113

Free-range Poultry Production - A Review

Z. H. Miao*, P. C. Glatz and Y. J. Ru

Livestock Systems, South Australian Research and Development Institute, Roseworthy Campus
Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia 5371

ABSTRACT : With the demand for free-range products increasing and the pressure on the intensive poultry industry to improve
poultry welfare especially in western countries, the number of free-range poultry farms has increased significantly. The USA, Australia
and European countries have developed Codes of Practice for free-range poultry farming which detail the minimum standards of
husbandry and welfare for birds. However, the performance and liveability of free-range birds needs to be improved and more
knowledge is required on bird husbandry, feed supply, disease control and heat wave management. This review examines the husbandry,
welfare, nutrition and disease issues associated with free-range poultry systems and discusses the potential of incorporating free-range
poultry into a crop-pasture rotation system. (Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 2005. Vol 18, No. 1 : 113-132)

Key Words : Forage, Nutrient Requirement, Poultry Husbandry, Animal Welfare, Free-range Egg, Free-range Meat

INTRODUCTION must be from flocks that are kept in the following

conditions:
There has been a resurgence of interest in free-range 1. The hens must have continuous daytime access to 서식 있음: 글머리 기호 및
poultry farming in recent years in developed countries, as a open-air runs. 번호 매기기
result of welfare concerns associated with farming of 2. The ground to which hens have access must be
poultry under intensive conditions. For the “best positive mainly covered with vegetation.
welfare outcome”, birds should be free from hunger, thirst, 3. The maximum stocking should not exceed 1,000
discomfort, pain, injury, disease, fear and distress and able birds/hectare (400 birds/acre or 1 bird/10 m2).
to express normal behaviours (Brambell, 1965). On the 4. The interior of the building must conform to one of
basis of these requirements, the Agricultural Committee of the following standards:
the Swedish Parliament defined the following four criteria • Perchery (barn) - where there is a minimum of 15 cm
for free-range birds: 1) animal health should not be worse, perch space per bird and a maximum stocking density
2) the use of medications and chemicals should not increase, of 25 birds/m2 in the building.
3) the environment should not be impaired and 4) beak • Deep litter - where at least one-third of the floor area
trimming should not be necessary (Sorensen, 1994). is covered with litter such as straw, wood shavings,
However, the Swedish model did not give any weight to the sand or turf, and a sufficiently large part of the floor
cost of production. Instead the top priority in assessing and area is available to the hens for the collection of bird
comparing production systems was welfare. Stewart (2002) droppings. The stocking density should not exceed 7
suggested that two more criteria should be added to the birds/m2 of available floor space (Thear, 1997).
above list; 1) the natural environment be enhanced or Another driver for free-range poultry production
protected and 2) product quality be maintained or enhanced. worldwide is the consumer. For example in Australia it is
Based on these welfare criteria, the free-range system is estimated that free-range production systems account for
considered the most acceptable housing system for poultry. about 6-8% of total egg production and 10-12% of
Under free-range conditions, the birds show high vigour, a supermarket shell egg sales in Australia (McMaster, 1999).
firm and strong feather coverage, warm red combs and The average commercial free-range flock consists of 1,000-
wattles (Bogdanov, 1997). Birds show typical signs of 2,000 hens. Consumers have the perception that free-range
calmness and comfort, such as dust and solar bathing, eggs are a healthy and wholesome food, low in calories and
stretching wings and beak cleaning and preening (Bogdanov, saturated fats, high in protein and vitamins. Many
1997). consumers are prepared to pay an increased price for such a
Currently, free-range is a specific term. European Union product because of the higher cost of production associated
regulations demand that eggs offered for sale as free-range with the greater land area required, increased labour output
per bird, higher feed consumption and poor economies of
* Corresponding Author: Z. H. Miao. Tel: +61-08-8303-7664,
scale in grading, packaging and distribution as compared to
Fax: +61-08-8303-7977, E-mail: [email protected].
the cage industry. The following review was undertaken to
au
Received September 22, 2004; Accepted November 4, 2004 obtain information on free-range production systems, in
114 MIAO ET AL.

particular to identify the main management, nutritional, production. Permin and Ranvig (2001) compared the
product quality and disease issues of concern in free-range resistance to Ascaridia galli infections between Lohman
farming. Brown and Danish Landrace chickens. A self-cure
mechanism to A. galli infections was observed in both
HOUSING FOR FREE-RANGE POULTRY breeds. However, significantly higher worm burdens and
egg excretion were found in the Danish Landrace compared
Free-range farmers generally use either barns or aviaries to Lohman Brown chickens during primary infection. This
for housing with access for the birds to the range through suggests that breeding and selection of strains for resistance
pop-holes, either directly or through an enclosed verandah. to diseases for free-range poultry production is possible.
The free-range area can be accessed directly or via a Apart from the cross-breeding of local and improved
walkway to the end of the shed to access paddocks. The strains, on-going selection and breeding for free-range
pop-holes can be shut in the evening. Water is generally production is required. Birds for free-range production
available outdoors. Alternatively a single pop-hole with should have a better feed conversion, strong plumage and
bars, to exclude foxes, may be left open to minimise the not susceptible to stress. The selection against
need for after-hours labour. To minimize the amount of dirt insusceptibility to stress and feather pecking are part of a
carried back into the sheds a number of farms have wire breeding program, requiring data recording and selection to
mesh grates in front of the pop-holes. To prevent the area be carried out in an environment that resembles the
around sheds becoming muddy from excess bird activity, a production environment as closely as possible to minimise
large number of farms also have some removable material the risk of selection errors due to genotype and environment
(small rocks, gravel, wood chips, wood shavings) along the interactions. To improve egg number, shell colour and
length of the shed sides for about 5-10 metres away from strength, the proven testing procedures established for all
the shed. commercial lines are used throughout and implemented in
Both fixed and mobile shedding are commonly used in the selection process. Optimising feed intake and egg mass
free-range systems. In Australia the sheds are open-sided output in the first third of the production cycle is the most
with ventilation provided by adjustable blinds. The fixed critical trait combination in selecting birds for organic
sheds have litter, perches and nest boxes (either manual or farming (Preisinger, 2001).
automated). Paddock rotation is not routinely practised
although some farms provide rotation by using electric FREE-RANGE POULTRY MANAGEMENT
fences. Barnett (2001) also reported that mobile sheds are
used in some regions of Victoria. These house 100-500 The management of free-range birds is labour intensive
birds and stand on a moveable sled and are towed to and very complex due to the uncontrolled environmental
positions around a paddock once or twice a week. Wire conditions and unpredictable diet composition. For example,
floors enable droppings to fertilise the area. These sheds are the optimum temperature for a layer is 21°C, but it is
generally used by grain farmers between crops. Additional impossible to maintain this optimum temperature under
light is generally not provided. free-range conditions. Free-range birds forage pasture
mainly within 30-40 m of the shelter and are attracted to
BREEDS FOR FREE-RANGE PRODUCTION insects (Glatz and Ru, 2001,2002). For free-range birds,
trees around the paddock offer protection for foraging birds
The ideal free-range egg layer should have adequate particularly from predators (Thear, 1997).
body weight at the start of lay and a good hen-housed egg Fluctuation in temperature often affects egg production
production (Thear, 1997). More importantly these birds of layers. As ambient temperature declines, feed intake
should reproduce and survive under very harsh increases as the free-range layer consumes more energy to
environmental conditions (Huque, 1999). Modern strains maintain body temperature (Portsmouth, 2000). It was also
can be successfully raised in a free-range condition with a reported that in winter, for every 1°C fall in temperature
slightly reduced rate of lay during summer (Glatz and Ru, from the optimum, a laying bird would need an extra 4.2
2002). Local breeds are inseparable from the rural scenario calories (Thear, 1997). However, in summer, especially
due to their adaptability under harsh environmental under a Mediterranean environment, high temperature is
conditions. However, local breeds have low egg production one of the key factors limiting free-range production. As
and slow growth rate. Apart from these limitations, there is temperature increases, egg weight and shell thickness are
a good market for both meat and eggs from local breeds in reduced (Warren and Schnepel, 1940; Payne, 1966;
both the European Union (EU) and Asia. Mowbray and Sykes, 1971) due to a reduction in energy
Selection of the breeds that are more resistant to the and protein intake (Emmans, 1974; Cowan and Michie
disease is another important strategy for free-range 1977). A different result was reported by Mowbray and
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 115

