058:0160 Chapter 6-part3

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 1

Chapter 6: Viscous Flow in Ducts

6.3 Turbulent Flow

Most flows in engineering are turbulent: flows over

vehicles (airplane, ship, train, car), internal flows (heating
and ventilation, turbo-machinery), and geophysical flows
(atmosphere, ocean).

V(x, t) and p(x, t) are random functions of space and time,

but statistically stationary flows such as steady and forced
or dominant frequency unsteady flows display coherent
features and are amendable to statistical analysis, i.e. time
and space (conditional) averaging. RMS and other low-
order statistical quantities can be modeled and used in
conjunction with the averaged equations for solving
practical engineering problems.

Turbulent motions range in size from the width in the

flow δ to much smaller scales, which become
progressively smaller as the Re = Uδ/υ increases.
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Physical description:

(1) Randomness and fluctuations:

Turbulence is irregular, chaotic, and unpredictable.
However, for statistically stationary flows, such as steady
flows, can be analyzed using Reynolds decomposition.

1 t 0 +T
1t 0 +T

u = u + u' u = ∫ u dT u '= 0 u ' = ∫ u ' dT

2 2
etc.
T t0 T t0

u = mean motion
u ' = superimposed random fluctuation
u ' = Reynolds stresses; RMS = u '
2 2

Triple decomposition is used for forced or dominant

frequency flows

u = u + u ' '+u '

Where u ' ' = organized oscillation

(2) Nonlinearity
Reynolds stresses and 3D vortex stretching are direct
result of nonlinear nature of turbulence. In fact, Reynolds
stresses arise from nonlinear convection term after
substitution of Reynolds decomposition into NS equations
and time averaging.
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(3) Diffusion
Large scale mixing of fluid particles greatly enhances
diffusion of momentum (and heat), i.e.,
viscous stress
 
Reynolds Stresses: − ρ u ' u ' >> τ = µε
i j ij ij

2
Isotropic eddy viscosity: − u 'i u ' j = ν t ε ij − δ ij k
3

(4) Vorticity/eddies/energy cascade

Turbulence is characterized by flow visualization as
eddies, which varies in size from the largest Lδ (width of
flow) to the smallest. The largest eddies have velocity
scale U and time scale Lδ/U. The orders of magnitude of
the smallest eddies (Kolmogorov scale or inner scale) are:
1
υ 3δ 4
LK = Kolmogorov micro-scale =  3 
U 
LK = O(mm) >> Lmean free path = 6 x 10-8 m
Velocity scale = (νε)1/4= O(10-2m/s)
Time scale = (ν/ε)1/2= O(10-2s)

Largest eddies contain most of energy, which break up

into successively smaller eddies with energy transfer to
yet smaller eddies until LK is reached and energy is
dissipated by molecular viscosity.
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Richardson (1922):
Lδ Big whorls have little whorls
Which feed on their velocity;
And little whorls have lesser whorls,
LK And so on to viscosity (in the molecular sense).

(5) Dissipation

 0 = Lδ
Energy comes from
u0 = k k = u ' + v' + w'
2 2 2
largest scales and
= 0 (U ) fed by mean motion

Reδ = u 0  0 / υ = big

ε = rate of dissipation = energy/time

u02 0 Dissipation
=
τo τo = u0
occurs at
smallest
scales
1
u03 υ 3  4
= independent υ LK =  
ε 
l0

Dissipation rate is Decrease in ν decreases

determined by the scale of dissipation LK not
inviscid large scale rate of dissipation ε.
dynamics.
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Fig. below shows measurements of turbulence for

Rex=107.

Note the following mean-flow features:

(1) Fluctuations are large ~ 11% U∞

(2) Presence of wall causes anisotropy, i.e., the

fluctuations differ in magnitude due to geometric and
physical reasons. u ' is largest, v' is smallest and reaches
2 2

its maximum much further out than u ' or w' . w' is

2 2 2

intermediate in value.

(3) u ' v' ≠ 0 and, as will be discussed, plays a very

important role in the analysis of turbulent shear flows.

(4) Although u u = 0 at the wall, it maintains large values

i j

right up to the wall

(5) Turbulence extends to y > δ due to intermittency.

