposition of the single responses gives the total response. In the limit case
dτ → 0 the sum of the partial responses becomes the Duhamel integral.
Every single impulse (differential impulse) dI (τ ) = p(τ ) dτ causes a (differential) response
dw (t) in form of the unit impulse response that can be described as follows:

dw (t) = dI (τ )h(t − τ ) = p(τ )h(t − τ ) dτ (4.60)

with
τ . . . time of differential impulse
t . . . observation time
t − τ . . . difference between observation time and time of impulse
The integral over all differential responses results in the total response at observation time
t. Herein the observation time t is a fixed value and the time difference depends on the time
of excitation. Every single impact has a specific time difference t − τ with respect to the
observation time.
Together with Eq. (4.60) this leads to the Duhamel integral—here at first in form of a con-
volution integral. The corresponding impulse response (damped or undamped system) has to
be inserted.

Zt τ =t
Z
w(t) = dw (t) = p(τ )h(t − τ ) dτ t≥0 (4.61)
0 τ =0

The written-out forms for the undamped and damped SDOF systems read:

τ =t
1 Z
w(t) = f (τ ) sin (ωn (t − τ )) dτ t≥0 (4.62)
mωn
τ =0
τ =t
1 Z
w(t) = f (τ ) sin (ωD (t − τ )) e −δ(t−τ ) dτ t≥0 (4.63)
mωD
τ =0

This procedure is only valid for linear systems, since only then the principle of superposition
is valid.

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 Example 4.3: General loading

f (τ )

I1 I1 f0

τ
τ1 τ2 τ3 τ4
h(t)
t1 t2

h(t1 − τ1 ) h(t2 − τ1 )

t
t1 − τ1
h(t) t2 − τ1

h(t1 − τ2 )
h(t2 − τ2 )
t
t1 − τ2
h(t) t2 − τ2

Integration direction
h(t2 − (τ3 + dτ ))
h(t2 − τ3 )
t
t2 − τ4
h(t) t2 − τ3
t2 − (τ3 + dτ )

h(t2 − (τ3 + dτ ))
h(t2 − τ3 )
t

dτ dτ
t2 − (τ3 + dτ )
t2 − τ3

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 Procedure:
• Designation of discontinuities in the excitation function with τi .
• Division of the time line in sub domains between the τi .
(For every sub domain the response is found separately)
• For the total response in every sub domain the response from previous sub domains
is considered.

Domain 1: t ≤ τ1

Domain 2: τ1 ≤ t ≤ τ2

Domain 3: τ2 ≤ t ≤ τ3

Zum Zeitpunkt t1 ergibt sich für die Verschiebung w(t1 ):

τZ=t1

w(t1 ) = p(τ ) h(t1 − τ )dτ = I1 h(t1 − τ1 ) + I2 h(t1 − τ2 )

τ =0

Domain 4: τ3 ≤ t ≤ τ4

Bereich 5: τ4 ≤ t

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 Zum Zeitpunkt t2 ergibt sich für die Verschiebung w(t2 ):

τZ=t2 τZ=τ4

w(t2 ) = f (τ ) h(t2 − τ )dτ = I1 h(t2 − τ1 ) + I2 h(t2 − τ2 ) + f0 h(t2 − τ ) dτ

τ =0 τ =τ3

Example 4.4: Unit step excitation

f (t) f (t)
m
f0
w(t)

c k
t


0 für t < 0
f (t) = (4.64)
f0 für t ≥ 0

The displacement for t ≥ 0 is given by the convolution integral:

(4.65)

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 t
D=0
wstat = F0
k 0<D<1
2F0 D=1
k

w(t)
Figure 4.5: Displacement w(t) for different damping ratios D

For D = 0 it holds:

f0
wmax = 2wstat = 2 (4.66)
k

Alternative solution: Solution of the differential equation with initial conditions,

derivation of the unit step response.
1. Differential equation and initial conditions

mẅ + cẇ + kw = f0 for t > 0 (4.67)

subject to

2. General solution

(4.68)

with the coefficients w01 and w02 determined from the initial conditions:

f0
w01 = −
k
f0 δ
w02 =
kωD

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 Inserted into Eq. (4.68), we obtain:
!!
f0 δ
w(t) = 1 − e −δt cos (ωD t) + sin (ωD t) ∀t>0 (4.69)
k ωD
=
1 
H(t) = 1 − e −δt A cos (ωD t − ϕH ) ∀t>0 (4.70)
k

Amplitude A and phase ϕH of the unit step response function H(t) are:
v
u !2
u δ
A= t
+1
ωD
δ
tan ϕH = .
ωD

For the special case D = 0 it holds:

1
H(t) = (1 − cos (ωt)) (4.71)
k

3. Comparison of the solutions

(4.72)

Thus, we can write:

(4.73)

Ḣ(t) = h(t) (4.74)

The derivation is given in the following where we first substitute ξ = t − τ :

ξ =t−τ (4.75)
dξ
⇒ = −1 (4.76)
dτ
⇒ τ =0→ξ=t (4.77)

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 ⇒ τ =t→ξ=0 (4.78)
τ =t
Z ξ=0
Z ξ=t
Z
⇒ h(t − τ ) dτ = h(ξ)(− dξ) = h(ξ) dξ = H(t) (4.79)
τ =0 ξ=t ξ=0

The relation between the unit step response and the unit impulse response can
also be derived from the excitation:

Einheitsimpulsbelastung: f (t) = f0 δ(t) (4.80)

ξ=t
Z
Einheitssprungbelastung: f (t) = f0 δ(ξ) dξ (4.81)
ξ=−∞

The unit step load can be interpreted as the integral over the unit impulse exci-
tation.