Sykes (1971), who found that egg production could be Association requires that the stocking rates should not
maintained at the same rate as that achieved by normally exceed 250 birds/acre (625/hectare) (Thear, 1997).
housed control birds when the air temperature was kept at
30°C constantly, or cycled from 30°C to 18°C or from 35°C Nest boxes
to 13°C (10 h at the higher temperature in each case). This In a small shelter, nest boxes need to be placed lower
difference in production response of birds may be due to than the perches and in the darkest area of the shelter to
controlled environmental conditions used by Mowbray and attract the chickens to select their nest and discourage egg
Sykes (1971). eating. Nest boxes should be above ground level to avoid
floor-laid eggs; a common problem for free-range chickens.
Drinking water temperature Loose material in the nest boxing is preferred by chickens.
Glatz (2001) recommends that water temperature for Thear (1997) suggested that straw is better than hay as it
free-range birds should be monitored, particularly in hot become mouldy, leading to respiratory problems in both
weather. On free-range farms, hens should be provided cool birds and farm staff. The Australian Code of Practice
water, particularly in hot weather. This can be achieved by (SCARM, 1995) recommends 7 birds/nest box. Shell grit is
regularly flushing the drinker lines, keeping incoming water often used in nest boxes to ensure free-range birds obtain
lines out of direct sunlight, insulating water lines and sufficient calcium and also to prevent development of
ensuring water storage tanks are shaded. Adding ice to the respiratory problems.
header tank is another effective way of reducing water
temperature in hot weather. A more expensive option is to Rotation
install an external water-cooling unit to maintain incoming The production of free-range poultry is constrained by
water below 30°C during heat waves, as water intake is disease due to the accumulation of parasites and other
reduced above this temperature. If water is too hot, birds pathogens in the paddock, especially when the birds have
will drink less, which will result in reduced feed intake, egg been housed and forage in the same paddock for a long
production and poorer shell quality (Glatz, 2001). During period. Currently the recommendation to the free-range
heat waves birds may not be able to keep cool in the shelter. industry is to rotate the flock between paddocks. This
To overcome this problem foggers can be used in shaded rotation system reduces the danger of endoparasites,
areas or in trees. Other options in sheds include the use of including coccidiosis (Folsch et al., 1988). Some farms
insulation on roofs, sprinklers on roofs and use of fans to utilise one paddock at a time for a 12-week period before
increase air movement around the birds. The Australian rotating to the next paddock.
Code of Practice (SCARM, 1995) states that the free-range The incorporation of free-range poultry into a cropping
housing facility must be designed to ensure adequate system will be expected to assist in weed, pest and disease
airflow and temperature control at maximum stocking control in the crop phase, stabilise income (multiple
densities when birds cluster or perch at night or during enterprises), reduce chemical input, improve soil fertility
extreme weather conditions. Orientation and spacing of and crop yield and change consumer perceptions. Glatz and
buildings is another important consideration to reduce the Ru (2002) assessed the potential of using free-range poultry
overall heat load. Planting trees around the facility also in a crop/pasture rotation system where free-range chickens
provides shade on buildings and reduces the heat load. were compared to sheep. In this study, Merino wethers were
stocked at a rate of 6 sheep/paddock (0.5 hectares) giving
Stocking density almost twice the stocking rate of poultry when assessed on
Another factor requiring consideration when a kilogram/hectare basis (110 hens/hectare). The availability
establishing shelters for free-range birds is density, of pastures, weed and insect population were monitored
especially density in the shelter. The effect of stocking during the season. The herbage availability was greater in
density on egg production has been well demonstrated. For the chicken paddock than in the sheep paddocks after 3
example, the rate of lay can be depressed by 5 to 7% at 15 months of foraging (Table 1). Sheep grazed the medic pods
birds/m2 compared with 7.5 birds/m2 (Hill, 1985). The Code heavily leaving only 30 g/m2 of pods while poultry left 965
of Practice in most countries offers guidelines for free-range g/m2. The paddocks foraged by free-range birds did not
farmers on maximum stocking densities allowed. For need to be resown with medics for the next pasture season
example, the Australian Code of Practice recommends a given the high abundance of seeds. The snail population in
maximum of 30 kilogram of bird/m2 of available space this trial at the time of sampling was low probably as a
indoors and no more than 1,500 hens/hectare (SCARM, result of the dry weather conditions. Likewise very few
1995). In Victoria, Australia the Free Range Egg Producers insects were also observed. Sheep, however, were very
Association (FREPA, 1998) recommends maximum effective in grazing the wire weed which contaminated the
stocking density of 750 birds/hectare. The UK Soil paddocks whereas poultry avoided this weed. In contrast,
116 MIAO ET AL.

Table 1. Comparison of the agronomic, snail, weed and soil use the outside range area. Farmers are generally reluctant
fertility in paddocks grazed by sheep and poultry (stocked at 110 to try and increase range use, although they are receptive to
hens/hectare and 12 sheep/hectare respectively) (Glatz and Ru, other management changes, like litter condition, diet and
2002)
reducing the use of bell type drinkers (Green et al., 2000).
Poultry Sheep
Variable
(110 hens/hectare) (12 sheep/hectare)
P However, apart from animal welfare consideration, the
Plant biomass (g/m2) 491 132 *** impact of beak trimming on foraging ability of free-range
Dry matter (g/m2) 417 109 ** birds needs to be assessed. Poor beak trimming often results
Crude protein (g/m2) 50 6 ** in hens with poor beak condition (bubble beaks, split beaks
Organic matter (g/m2) 374 91 ** and short beaks) and these birds are likely to have difficulty
Snails (no./m2) 4 2 NS in foraging or feeding especially on free choice diets where
Medic pods (no./m2) 418 69 ** particle size of the ingredients varies greatly (Glatz, 2000;
Wire weed (no./m2) 23 0 ** Glatz, 2003).
Unidentified weeds (no./m2) 5 16 ***
Nitrate N (mg/kg soil) 18 24 NS
Ammonia N (mg/kg soil) 0 0.1 NS FEEDING FREE-RANGE CHICKENS
*** significantly different at p<0.01, ** different at p<0.05.
NS: not significant. Under natural conditions the fowl’s diet is a very mixed
one, comprising seeds, fruits, herbage and invertebrates
the number of unidentified weeds in the sheep paddock (McBride et al., 1969). The bird browses on the herbage
were greater than the poultry paddock. This raises the and forages by scratching at the ground exposing small food
possibility that sheep and poultry could be grazed together items. Juvenile birds’ food consists mainly of invertebrates
in some circumstances, to provide a method for reducing because growing birds require a high protein diet, while
weed build up, using sheep to graze out weeds they prefer adults consume cereals in the autumn and winter and grass
and poultry to consume weed seeds that sheep avoid. Soil and herbage in the spring and summer (Savory et al., 1978).
fertility was not different between the sheep and poultry Most bird species will consume animal food in the first two
paddocks. The current project by Glatz and Ru (2002) is in weeks of life whereas by 8 weeks of age most bird species
its infancy and the effect of poultry foraging over a number will subsist on mainly plant material (Savory, 1989). Under
of seasons of pasture and cropping is required before free-range conditions birds are capable of selecting a diet
sustainability of this farming system can be fully assessed. that is adequate for all their requirements (Hughes, 1984).
With foraging occupying 7-25% of the birds time (Appleby
Beak trimming et al., 1989), birds have a great potential to consume weed
Taking birds out of cages increases cannibalism (Wills, seeds and pests, which would be of great benefit in a
2002). Although free-range systems enable greater freedom crop/animal rotation system. However a factor which might
to express natural behaviour, vices such as feather pecking, contribute to poor performance is toxic plants and seeds on
cannibalism and mislaid eggs continue to be a problem in the range. Problem plants include vetch (Vicia
free-range (Keeling et al., 1988; Fiks-van Niekerk, 2001). A benghalensis), canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea),
survey of Dutch organic farms with laying hens showed that heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum) and iron weed (Vernonia
50% of the flocks have severe problems with cannibalism, noveboracensis). According to the Australian Code of
25% with moderate problems and only 25% have no or few Practice (SCARM, 1995), poultry should not be kept on
problems with feather pecking (Bestman, 2000; reported by land which has become contaminated with poisonous plants.
Fiks van-Niekerk, 2001). Feather pecking and cannibalism A large amount of information on nutrient requirements is
is more prevalent with a large group size. The presence of available for various strains of birds under intensive
males has been an important factor in reducing this housing system. For example, NRC (1994) recommended
behavioural problem in females. A comparison of the nutritional specifications for layers and broilers at different
management and husbandry of 112 free-range flocks in the growing stages. However, the foraging activity and variable
UK revealed that feather pecking was greatest when a low environmental conditions of free-range poultry makes it
percentage of the flock used the outside range (Thear, 1997). hard to apply the nutritional management guidelines
Beak trimming is necessary to stop feather pecking and recommended for intensive birds. More importantly, local
cannibalism under free-range conditions, especially when breeds in Asian countries are widely used in free-range
birds are overcrowded in the shelters (Thear, 1997). This poultry production systems, with very limited knowledge of
has the result of increasing the stocking density within the nutrient requirements of these breeds, although it is well
house increasing the bird to bird interactions (Nicol et al., known that the nutrient requirement is higher for free-range
2001). The use of plastic slats in the house reduces the risk birds than those housed intensively.
of feather pecking. The Shaver bird has a low propensity to Theoretically, the amount of feed offered to foraging
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 117