The interface at the edge of the boundary layer is called
the superlayer. This interface undulates randomly
between fully turbulent and non-turbulent flow regions.
The mean position is at y ~ 0.78 δ.
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(6) Near wall turbulent wave number spectra have more

energy, i.e. small λ, whereas near δ large eddies dominate.
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Averages:

For turbulent flow V (x, t), p(x, t) are random functions of

time and must be evaluated statistically using averaging
techniques: time, ensemble, phase, or conditional.

Time Averaging

For stationary flow, the mean is not a function of time and

we can use time averaging.

1 t0 + t
u= ∫ u (t ) dt T > any significant period of u ' = u − u
T t0
(e.g. 1 sec. for wind tunnel and 20 min. for ocean)

Ensemble Averaging

For non-stationary flow, the mean is a function of time

and ensemble averaging is used

1 N i
u (t ) = ∑ u (t ) N is large enough that u independent
N i =1
ui(t) = collection of experiments performed under
identical conditions (also can be phase aligned
for same t=o).
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Phase and Conditional Averaging

Similar to ensemble averaging, but for flows with

dominant frequency content or other condition, which is
used to align time series for some phase/condition. In this
case triple velocity decomposition is used: u = u + u ' '+u '
where u΄΄ is called organized oscillation.
Phase/conditional averaging extracts all three
components.

Averaging Rules:

f = f + f' g = g + g' s = x or t

f '= 0 f = f fg= fg f 'g = 0

∂f ∂ f
f +g= f +g = fg = f g + f ' g '
∂s ∂s

∫ f ds = ∫ f ds
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Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations

For convenience of notation use uppercase for mean and

lowercase for fluctuation in Reynolds decomposition.

~
u i = U i + ui
~
p = P+ p

~
∂ ui
=0
∂xi NS
~ ~ ~ ~ equation
∂ ui ~ ∂ ui 1 ∂p ∂ ui
2
+ ui =
− +υ − gδ i 3
∂t ∂xi ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

Mean Continuity Equation

∂ ∂U ∂u ∂U
(U + u ) = + = =0
i
i i

∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
i i
i i i i

~
∂ u ∂U ∂u ∂u
= + =0 →
i i
=0 i

∂x i
∂x ∂x i
∂x
i i

Both mean and fluctuation satisfy divergence = 0

condition.
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Mean Momentum Equation

∂ ∂ 1 ∂
(U i + ui ) + (U j + u j ) (U i + ui ) =
− ( P + p) +
∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi
∂2
(U i + ui ) − gδ i 3
∂x j x j

∂ ∂U ∂u ∂U
(U + u ) = + =
i
i i

∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
i i

∂ ∂U ∂u ∂U ∂u
(U + u ) (U + u ) = U +U +u +u
i
i i i

∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
j j i i j j j j
j j j j j

∂U ∂
=U + uu i

∂x ∂x
j i j
j j

∂ ∂u ∂u ∂u
Since uu = u +u =u j i i

∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
i j i j j
j j j j

∂ ∂P ∂ p ∂P
( P + p) = + =
∂x i
∂x ∂x ∂x i i i

− gδ = − gδi3 i3
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∂2 ∂ 2U i ∂2 ui ∂ 2U i
υ (U i + ui ) = υ +υ 2 = υ
∂x j 2
∂x 2j ∂x j ∂x 2j
∂U i ∂U i ∂ (ui u j ) 1 ∂P ∂2
+U j + =− + υ 2 U i − gδ i 3
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j

DU i 1 ∂P ∂  ∂U i 
Or =− − gδ i 3 + υ − ui u j 
Dt ρ ∂xi ∂x j  ∂x j 

DU i 1 ∂
Or = − g δ i3 + σ ij
Dt ρ ∂xi RANS
 ∂U ∂U  Equations
σ = − Pδ + µ  +  − ρu u i j

 ∂x ∂x 
ij i j
j i

∂U
with =0 i

∂x i

The difference between the NS and RANS equations is

the Reynolds stresses − ρ u u , which acts like additional
i j

stress.
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− ρu u = − ρu u
i
(i.e. Reynolds stresses are symmetric)
j j i

 − ρ u 2 − ρ uv − ρ uw 
 
=  − ρ uv − ρ v 2
− ρ vw 
− ρ uw − ρ vw − ρ w 2 
 
u are normal stresses
2
i

uu i ≠ j
i j
are shear stresses
6 new unknowns
For homogeneous/isotropic turbulence u u i ≠ j = 0 and i j

u = v = w = constant; however, turbulence is generally

2 2 2

non-isotropic.