Example 4.5: Rectangular load

f (t) f (t)
m
f0
w(t)

k
t
t0

The following solution approaches can be chosen:

• Unit step response function
• Duhamel integral
• Analysis in the frequency domain (Fourier transformation, comp. Section 4.3)

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 1. Unit step response
a) Domain 1: 0 < t < t0

f0
w1 (t) = f0 H(t) = (1 − cos(ωn t))
k

b) Domain 2: t > t0

w2 (t) = w1 (t) − f0 H(t − t0 )

| {z } | {z }
step at t=0 of f0 step at t=t0 of −f 0
f0 f0
w2 (t) = (1 − cos(ωn t)) − (1 − cos(ωn (t − t0 )))
k k
f0
= [cos(ωn (t − t0 )) − cos(ωn t)]
k

2. Duhamel-Integral
a) Domain 1: 0 < t < t0
We only consider loads f (τ ) for τ < t.

τ =t τ =t
Z Z
1
w1 (t) = f0 h(t − τ ) dτ = f0 sin(ωn (t − τ )) dτ =
mωn
τ =0 τ =0
τ =t
f0 Z
= sin(ωn (t − τ )) dτ
mωn
τ =0
1
τ =t
f0 f0

w1 (t) = cos(ωn (t − τ )) = (1 − cos(ωn t))
mωn ωn τ =0 k

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 b) Domain 2: t > t0
We consider all parts of f (τ ) in 0 < t < t0 (since f (τ ) = 0 for t > t0 ).

τZ=t0 τZ=t0
1
w2 (t) = f0 h(t − τ ) dτ = f0 sin(ωn (t − τ )) dτ =
mωn
τ =0 τ =0
τZ=t0
f0
= sin(ωn (t − τ )) dτ
mωn
τ =0
1
τ =t0
f0 f0

w2 (t) = cos(ωn (t − τ )) = [cos(ωn (t − t0 )) − cos(ωn t)]
mωn ωn τ =0 k

3. Solution in the frequency domain (Fourier analysis) The convolution in-

tegral in the time domain w(t) = f (t) ∗ h(t) corresponds to a multiplication in
the frequency domain w̃(ω) = f˜(ω)h̃(ω).
Procedure:
• Determination of the Fourier transform of the load f (t) f˜(ω) and the
transfer function h(t) h̃(ω).
Remark: In the case of a SDOF system the transfer function h̃(ω) is given
by the complex transfer function U (Ω).
• Calculation of the response in the frequency domain: w̃(ω) = f˜(ω)h̃(ω).
• Application of the inverse Fourier transformation w̃(ω) w(t) for the
determination of the response in the time domain.

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 Example 4.6: Triangular load

f (t) f (t)
m
f0
w(t)

k
t
t0

Solution with the help of the Duhamel integral:

1. Domain 1: 0 < t < t0

w1 (t) =

τ =t
f0 Z
w1 (t) = τ sin(ωn (t − τ )) dτ
t0 mωn
τ =0

We apply integration by parts and obtain:

sin(ωn t) sin(ωn t)
! !
f0 t f0 t
w1 (t) = − = −
mω 2 t0 ωn t0 k t0 ωn t0

2. Domain 2: t > t0

For τ > t0 it is f (τ ) = 0 →

τZ=t0
τ 1
w2 (t) = f0 sin(ωn (t − τ )) dτ
t0 mωn
τ =0
f0 1

w2 (t) = sin(ωn (t − t0 )) (1 − cos(ωn t0 )) +
mωn2 ωn t0

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 sin(ωn t0 )
!!
+ cos(ωn (t − t0 )) 1 −
ωn t0

3. Maximum values of the displacement

• Domain 1: 0 < t < t0
Condition: ẇ1 (t) = 0

f0 1 cos(ωt)
!
ẇ1 (t) = − =0
k t0 t0
⇒ ωn t = 0, 2π, 4π, . . . = 2nπ

Through inserting ωn t = 2nπ into the expression for w1 (t) it follows:

2nπ sin(2nπ) 2nπf0

!
f0 T f0
w1, max = − = =n
k ωn t0 ωn t0 kωt0 t0 k

• Domain 2: t > t0

√ F0 q
w2, max = A2 + B 2 = (1 − cos(ωn t0 ))2 + (ωn t0 − sin(ωn t0 ))2
kωn t0

4. Representation of results
Definition of a dynamic amplification factor V for an impact load:
wmax wmax
V = = f0 6= V (Ω)
wstat k

The amplification factor V is not equal to the amplification function V (Ω) for
harmonic excitation. The amplification factor V is given in the literature for
specific load histories, e.g. in [Eibl and Häussler-Combe 1997].

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Bibliography
[Eibl and Häussler-Combe 1997] Eibl, J. ; Häussler-Combe, U.: Beton-Kalender 1997.
Teil II. Chap. Baudynamik, Wilhelm Ernst&Sohn, Berlin, 1997

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