Table 2. Effect of season on crop contents of scavenging local hens (physical observation) (Tadelle and Ogle, 2000)
Physical components (% fresh basis)
Season No. of birds
Seeds Plants Worms Insects Others
Short rainy 90 37.5 22.5 2.6 14.6 22.7
Rainy 90 25.8 31.8 11.2 7.7 23.4
Dry 90 29.5 27.7 6.2 11.1 25.6
Means±se 270 30.9±7.9 23.3±6.0 6.7±4.5 11.1±4.5 23.9±4.6

Table 3. Effect of altitude on crop contents of scavenging local hens (physical observation) (Tadelle and Ogle, 2000)
Physical components (%fresh basis)
Season No. of birds Altitude (m)
Seeds Plants Worms Insects Others
High 90 2,780 33.2 28.2 9.0 8.8 20.8
Medium 90 1,850 32.0 27.9 5.9 11.5 22.7
Low 90 1,550 27.7 25.8 5.1 13.1 28.3
Means±se 270 31.0±3.6 27.4±0.8 6.8±2.2 11.2±2.3 23.6±3.4

Table 4. Chemical composition of the crop contents of and Ogle, 2000). During the short rainy season, the
scavenging hens, overall means, SD and range from three of the percentage of seeds in the crop content was higher due to
seasons and study sites (Tadelle and Ogle, 2000) the increased availability of cereal grains and low
Chemical composition (%) availability of plant materials. There was more vegetative
Means±SD (270) Range (270) plant materials in the crop content during the rainy season
Dry matter (DM) 50.7±12.5 26.4-85.8 because of the increased availability of plant materials,
As % of dry matter
especially the green shoots which are palatable to the birds.
Crude protein (CP) 8.8±2.3 4.3-15.4
However, the largest proportion of worms and insects in the
Crude fibre (CF) 10.2±1.6 6.5-14.0
crop contents were found during the rainy season.
Ether extract (EE) 1.9±0.9 0.3-4.7
Ash 1.6-15.7
The energy and protein supplied from the forage
7.8±2.7
Calcium (Ca) 0.2-1.9 resources, as determined from chemical analyses of crop
0.9±0.4
Phosphorus (P) 0.6±0.3 0.1-2.4 contents, were 11.97 MJ/kg and 8.8%, respectively (Table
Energy 2,864.3±247 2,245.1-3,528.1 4). The protein content was even lower during the short
(ME, Kcal/kg calculated) rainy and dry seasons, while the energy supply was more
critical in the drier months (Tadelle and Ogle, 2002). These
birds should be the amount of feed required minus the values were below the protein requirement of free ranging
intake from foraging. The amount of feed required changes local hens in the tropics, estimated at about 11 g/bird/day,
with season and ranging conditions such as the energy cost and the ME supply could only meet the requirement of a
for maintaining body temperature in winter. High non-laying hen (Scott et al., 1982), indicating limitations of
temperature in summer often reduces the intake, the foraging feed resources in terms of nutrient supply to
consequently rate of lay and egg size. Increasing nutrient increase productivity (Tables 2, 3 and 4).
density (amino acids and essential fatty acids) in While an understanding of the seasonal forage intake of
supplementary feed can increase the nutrient intake free-range birds is essential for developing effective
(Portsmouth, 2000). The amount and type of nutrients supplementary feeding strategies, it is difficult to measure
foraged by free-range birds is a mystery which limits the the intake of foraging birds due to the lack of an appropriate
capability of nutritionists to formulate supplementary diets method. While the visual separation of crop contents can
to maintain high production and egg size. Hughes and Dun give some guidelines on the diet composition, it cannot be
(1983) reported that medium hybrid hens in small flocks on used to further quantify the pasture species ingested by
free-range with access to mash feed eat at least 50 g of birds. Measuring the availability and botanic composition
pasture dry matter/day, but the actual nutrients ingested of pastures pre- and post foraging might indicate the
depend on the diet composition which is influenced by the preference of foraging birds over pasture species, but the
type of crop, pastures, weeds and insects available in the result is influenced by the sampling method, regrowth of
paddock. pastures and patchy foraging. Currently a method using
The amount of feed available for foraging in relation to plant alkanes as a marker has been developed to measure
the carrying capacity of the land areas and flock dynamics forage intake of grazing sheep (Dove and Mayes, 1991) and
across the different seasons and agro-ecologies has not been deer (Ru et al., 2002). N-Alkanes are long-chain (C25-35)
quantified. A study in Ethiopia revealed that the materials hydrocarbons, predominantly with odd-numbered carbon
present in the crop were seeds, plant materials, worms, chains, which occur in the cuticular wax of most plant
insects and unidentified materials (Tables 2 and 3) (Tadelle material including cereal straws. Dove and Moore (1995)
118 MIAO ET AL.

showed that the species composition of the herbivore diet Biobalanced feed management systems have been
could be estimated from the pattern of alkanes in each diet developed to decrease the costs of feed for free-range
component and the faeces of the animal consuming them. If poultry. This system uses the biological processes to
pigs or chickens are dosed orally with synthetic even-chain improve the balance between the environment (especially
alkanes, total intake and whole diet digestibility can be the feed) and the bird, and between the bird (especially its
calculated. This provides information about total intake, the excreta) and the environment. A diet made of pure nutrients
intake of different diet components and their effects on mixed in the quantities required by the bird with no waste
whole diet digestibility, in relatively undisturbed animals. would be a perfectly biobalanced feed without
This technique can then be used to assess other factors that environmental pollution, but it would not be economic if
may influence feed intake. cheaper resources are available. The objectives of this feed
Fundamental to the use of n-alkanes to measure feed management system is to reduce wastage and to provide
intake and diet composition of monogastrics is recovery of only enough nutrients for the animal’s use for maintenance
the marker from the faeces and consistent passage through and production. The reduction of the waste of resources is
the digestive tract. Choct and van Barneveld (1995) achieved by 1) decreasing the level of all nutrients in the
demonstrated total recovery of n-hexatriacontane relative to diet, especially protein; 2) formulating diets to contain just
acid-insoluble ash in both ileal and faecal samples of pigs the level of nutrients required by the stock by using neutral
fed diets containing lupins (and hence high levels of dietary ingredients, but no supplement or premixes, and 3)
fibre) included at levels of 0, 12, 24 and 36%. Dove and assuming that free-range birds can get enough vitamins and
Mayes (1991) also cited evidence that hydrocarbons are not minerals from green feed, faeces and soils. Apart from
utilized or metabolized in monogastric species. Wilson et al. using the locally available cheaper feed resources, this
(1999) demonstrated that recoveries of n-alkanes were system also saves the cost on feed by not processing
consistent in pigs, did not vary systematically with feedstuffs (e.g. grinding, mixing, pelleting) (Dingle and
increasing chain length of the alkane and were unaffected Henuk, 2002) and increases the digestibility of nutrients and
by dietary lipid content. More importantly, if only diet decreases the amount of waste excreted by 1) adding
composition and digestibility are considered, there is no enzymes to the feed, such as phytase to reduce P output; 2)
need to dose synthetic even-chain alkanes to animals. uses prebiotics and probiotics to condition the gut to more
However, this method needs to be developed and validated readily absorb nutrients and avoid the use of antibiotics, and
for measuring intake and diet composition of free-range decreases the nutrient partitioning that may be the reason
birds. for low productivity and 3) encourages caecal fermentation
Generally, the supplementary feed should be fed outside, so that more B vitamins are produced there (Dingle and
in a different area every day to encourage birds to forage. Henuk, 2002).
This is a biosecurity concern as it also provides food for
wild birds which could be a source of disease (Thear, 1997). Feeding chicks
The feeding time could vary, depending on the objectives. The utilisation of fat is poor for chicks in the first week
Feeding birds in the morning outside the shelters of age. Application of vegetable oils such as soybean or
encourages birds to forage further, but feeding birds in the canola oil has limited value. The inclusion of palm oil and
afternoon in the shelter assists in getting birds back from animals fats in the diet can limit the uptake of essential
the paddock. Bogdanov (1997) fed 150 g of cereals (wheat, elements (e.g. Ca, P) and many of the trace elements due to
corn and barley) plus 30 g/hen fresh sliced nettle in late the formation of insoluble soaps with minerals. The diet in
afternoon and obtained a good laying rate (57%) for 164 the first few weeks should be palatable and rich in
days. The egg quality (normal shells, firm egg whites and digestible carbohydrates. Maize is a good source of
yolk colour) was ideal, despite the imperfect diet. The carbohydrate, but is not a common ingredient in poultry
contribution of insects, seeds and other materials to nutrient diets in Australia. Wheat is used in most situations in
requirement of birds is significant, but the contribution of Australia, especially in conjunction with enzymes (e.g.
hindgut fermentation of fibrous materials to the energy xylanase). Grit should be available in the paddock to
requirement of birds is not clear. Most researchers believe stimulate early gizzard development (Portsmouth, 2000).
that the energy produced by hindgut cannot be used by The diet specification recommended by Portsmouth (2000)
chickens even though Kass et al. (1980) reported that VFA for free-range birds is listed in Table 5.
produced in the large intestine of pigs can provide up to 6.9,
11.3, 12.5 and 12.0% of energy required for maintenance in The growing stage
the 48 kg pigs, respectively when fed 0, 20, 40 and 60% The energy level in the diet is critical during the post
lucerne meal in the diets. However, the extent of hindgut chick feeding stage, particularly in the period from ten
fermentation is much less for chickens than pigs. weeks to the start of lay. Maintaining optimum stocking
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 119