dU
For example, consider shear flow with > 0 as below,
dy
y U(y)
u<0
y+dy fluid
particle
v>0
y
v<0

y-dy
u>0

U
The fluid velocity is: V = (U + u , v, w)
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Assuming that fluid particle retains its velocity V from y

to y±dy gives,
x-momentum tends towards
v>0 → u<0 decreasing y as turbulence
uv < 0 diffuses gradients and
v<0 → u>0
dU
decreases
dy
x-momentum transport in y direction, i.e., across y =
constant AA per unit area

𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = ∫ 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢�𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝑢𝑢� = (𝑈𝑈 + 𝑢𝑢)

������
𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
= ρ (U + u )v = ρU v + ρ uv = ρ uv
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

i.e ρ u u i j
= average flux of j-momentum in
i-direction = average flux of
i-momentum in j-direction
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Closure Problem:

1. RANS equations differ from the NS equations due to

the Reynolds stress terms
2. RANS equations are for the mean flow (U i , P) ; thus,
represent 4 equations with 10 unknowns due to the
additional 6 unknown Reynolds stresses ui u j
3. Equations can be derived for uiu j by summing
products of velocity and momentum components
and time averaging, but these include additionally 10
triple product ui u j ul unknowns. Triple products
represent Reynolds stress transport.
4. Again equations for triple products can be derived
that involve higher order correlations leading to fact
that RANS equations are inherently non-
deterministic, which requires turbulence modeling.
5. Turbulence closure models render deterministic
RANS solutions.
6. The NS and RANS equations have paradox that NS
equations are deterministic but have
nondeterministic solutions for turbulent flow due to
inherent stochastic nature of turbulence, whereas the
RANS equations are nondeterministic, but have
deterministic solutions due to turbulence closure
models.
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Turbulent Kinetic Energy Equation

k = u = (u + v + w ) = turbulent kinetic energy

1 1 2 2 2 2
i
2 2

~
Subtracting NS equation for u i and RANS equation for Ui
results in equation for ui:

∂ui ∂ui ∂U i ∂ui ∂ 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui

+U j +uj +uj − (ui u j ) = − +υ 2
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j

Multiply by ui and average

Dk 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂U i
=
− pu j − ui u j + 2υ ui eij − ui u j − 2υ eij e ji
Dt ρ ∂x j 2 ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j 
      V
I II III IV

Dk ∂k ∂k 1 ∂ui ∂u j
= +U j e =
Where Dt ∂t ∂x j and ij 2 ∂x ∂x
 j i
VI
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I =pressure transport
II= turbulent transport
III=viscous diffusion
IV = shear production (usually > 0) represents loss of
mean kinetic energy and gain of turbulent kinetic energy
∂U
due to interactions of u u and . i

∂x
i j
j

V = viscous dissipation = ε
VI= turbulent convection

Recall previous discussions of energy cascade and

dissipation:

Energy fed from mean flow to largest eddies and cascades

to smallest eddies where dissipation takes place

Kinetic energy = k = uo2

𝑙𝑙
𝜏𝜏0 = 0 = turn over time
𝑢𝑢0
2 3
uu
ε= = 0 0
l0 = Lδ = width of flow (i.e. size of
τ l 0 0

largest eddy)
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Kolmogorov Hypothesis:

(1) local isotropy: for large Re, micro-scale ℓ << ℓ0

turbulence structures are isotropic.

(2) first similarity: for large Re, micro-scale has

universal form uniquely determined by υ and ε.

(
η = υ /ε 3
)1/ 4
length η / l0 = Re − 3 / 4

uη = (ευ )1 / 4 velocity uη / u0 = Re −1 / 4

τ η = (υ / ε )1/ 2 time τη / τ 0 = Re −1 / 2

Micro-scale<<large scale

Also shows that as Re increases, the range of scales

increase.

(3) second similarity: for large Re, intermediate scale

has a universal form uniquely determined by ε and
independent of υ.

(2) and (3) are called universal equilibrium range in

distinction from non-isotropic energy-containing range.
(2) is the dissipation range and (3) is the inertial subrange.
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Spectrum of turbulence in the inertial subrange

∞
u = ∫ S (k ) dk
2
k = wave number in inertial subrange.
0
S = Aε 2 / 3k − 5 / 3
For l << k << η (based on dimensional analysis)
−1
0
−1

A ~ 1.5 Called Kolmogorov k-5/3 law

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Velocity Profiles: Inner, Outer, and Overlap Layers

Detailed examination of turbulent boundary layer

velocity profiles indicates the existence of a three-layer
structure:

Figure: Pope (2000, Fig. 7.8)

(1) A thin inner layer close to the wall, which is

governed by molecular viscous scales, and
independent of boundary layer thickness δ, free-
stream velocity Ue and pressure gradient.