Table 5. Chick starter and pre-lay feed specifications especially during the first 6 to 8 weeks of life (Rodriguez,
(Portsmouth, 2000) 2002). One of the major reasons for high mortality is
Chick starter Pre-lay disease. Free-range chickens and their eggs are more likely
Nutrient
specification specification to be infected by pathogens than caged birds and their eggs.
Protein, % 20-21 16-17 These chickens are susceptible to the same metabolic
ME (MJ/kg) 12.0 11.5
diseases affecting intensively kept birds, but the
Lysine (total), % 1.15 0.75
Lysine (avail.), % 0.99 0.65 environment can influence their severity and make the birds
Methionine (total), % 0.50 0.34 susceptible to syndromes rarely found in caged layers
Methionine (avail.), % 0.45 0.31 (Mostert et al., 1995). Pennycott and Steel (2001) surveyed
Methionine+cystine, % 0.83 0.60 27 sites in England and Wales for endoparasites and found
Tryptophan, % 0.20 0.17 43% per cent of flocks were positive at 20 weeks of age,
Threonine, % 0.73 0.50 62% were positive at 33 weeks of age, 79% at 46 weeks of
Calcium, % 0.90 2.0 age, and 81% at 59 weeks of age. In this survey, 13 flocks
Avail. phosphorous, % 0.45 0.40 were not wormed at all during lay, and the results from
Sodium, % 0.20 0.16
these flocks demonstrated a similar pattern. Overall 38%,
Linoleic acid, % 1.25 1.25
Added fat/oil Optional 2-3% 46%, 77%, 92% of flocks were positive for worm eggs at
the week 20, 33, 46 and 59 respectively (Portsmouth, 2000).
density is important to ensure that all birds have access to Martin (1999) also found that viral infections present in
feeders and drinkers to avoid uneven growth. Low energy free-range poultry included infectious bronchitis, infectious
diets from 6 to 15 weeks should be avoided. The inclusion bursal disease, infectious laryngotracheitis and Marek's
of enzymes in the free-range poultry ration could improve disease. A prevalence study of gastrointestinal helminths in
the energy utilisation efficiency, especially when a large Danish poultry production systems also confirmed the high
amount of fibre is consumed from foraging pastures. risk of helminth infections in free-range system (Permin et
al., 1999; Table 6).
Pre-lay to early lay There is a difference in the prevalence of ecto-, endo-
This is a very critical period and many free-range flocks and haemoparasites between sexes/ages of free-range
are held back by poor pre-lay nutrition. The requirements chickens. A study conducted in Zimbabwe showed all
for pre-lay are listed in Table 5. Calcium is important for chickens harboured ecto- and endoparasites, and 32% were
the development of medullary bone, but only 2% is infected with haemoparasites (Permin et al., 2002). The
recommended for the pre-lay diet (Portsmouth, 2000). It prevalences of Cnemidocoptes mutans, Goniocotes gallinae
was found that increasing Ca to 3% in the pre-lay diet did and Menopon gallinae were higher in adults compared to
not enhance bone development and an excessive amount of young chickens. The young chickens had higher
calcium can have a negative effect on feed intake. Oyster prevalences of Ascaridia galli and Raillietina
shell is better Ca source than limestone granules because echinobothrida compared to adults, but lower prevalence of
the rate of limestone going into solution is too rapid to Gongylonema ingluvicola and Skrjabinia cesticillus.
maximise blood calcium levels over long periods Similar result was reported by Magwisha et al. (2001). It is
(Bogdanov, 1997; Portsmouth, 2000). also clear that the sex of the chickens can influence the
burdens of Heterakis brevispiculum. Dahl et al. (2002)
DISEASE CONTROL found an interaction effect such that growing males and
adult females had statistically higher (p<0.05) burdens of T.
Mortality is high for free-range chickens in comparison tenuis and A. suctoria, respectively.
with intensively housed birds (Maphosa et al., 2002), Diseases can be transmitted to free-range chickens by

Table 6. Sample size, prevalence of gastrointestinal helminth infections in Danish poultry (Permin et al., 1999)
Free-range/organic Deep-litter Battery cages Parents (broiler)
Helminths Backyard (n=16)
(n=69) (n=62) (n=60) (n=61)
Farm sampled 4 4 4 4 16
Ascaridia galli 63.8* 41.9 5.0 - 37.5
Heterakis gallinarum 72.5 19.4* - - 68.8
Capillaria obsignata 53.6 51.6 - 1.6** 50.0
Capillaria anatis 31.9 - - - 56.3
Capillaria caudinflata 1.5 - - - 6.3
+
Cestode - - 3.3 - 0
N: number of animals examined, -: no helminths identified, + Cestodes were either the Raillietina cesticillus or Choanotaenia infundibulum.
* Significantly different compared to other systems (p<0.05), ** significantly different compared to other systems (p<0.01).
120 MIAO ET AL.

Table 7. Drug sensitivity tests on 1,248 E. coli strains isolated in the protein content of the diet resulted in a significantly
from university battery poultry, 2,196 strains from commercial lower number of adult worms in the gut, but did not affect
battery poultry, 1,220 strains from free-range town poultry and egg production.
1,064 strains from village poultry in tropics (Ojeniyi, 1985)
While the application of antibiotics can control diseases
% resistant
effectively for free-range chickens, the wide spread use of
A B C D
antibiotics may lead to the emergence of resistant bacterial
(n=1,248) (n=2,196) (n=1,064) (n=1,220)
Colistin 2 2 0 0
populations in poultry and other animal species. Ojeniyi
Nitrofurantoin 2 2 0 0 (1985) examined the sensitivity of E. coli strains isolated
Nalidixic acid 0 0 0 0 from commercial battery poultry and free-range poultry in
Ampicillin 22 24 0 0 Nigeria. It was found that all E. coli strains from free-range
Chloramphenicol 11 12 0 0 poultry were sensitive to dugs tested except for tetracycline,
Streptomycin 100 100 0 0 while all the E. coli strains isolated from battery poultry
Sulphonamide 100 100 0 0 were resistant to most of the drugs tested (Table 7).
Tetracycline 100 100 4 6
A: E coli isolates from university modern battery poultry.
B: E. coli isolates from commercial farm battery poultry.
PERFORMANCE OF FREE-RANGE POULTRY
C: E. coli isolates from free-range town poultry.
D: E. coli isolates from village poultry. Generally, the free-range poultry production system is
characterised by low productivity and low input. The
old flocks, wild birds, drinking water in the paddock and
productivity is dependent on the genetics of the stock, the
predators, and this is hard to control. To offer maximum effectiveness of disease control, the quality of
protection to free-range birds, all relevant and available supplementary feeds and the availability of pastures. Egg
vaccines should be used. These include Infectious production fluctuates with season under the free-range
Bronchitis, Newcastle Disease, Egg Drop Syndrome system because egg laying is controlled by follicle-
(carried by wild ducks into water), Infectious
stimulating hormones (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Larngotracheitis, Cholera (Pasteurella infection, carried by produced by the pituitary gland (Manser, 1996), in response
wild ducks), Coryza, Marek's disease, Fowl Pox (carried by to the photoperiod.
mosquitos in certain areas of Australia) (Wills, 2002). Other Light (natural or artificial) has a stimulating effect on
strategies include 1) the frequent rotation of the free-range the pituitary, resulting of secretion of FSH and LH, which
birds before the build up of parasites, 2) keeping the new
activates the ovary. One major effect of light is altering the
birds separate from older ones (Thear, 1997) and 3) rearing age of sexual maturity of pullets. It is not the intensity of
chicks in confinement for the first 8 weeks of age. For the light that causes the difference, but change in day length
latter, the question is whether this rearing system influences that alters the age that the first eggs are laid. The length of
the learning capability of chicks from mother hens on how the day light should not be decreased for laying pullets. If
to scavenge and survive in a harsh environment, although pullets reach sexual maturity too early, an excessive number
there is no clear understanding of the degree of inheritance of small eggs and an increased incidence of prolapse will be
for scavenging traits (Rodriguez, 2002).
a result (North and Bell, 1990). As day length declines, so
Malnutrition of the host might influence the population does egg production under the influence of the pituitary
dynamics of parasites in the gastrointestinal tract (Bundy gland. The number of eggs laid falls and laying may cease
and Golden, 1987; Michael and Bundy, 1991). Bundy and altogether.
Golden (1987) suggested 3 major mechanisms whereby the
Light has its influence on the bird via the eye, optic tract
nutritional status of the host might influence the helminth and possibly the hypothalamus and pineal (Gilbert, 1971).
parasites, including 1) a change in the host immune system Shellabarger (1953) demonstrated that ablation of pineal at
mediated by nutrition, 2) malnutrition of the helminths and an early age caused in increase in testes and comb weight,
3) changes in the gut environment caused by diet. Their and simultaneous increase in gonadotrophic potency of the
research also showed that the extent of parasitism increases
pituitary. The pineal gland is probably responsible for
as a result of an immunosuppressive effect caused by circadian rhythms (24 h cycles) in physiological activity.
malnutrition in the host. The research by Permin et al.
The pineal gland is stimulated by photoperiods releasing
(1998) indicated that the amount of protein in the diet might melatonin which acts as a neuroendocrine interface.
have an effect on the establishment of A. galli infections in Melatonin acts on the ovaries to inhibit the oestrus cycle
the gut of laying hens under free-range conditions. Raising and has wider effects on other neuroendocrine systems.
the protein content from 14% to 18%, without changing Melatonin synthesis is inhibited by nerve impulses to the
other parameters of the diet increased the mean worm
pineal gland. The frequency of impulses is inversely related
burden from 7.2 to 11.5. These differences might arise from to the amount of visible light reaching the retinas of the
the nutritional requirements of A. galli. A moderate decrease
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 121

Table 8. Production performance of free-range birds compared to strain specifications over 18-40 weeks (Glatz and Ru, 2002)
Mortality and culls Rate of lay (%) Rate of lay (%) Rate of lay (%) Egg weight (g) Body weight (kg)
Treatment
(%) (22 weeks) (30 weeks) (40 weeks) (40 weeks) (40 weeks)
Free-range 9.1 72 89 79 57.2 1.93
Standard 1.2 75 94 93 63.9 2.17

eyes. High melatonin concentrations are measured during al. (1984) reported that from 20 to 72 weeks of age,
dark period and low levels are observed during the light production was similar for free-range birds and caged birds
period (http://www.aps.uoguelph.ca/~swatland/ch1_7.htm). (283 vs. 280). Feed intake was higher for free-range birds
In practice, uneven light intensity in the house will than caged birds at 36 weeks (152.4 vs. 119.8 g/day/bird)
result in birds grouping in certain areas. This tends to lead and at 70 weeks (142.9 vs. 123.0 g/day/bird). In this study,
to the development of vices and disease, particularly herbage intake of free-range birds, (estimated using an
respiratory disease (Sainsbury, 2000). During the hot exclusion technique, Hughes and Dun, 1983), was 24-48 g
periods of the day, laying hens are not provided with DM/day/bird at 46, 48 and 51 weeks of age. These values
artificial lights in naturally ventilated sheds, since this will are likely to be overestimated, although birds consumed
help hold down body temperature (Daghir, 2001). While the considerable quantities of grass (Hughes et al., 1985).
extra lights can be supplied in the shelters at night for free- Free-range systems produce more soiled eggs than the
range chickens, the following rules should be followed. other systems due to contamination from soil and excreta.
• Do not provide extra light too early, before point of Pavlovski et al. (1981) (cited by Mostert et al., 1995) found 서식 있음: 글머리 기호 및
that there was more dirt on eggs from extensive production 번호 매기기
lay pullets have grown adequately, or they will lay
early and the eggs will be small. They may also have (8.89%) than on eggs from intensive production (1%). On
problems of coping with laying large eggs later if farm quality control procedures in some countries prohibit
they are young. the sale of dirty eggs. Dun (1992) believed that eggs from
• Increase the period of light gradually until the caged layers are laid into a cleaner environment and the risk
maximum of 15-16 hours is reached. of egg shells and their content becoming contaminated is
• Do not allow the day length to shorten once the birds much lower than in alternative.
are laying (Thear, 1997). In Australia, Glatz and Ru (2002) assessed the
In most situations, free-range farms house about 500- production of layers (Hyline Brown) in the free-range
7,000 birds. The feed intake is about 120 g/day, and egg system during summer. Production was compared with the
production about 270 eggs per year, equivalent to a rate of specifications published by the Hyline company for the
lay 75% (Folsch et al., 1988). However, these parameters same strain housed in cages. The free-range birds showed a
vary between breeds. Isa Brown birds can consume over higher level of mortality (mainly from culling of bullied
130 g feed/day and produce eggs over 63 g (Thear, 1997), birds) and lower rates of lay, egg weight and body weight
but most local breeds used in Asian countries can only over the period 18-40 weeks (Table 8). During the
produce 50-60 eggs per year per hen with a high mortality experimental period, South Australia experienced its hottest
resulting from poor management and disease (Nessar, 2002). summer in a century with a maximum temperature recorded
The performance of hens under different housing in the shelter being over 47°C. Overall, there were 17 days
systems has been investigated by many researchers. Mostert when the temperature exceeded 37°C in the shelter. The
et al. (1995) compared the performance of layers housed in reduction in performance of birds relative to the cage
a battery system (stocking density 0.1 m2/hen), a floor benchmark was expected considering the heat wave
house system (stocking density 0.2 m2/hen) and a free-range conditions experienced and the reduction in the natural
system (stocking density 3.9 m2/hen). The free-range daylight hours after the summer solstice. However, the
system had a lower egg production than both the battery performance by free-range birds was similar to the data
and floor housing system although the egg mass of free- reported by Barnett (1999) on the experience with free-
range and battery systems was higher than the floor housing range egg production in Europe. The level of floor laying
system (60.52 and 60.98 g vs. 59.94 g). The feed was less than 1% of egg production, but dirty (20%) and
conversion (defined as kg eggs/kg feed) was better for the broken eggs were initially a problem, which was overcome
battery system (2.355) than both the floor house (2.535) and by collecting eggs twice daily. Egg weight and body weight
free-range (2.604) systems (Mostert et al., 1995). Similar were lower than the benchmark but this was expected as
results were observed by Leyendecker et al. (2001b) with birds were very active in the free-range environment.
white layers (Lohmann Selected Leyhorn, LSL) and brown An analysis of the direct and indirect use of fossil fuel
layers (Lohmann Tradition LT), where free-range birds had energy in three systems of egg production (battery cages,
a poorer feed conversion and a higher mortality in straw yards, and free-range) showed no difference in the use
comparison with cage and aviary pens. However, Gibson et of energy between systems (Wathes, 1981; Table 9). Indian
122 MIAO ET AL.

Table 9. Edible energy outputs and efficiencies of usage of fossil fuel energy (Wathes, 1981)
Battery cage Straw yard Free-range
Outputs
Egg (y-1) hen-housed 250 235 220
Egg mass (kg) 17.13 eggs/kg, 88% edible 12.84 12.07 11.30
Carcase live weight (kg) 2.25 2.75 3.0
Mortality (%) 8 10 12
Egg energy (MJ) 6.7 MJ/kg 86.0 80.9 75.7
Carcase energy (MJ) 16.7 MJ/kg, 54% edible 18.7 22.3 23.8
Egg protein (kg P) 11.9% by weight 1.53 1.44 1.34
Carcase protein (kg P) 20.8% by weight 0.23 0.28 0.30
Efficiencies
Energy out/in, E 0.165 0.163 0.147
Energy in/protein out, P (MJ/kg) 360 367 412

Table 10. Mean values of nutrient (per kg egg, edible weighta) in eggs under different systems of management (Tolan et al., 1974)
No. of No. of
Nutrient No. of samples Battery Deep litter Free-range
samples samples
Moisture (g) 68 747 49 751 32 746
Fat (g) 68 109 49 107 32 111
Nitrogen (g) 68 19.7 49 19.6 32 19.8
Protein (N×6.25) (g) 68 123 49 122 32 124
Cholesterol (mg) 68 4,350 49 4,480 32 4,690
Ash (g) 36 9.3 25 9.1 17 9.2
Sodium (mg) 36 1,390 25 1,390 17 1,360
Potassium (mg) 36 1,350 25 1,340 17 1,380
Calcium (mg) 36 550* 25 510 17 510
Iron (mg) 36 20.6 25 19.3* 17 20.8
Thiamin (mg) 35 0.91 18 0.88 12 0.90
Riboflavin (mg) 35 4.7 18 5.0 12 4.5
Nicotinic acid (mg) 35 0.68 18 0.65 12 0.70
Nicotinic acid equivalents (mg) 35 37.4 18 33.9 12 35.7
Pantothenic acid (mg) 35 17 18 18 12 18
Folic acid
Streptococcus faecalis (µg) 68 60* 49 100 32 90
Lactobacillus casei (µg) 68 250* 49 320 32 390
Vitamin B12 (µg) 68 17* 49 26* 32 29*
Tocopherols (total) (mg) 68 15 49 18* 32 15
Retinol (µg) 68 1,400 49 1,380 32 1,450
a
A 2 oz. Egg ‘as purchased’ has an edible weight of approximately 50 g.
* Differences between this and other systems significant at the 1% level (p<0.01).

researchers showed that for free-range poultry, the feed cost • clean and freshness, uniformity and good size,
accounted for 40.3% of total production cost, and preferably brown in colour,
vaccination and medication accounted for 7.1%. The overall • free from cracks, taint and unsightly inclusions, e.g.
benefit cost ratio was about 3:1 when the labour cost was blood spots,
not considered. • a firm egg shell,
• air space within the egg not exceeding 4 mm,
QUALITY OF FREE-RANGE PRODUCTS • non-watery, firm white (the height of the white as
related to weight gives a measure called the Haugh
Eggs Units. The higher the Haugh Units the firmer the
The specifications for a free-range egg for the British white. Fresh eggs from young hens produced eggs of
consumer include: 80-90 Haugh Units. Consumer resistance can be
• a guarantee that the eggs have been produced by non- expected if Haugh Units are below 60), 서식 있음: 글머리 기호 및
번호 매기기
caged hens, allowed access to outside runs, • rich yellow/orange yolk and
• an assurance that a part of the diet may have been • an affordable price (Armstrong and Cermak, 1989).
obtained from natural organic sources, While most of the eggs produced under free-range
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 123

Table 11. Fatty acid composition (g/kg total fatty acids) of the Table 12. Quarterly mean values (per kg egg, edible weight) for
yolk fat from hens mixed feed in cages (MF) or mixed feeds and nutrients which showed a significant seasonal pattern in UK
grass under free-range conditions (FR) (n=22) (Lopez-Bote et al., (Tolan et al., 1974)
1998) Nutrient Jan-Mar* Apr-Jun Jul-Sept Oct-Dec
Fatty acids MF FR SEM p>Fa Roboflavin (mg) 4.3 4.7 4.7 5.5
C14:0 0.32 0.39 0.006 0.003 Folic acid (µg) 300 250 300 400
C14:1 0.04 0.06 0.004 NS Vitamin B12 23 23 27 23
C15:0 0.09 0.10 0.012 NS * Means of 1967 and 1968.
C16:0 24.04 27.00 0.225 0.001
C16:1 (n-9) 0.70 0.26 0.042 0.002 troughs.
C16:1 (n-7) 2.27 2.65 0.085 NS In recent years, the lipid composition of chicken egg has
C18:0 13.11 14.05 0.692 NS been a primary area of consumer’s concern due to the
C18:1 (n-9) 35.98 36.91 0.794 NS relationship of specific dietary lipids with the development
C18:1 (n-7) 0.08 0.10 0.003 0.071 of coronary heart disease and some forms of cancer
C18:1 (n-6) 18.70 12.00 0.488 0.001
(Simopoulos and Salem, 1992). Lopez-Bote et al. (1998)
C19:0 0.11 0.11 0.003 NS
found that eggs from chickens grazed on a natural grassland
C18:3 (n-3) 0.39 0.99 0.070 0.065
C20:0 0.02 0.04 0.001 0.001 legumes and herbs (supplemented with 50 g of mixed feed
C20:1 (n-9) 0.25 0.26 0.006 NS daily) had a higher concentration of total (n-3) fatty acids
C20:3 (n-9) 0.19 0.22 0.022 NS (p<0.05) and ◊-tocopherol (p<0.01) than eggs from hens fed
C20:4 (n-6) 2.11 2.01 0.041 NS the commercial diet. No differences in initial values or rate
C20:5 (n-3) 0.02 0.15 0.021 0.044 of oxidation were observed between treatments (Table 11).
C22:1 (n-9) 0.01 0.11 0.029 NS This research suggests that some constituents of grass may
C23:0 0.02 0.01 0.005 NS be of interest for the production of eggs rich in (n-3) fatty
C22:4 (n-6) 0.19 0.28 0.005 0.001
acids, without adverse oxidative effects. Coppock and
C22:5 (n-6) 0.58 0.43 0.024 0.028
C22:5 (n-3) 0.13 0.31 0.029 0.032
Daniels (1962) reported that there were no significant
C22:6 (n-3) 0.62 1.57 0.063 0.001 differences in the fatty acid composition of the eggs
Σ(n-3) 1.16 3.02 0.162 0.001 produced under free-range, battery or deep litter systems.
Σ(n-6) 21.59 14.72 0.491 0.001 Tolan et al. (1974) found that the amino acid
Σ(n-6)/Σ(n-3) 18.73 5.21 0.449 0.001 composition of egg protein did not appear to be affected by
Σsat 37.71 41.68 0.763 0.072 the management system in the UK, but the content of some
Σmono 39.34 40.35 0.836 NS vitamins, especially for riboflavin, folic acid and B12 varied
UIb 95.08 91.01 1.497 NS over the year. The general tendency was for these three
vitamins to be greater in the second half of the year (July to
conditions can meet the above specifications, the actual December, in UK). The highest was obtained in the last
value of free-range eggs is also reflected in their nutritional quarter of the year for both riboflavin and folic acid (Table
quality for consumers. A comparison of nutrient 12). This seasonal change may have been related to the age
composition of eggs produced under different housing structure of the flocks and seasonal intake of these vitamins.
systems showed that the concentration of most nutrients It is more difficult to produce a consistent quality of free-
were similar for eggs produced in battery, deep litter and range eggs across the industry because of the differences in
free-range systems except for some vitamins (Table 10). breeds, feed, age of birds, and management factors on
Free-range eggs contained 50% more folic acid than battery different farms (Tolan et al., 1974). Smith et al. (1954) also
eggs. The B12 content was 29 µg/kg for free-range eggs and reported that environmental temperature affects the mineral
only 17 µg/kg for battery eggs. The higher concentrations composition of eggs.
of vitamin B12 in the free-range may result from an It is expected that the interaction in egg quality between
increased amount of this vitamin, which was available for poultry strain and housing system would occur in practice.
absorption from microbial synthesis within the birds However, Leyendecker et al. (2001b) found no consistent
themselves and also from litter, herbage and soil. However, differences in egg quality of white layers (Lohmann
no difference was found in the fat content of eggs produced Selected Leghorn, LSL) and brown layers (Lohmann
under the different systems, with a mean of 109 g fat/kg egg Tradition, LT) in battery cages, aviary and free-range
(Tolan et al., 1974). Krieg (1963; cited by Tolan et al., systems. Both layer lines exhibited higher Haugh Units in
1974) reported that iron concentration were significantly the aviary. The highest yolk colour was found in the free-
higher in battery eggs (9.2 g/kg) than in deep litter (8.1 range system for LSL-hens and in battery cages for LT-hens.
g/kg) and free-range eggs (7.6 g/kg), probably due to the The number of meat spots was significantly lower in eggs
ingestion of iron from parts of the cages, feed and water of the LT-hens kept in the free-range system.
124 MIAO ET AL.

Table 13. Pesticide residues (ppm) in eggs from agricultural not be valid because free-range birds were all female with
institute farms without thermal vaporisers (Holmes et al., 1969) an average age of 60 days whereas the standard broiler birds
System Samples a-BHC pp’-DDE pp’-DDT were predominantly male with an age of 45 days. The sex
Battery 86 Mean 0.02 0.02 0.03 and age effect on texture of chicken meat could not be
Range 0-0.30 0-0.20 0-0.37
differentiated from the housing effect.
Deep-litter 54 Mean 0.04 0.02 0.04
Range 0-0.33 0-0.13 0-0.31
Free-range 33 Mean 0.04 0.36 0.54 Residues in free-range eggs
Range 0-0.40 0.01-2.8 0-3.8 Free-range chickens are able to express their foraging
behaviour, but can also have access to the herbicide and
Shell thickness insecticide applied to pastures and/or crops. Consumers are
Shell thickness is one of the major egg quality becoming more concerned about residues of these products
parameters and is influenced by a number of factors in free-range eggs. Early study by Holmes et al. (1969)
including housing system. Early research demonstrated that showed that the compounds most frequently detected in the
shell thickness was greatest on free-range, intermediate on eggs were gamma-BHC, pp’-DDT and pp’-DDE, which is
deep litter and least in battery cages (De Jong, 1963; the first toxic metabolite or breakdown product of DDT.
Pavlovski et al., 1981; cited by Mostert et al., 1995). This The free-range eggs had much higher DDT compounds
finding has been further confirmed by Mostert et al. (1995), (Table 13). Nevertheless, nearly 60% of these eggs
who reported that shell thickness of eggs produced in the contained residues which did not exceed 0.05 ppm. Only 3
free-range system was 1um and 0.94 µm thicker than that of samples contained 0.12-0.40 ppm gamma BHC, and 8
eggs produced in the battery and floor house systems, samples contained 0.15-3.8 ppm pp’-DDT. This suggests
respectively. Hughes et al. (1985) found that shell strength the careful management of free-range birds is required to
was slightly greater in eggs from hens on range. Shell avoid eggs being contaminated with chemicals.
deformation was less in eggs from range, but the differences
were small. WELFARE AND BEHAVIOUR OF FREE-RANGE
CHICKENS
Meat
The appearance and colour of meat is a primary quality As discussed in the previous sections, free-range
trait considered by consumers when making purchase systems allow birds to express their natural behaviours with
choices. It has been realised that there is considerable the main feature being freedom of movement, choice of
variation in colour of breast fillets of commercial broilers. nesting site, space to escape or chase other birds during a
However, there is little information on the colour of free- social encounter and choice of neighbour (Armstrong and
range chicken meat. It is expected that a seasonal change in Cermak, 1989). However, it is difficult to judge the housing
meat colour should occur given that seasonal changes in conditions at farm level from an animal welfare point of
feed supply for free-range chickens. This seasonal effect view due to many variable factors on farms. An animal
was clearly demonstrated in turkey, where meat colour was needs index was developed by Bartussek in 1985 and
lowest in winter and highest in summer, although the updated many times since (Bartussek, 1999). One principle
magnitude of these differences was small (McCurdy et al., of the index system is unfavourable conditions in one area
1996; cited by Barbut, 1998). However, Wilkins et al. may be balanced to a certain extent by better conditions in
(2000) found no seasonal effect on breast fillet colour another area. Horning et al. (2001) assessed the housing
although two free-range flocks produced breast fillets conditions of 63 hen houses using this index system. He
slightly, but significantly lighter and less red compared with found that the deep litter system achieved fewest points,
intensively housed birds. followed by aviaries and free-range systems. Farms with
Dunn et al. (1993) compared the texture of chicken meat both a covered run and free-range scored most points
produced by free-range chickens and chickens housed in (Horning et al., 2001). Within this scoring system, high
cages. The outcomes of this study showed no significant scores were given for optimum density, ability of birds to
difference in mean ultimate pH values of the breast muscle access feed, water, perches, nests, outdoor runs, litter
of the free-range and standard broilers. Free-range meat scratching areas and plumage condition. However, in this
tended to be low in pH with 46% of these birds having pH scoring system it was surprising that little importance was
below 5.6. In comparison, only 25% of standard broilers given to bird health and air quality.
had pH values below 5.6. Free-range and standard broiler
muscle had similar mean sarcomere lengths, cooking loss Pecking
and shear force. However, the comparison in this study may Feather pecking in laying hens is a serious animal
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 125

Table 14. Effects of foraging material and food form on the percentages of hens engaged in different activities in scan samples. Means as
well as minimum and maximum values (in parentheses) of 4 pens per housing condition, P values derived from ANOVA (Aerni et al.,
2000)
Housing conditions P values
Behaviour Foraging
Pellets/straw Mash/straw Pellets/no straw Mash/no straw Feed form Interaction
material
Foraging 31.3 22.4 10.3 8.8 <0.0001 <0.05 NS
(23.3, 37.8) (15.3, 28.8) (8.7,12.1) (6.5, 10.6)
Feeding 17.1 29.3 18.2 32.3 NS <0.0001 NS
(15.6, 20.7) (25.3, 32.4) (16.1,21.3) (28.3, 35.4)
Preening 2.1 1.7 4.8 2.8 <0.0002 <0.05 NS
(1.6, 3.5) (1.4, 1.9) (2.6, 6.6) (1.9, 3.1)
Dustbathing 2.1 3.1 0.2 0.3 <0.0001 NS NS
(1.0, 3.9) (1.8, 5.7) (0, 0.6) (0, 0.6)
Moving 2.0 1.6 4.7 2.7 <0.002 <0.05 NS
(1.5, 3.2) (1.3, 2.0) (2.4, 6.8) (1.8, 3.1)
Perching 16.4 13.3 34.2 19.7 <0.005 <0.03 NS
(8.3, 27.4) (6.1, 22.8) (26.1, 40.3) (19.1, 20.5)

welfare problem in poultry housing, as it may lead to changes in foraging behaviour. Based on these research
feather damage, injuries and mortality (Hughes and Duncan, outcomes, free-range systems that promote foraging
1972; Allen and Perry, 1975). Recent studies show a behaviour are effective in reducing and preventing feather
positive correlation between feather pecking and egg pecking (Huber-Eicher and Wechsler, 1997). Housing
production (Kjaer et al., 2001), indicating that a continuous conditions and suitable pastures for free-range production
selection for higher productivity results in birds having an that promote foraging behaviour, such as the provision of
increasing tendency to perform feather pecking unless litter or floor grain, are effective in reducing feather pecking,
precaution is taken to reduce it (Kjaer and Sorensen, 2002). although there is a risk of pathological feather pecking
Apart from breeding and selection, nutritional factors also occurring when straw or wood shavings are used as litter.
contribute to the feather pecking. If hens are offered feed Also, in barn and free-range systems, birds that are
that does not meet their requirement of one or more specific dustbathing flick litter or dust onto their backs and this can
nutrients, the level of feather pecking and cannibalism will attract the attention of other birds resulting in pecking of the
be increased (Neal, 1956; Siren, 1963; Ambrosen and particles. This can lead to pecking around the base of the
Petersen, 1997). However, Kjaer and Sorensen (2002) tail (near the preen gland) and may result in the
suggested that the dietary level of methionine+cystine, light development of cannibalism.
intensity during rearing and age at access to the range area, Layout of house and free-range : To solve the problems
had minor effects on the pecking behaviour. Higher levels of feather pecking and cannibalism the layout of the house
of fear have been associated with higher levels of feather and the free-range is being examined. In particular changing
pecking (Blokhuis and Beutler, 1992). the position of nests, perches and feeders in the house have
Feather pecking should be regarded as redirected shown some potential. Flocks that use the outside area well
foraging behaviour (Huber-Eicher and Wechsler, 1997) and showed less tendency to feather peck (Fiks van-Niekerk,
can be reduced if layer birds are provided with incentives 2001). Hofner and Folsch (2001) reported a trial where
that elicit foraging behaviour, such as litter (Hughes and small trees provided hens a shelter belt and variety of food
Duncan, 1972; Simonsen et al., 1980; Blokhuis and Arkes, including fruits and small leaves. The cover in the outside
1984; Blokhuis, 1986), longcut straw from perforated area resulted in hens spending more time outside. In trials
plastic baskets (Norgaard-Nielsen et al., 1993) or with 10 breeds more cannibalism was recorded in the nest
polystyrene blocks (Huber-Eicher and Wechsler, 1997; boxes with sloping floors compared to groups with flat
Wechsler and Huber-Eicher, 1998). Despite the provision of littered nests. Presumably cannibalism was initiated due to
straw materials, feed form also has a significant effect on the more restless behaviour of hens using sloping nests
the feather pecking (Aerni et al., 2000; Table 14). Chicks (Keppler et al., 2001b).
that could use both sand and straw from day 1 on did not Group size : Work continues in Europe examining
show high rates of feather pecking, and no injuries were optimum group size for free-range hens. Birds utilising the
observed in these groups. On the other hand, foraging outdoor area decreases as the group size increases (Keeling
activity was inversely related to the rate of feather pecking, et al., 1988).
and the occurrence of feather pecking could be delayed Genetics : There is evidence of an additive genetic
from week 4 to week 7 by postponing procedures that led to effect underlying feather pecking behaviour with
126 MIAO ET AL.

heritability ranging from 0.1-0.4. For cannibalism there is frightening situations. For example imprinted odorants
an indication of one or more major genes having influence. might serve to reduce the reluctance for poultry to venture
The likely candidate is the glucocorticoid receptor gene. into an unfamiliar and exposed area like a free-range (Jones
Selection lines differing in the propensity to feather peck or et al., 2001).
engage in cannibalistic pecking have been developed with a Husbandry : The sides of a brooder covered with
heritability of around 0.2-0.7 respectively (Kjaer, 2001). feathers (0.5 lux) versus open sided brooders (5-6 lux) with
Molecular studies are aiming to identify genes that cause and without food deprivation were tested to determine the
differences in feather pecking (Korte et al., 1997). number of feather pecks (severe and gentle) in Lohmann
Breed has an influence on feather pecking and untrimmed chicks (Johnsen and Kristensen, 2001). No
cannibalism in laying hens. Mortality from cannibalism was differences were found in plumage condition of birds at 30
considerably higher in the imported strains (imported from days of age and rearing with a dark brooder did not prevent
the northern hemisphere into Australia) than local strains development of feather pecking. Food deprivation increased
(Australia) (Cumming et al., 1998). Five breeds of brown the level of severe feather pecking and reduced dustbathing
egg laying hens exhibited differences in intensity of feather although it is unclear whether this is a result of misdirected
pecking and the occurrence of skin injuries in the laying ground pecking or redirected dustbathing pecks.
period (Keppler et al., 2001a) suggesting use of birds in Feed structure : Fine feed encourages hens to feed
alternative systems can be successful provided the longer than coarse feed decreasing the incidence of feather
disposition of the breed to feather pecking and cannibalism pecking and resulting in better plumage cover (Walser and
is low. Pfirter, 2001). Fine feed had a low percentage (0-13%) of
An enormous research effort is being directed toward feed particles with a diameter greater than 2 mm compared
improving the rate of genetic progress by developing a to the coarse feed (33-55%). An optimal feed structure
simple quick test, which predicts a bird’s likelihood of consists of particles between 0.25-2.00 mm for birds in
developing feather pecking. This will eliminate the need to alternative systems.
observe feather pecking of the hen throughout the laying Nutrition : Early studies in Switzerland indicated that
cycle. Studies indicate the degree of avoidance of a novel increased levels of dietary fibre and magnesium content
object (brown ceramic bowl, loose bundle of straw and may reduce the incidence of feather pecking and
loose bundle of feathers) was not predictive of the tendency cannibalism. However more recent work suggests that
to peck in ISA Brown hens (Albentso and Nicol, 2001). increasing the Mg content from 0.135% to 0.27% and fibre
Vocalisation : High feather pecking lines vocalise more from 2.5% to 4% had no major effect in lowering the
than low feather pecking lines offering a measure for incidence of cannibalism in brown laying hens (Hadoorn et
detecting the potential of feather pecking (Koene et al., al., 2001). In contrast Choct et al. (2002) reported a
2001). reduction in cannibalism in birds fed diets with higher
levels of fibre. Hadoorn et al. (2001) suggest that low
Behaviour studies dietary levels of methionine and linolenic acid may be more
Behaviours related to traits such as fear, sociality, important in increasing feather pecking and cannibalism.
coping style are being measured together with observations Whole wheat feeding of Lohman Leghorn and brown
on feather pecks and pulls and by electronic recording of hybrid from 8-16 weeks had no influence on plumage
strong pecks and pulls. The results suggest that feather condition or mortality rate (Hadoorn and Wiedmer, 2001).
pecking and cannibalism are not closely related to these
behavioural characteristics (Hocking et al., 2001). In Foraging behaviour
contrast Savory and Mann (1997) showed performance of Very limited data is available on the foraging behaviour
certain behaviours (feeding, preening) may attract feather of free-range chickens. A study conducted in a dry summer
pecking and that feather peckers tend to be more active. in South Australia showed that birds were very active in the
Hens direct ground pecking behaviour to feathers of pen paddock during overcast conditions and also when light
mates when they are deprived of access to litter or forage drizzly rain was falling. It was apparent that birds were
(Kim-Madslien and Nicol, 1998). Increased stress attracted to the insects which were more active during this
associated with frustration may be responsible for the initial period. Birds foraged mainly within 30-40 m of the shelter
difference in pecking rates, although it appears to be more but would also forage further out into the paddock
stimulated by increased ground pecking motivation (Kim- especially when attendants were present. As the birds
Madslien and Nicol, 2001). moved further out into the paddock they tended to leave
Familiar odours : Olfactory memory exists in domestic clumps of pasture. Keppler and Folsch (2000) directly
chicks and could be used as reassuring agents when observed the locomotive activity of hens and cocks in
chickens are exposed to otherwise unfamiliar and aviary systems with and without free-range. The hens in the
 FREE-RANGE POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 127

aviaries without free-range moved between 340 m and 634 Bone development
m per day. The cocks moved larger distances when foraging Currently leg weakness in layers is a welfare concern in
(795 m-1445 m). The hens moved greater distances to cage production system. High energy and protein levels in
obtain food (13-31%) than the cocks (1.3-13.7%). The hens the diet to maximise production and lack of physical
in the aviary with free-range moved distances of 1,800 m exercise contribute to the problem. Free-range offers the
and 2,500 m per day. This study showed that hens and freedom for chickens to exercise in the paddock, which
cocks show an extensive locomotive behaviour under free- might reduce leg weakness problems and improve the
range conditions. Further research on foraging behaviour of development of the bone. Gregory et al. (1990) found a
free-range chickens is required as the outcomes of this type higher incidence of broken bones in birds in battery cages
of research will assist free-range producers to develop compared to free-range and perchery systems. It was
management strategies to improve foraging ability of revealed that battery birds had a higher incidence of
chickens. recently broken bones than perchery and free-range birds.
However, the perchery and free-range birds had more old
Temperature breaks than battery birds. The pain and discomfort
In modern housing under intensive conditions, the birds associated with the old breaks was borne over a longer
are housed in a temperature-controlled shed. This prevents period than the breaks which occurred during depopulation
stress caused by low or high temperatures and enables the of birds from the battery system. Leyendecker et al. (2001a)
bird to achieve maximum production. However, under free- also reported that the bone breaking strength was
range conditions, birds are exposed to extremely high or consistently higher for hens kept in the aviary or in free-
low temperatures, which not only influences the range system compared to battery cages. Pathology and
performance of birds but also the welfare. The use of water histology studies proved that free-range hens, and deep
spray to cool birds is one of the strategies to reduce the litter hens suffered from pododermatitis, keel bone
impact of temperature on foraging birds. deformation and amputated beaks in addition to pecking
In winter, free-range chickens might need more wounds. In caged hens, however, severe fatty liver
protection from cold weather, which might not be so crucial syndromes, injuries of the claws and inflammation of the
in Australia where the winters are not as cold as those in feather follicles were mainly found (Keutgen et al., 1999).
Europe. Ward et al. (2001) found no difference in resistance
to heat loss attributable to rearing environment for plumage CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
from the back and leg, but a significant difference in the
pectoral region. Free-range birds had a thicker plumage and Free-range growers need to have a good knowledge of
a higher total resistance to heat transfer in the pectoral stockmanship and animal health management, as the birds
region, despite showing a lower resistance per unit depth being used at the present time are not hardy enough for
than broiler birds. Free-range birds can behaviourally climatic extremes and lack the immunity to the wild strains
thermoregulate by remaining inside the hen house to reduce of common diseases. With a strong demand by consumers
heat losses. for free-range egg products, there is a need to develop new
strains that will handle harsh environmental conditions with
Predators a reasonable production capability. Asian researchers have
It is recognised that free-range birds are under the risk already started to crossbreed their local strains with
of predation from foxes, wild cats, eagles and hawks. It is commercial ones. The outcomes of these breeding programs
not clear whether this should be a welfare issue for free- will have a significant impact on free-range production.
range poultry because birds are subject to similar risk under European poultry breeding companies are also developing
natural conditions. In UK, some farmers allow birds to have birds more suited to free-range. Within these breeding
access to paddocks during all of the daylight hours and in programs, metabolic stability, strong plumage and docile
some instances this involves a farmer being present late in behaviour continue to be selection priorities.
the evening to shut the pop-holes. One farm in the UK shut It is well known that the production of free-range birds
the pop-holes at the end of the working day, but left a single fluctuates with the season more than the birds kept in cage
pop-hole open. This pop-hole had bars about 10-12 cm and barn production systems because of the better control
apart to exclude foxes. This apparently worked well unless over the hen’s environment and nutritional intake. High
there was an identified fox problem, in which case control temperature in summer in Australia is one of key factors
programmes were required (Barnett, 1999). While the causing low egg production under free-range conditions.
establishment of proper fence may prevent birds from fox While a number of strategies are already applied by free-
and cat attacks, predation by the owl, eagle and hawk are range farmers, other new products available on market for
difficult to control. reducing heat stress (e.g. betafin) should be assessed for
128 MIAO ET AL.

free-range chickens. ability of beak trimmed free-range layers needs to be

The diet composition that free-range birds consume is assessed relative to untrimmed control hens.
complex. Birds can forage soil, pebbles, grass, weed, crop There are some potential biosecurity issues for both
seeds and insects in the paddock. This makes it difficult to human health and bird health associated with free-range
develop a supplementary feeding strategy to meet their production and some of the marketing requirements of the
nutrient requirements. Ideally, the amount of supplement systems, especially in Europe. There are also some
required should be based on the amount of nutrient foraged environmental risks when the free-range birds are not
and the total requirement. However, there is limited managed properly and the potential exists for contamination
information on the forage intake of free-range birds during of free-range products by the residues of agricultural
the season. A better understanding of foraging behaviour chemicals. However, the level of these risks does not appear
and forage intake of free-range chicken will enable to be known. The bird health and product hygiene risks
producers to develop an economic feeding system. Given associated with different production systems should be
that free-range birds consume a significant amount of evaluated and an effective control programme developed.
forage, the nutritive value of forages for free-range birds
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