(2) An outer layer where the flow is governed by

turbulent shear stresses,δ, Ue and pressure gradient,
but independent of ν.
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(3) An overlap layer which smoothly connects inner

and outer regions. In this region both molecular
and turbulent stresses and pressure gradient are
important.

Considerable more information is obtained from the

dimensional analysis and confirmed by experiment.

Inner layer: 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 , 𝜌𝜌, 𝜇𝜇, 𝑦𝑦)

+ 𝑈𝑈 𝑦𝑦𝑢𝑢∗
𝑈𝑈 = = 𝑓𝑓( ) u* = τ w / ρ Wall shear
𝑢𝑢∗ 𝜈𝜈 velocity

= f ( y+ )

U+, y+ are called inner-wall variables

Note that the inner layer is independent of δ or r0, for

boundary layer and pipe flow, respectively.

Outer Layer: 𝑈𝑈
�� −��
𝑒𝑒� 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑔𝑔(𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 , 𝜌𝜌, 𝑦𝑦, 𝛿𝛿) for px = 0
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 −𝑈𝑈
= 𝑔𝑔(𝜂𝜂) where η = y / δ
𝑢𝑢∗

Note that the outer layer is independent of μ.

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Overlap layer: both laws are valid

In this region both log-law and outer layer is valid.

It is not that difficult to show that for both laws to

overlap, f and g are logarithmic functions.

Inner region:
∗2
dU u df
=
dy ν dy +

Outer region:
dU u∗ dg
=
dy δ dη

∗2
y u y u∗ dg
df
∗ ν +
= ∗ ; valid at large y+ and small η.
u dy u δ dη
f(y+) g(η)

Therefore, both sides must equal universal constant, κ −1

1
f ( y+ ) = ln y + + B = U / u ∗ (inner variables)
κ
1 Ue −U
g (η ) = ln η + A = (outer variables)
κ u∗
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κ , A, and B are pure dimensionless constants

κ = 0.41 Von Karman constant
Values vary
somewhat
depending on B = 5.5
different exp.
arrangements
A = 2.35 BL flow The difference is due to
= 0.65 pipe flow loss of intermittency in
duct flow. A = 0 means
small outer layer

The validity of these laws has been established

experimentally as shown in Fig. 6-9, which shows the
profiles of Fig 6-8 in inner-law variable format. All the
profiles, with the exception of the one for separated flow,
are seen to follow the expected behavior. In the case of
separated flow, scaling the profile with u* is inappropriate
since u* ~ 0.
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Details of Inner Layer

Neglecting inertia and pressure forces in the 2D turbulent

boundary layer equation we get:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝜇𝜇 � � − 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 ) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝜇𝜇 � � − 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝜏𝜏𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The total shear stress is the sum of viscous and turbulent

stresses. Very near the wall y0, the turbulent stress
vanishes. Sublayer region:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
lim 𝜇𝜇 � � − 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝜇𝜇 � � = 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤
𝑦𝑦→0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦=0

From the inner layer velocity profile:

2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢∗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦 + ) 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤
� � = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦=0 𝜈𝜈 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 + 𝜇𝜇

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦 + )
= 1  𝑓𝑓 (𝑦𝑦 + ) = 𝑦𝑦 + + 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 +

No slip condition at y = 0 requires 𝐶𝐶 = 0.

Sublayer: U+ = y+ valid for y+ ≤ 5

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Buffer layer: Merges smoothly the viscosity-dominated

sub-layer and turbulence-dominated log-layer in the
region 5< y+ ≤ 30.

Unified Inner layer: There are several ways to obtain

composite of sub-/buffer and log-layers.

Evaluating the RANS equation near the wall using μt

turbulence model shows that:

μt ~ y3 y  0

Several expressions which satisfy this requirement have

been derived and are commonly used in turbulent-flow
analysis. That is:

−κB
 κU +
µ t = µκe e − 1 − κU −
+ κU + ( ) 
2

 2 
Assuming the total shear is constant very near to the wall
a composite formula which is valid in the sub-layer,
blending layer, and logarithmic-overlap regions is
obtained

+
U = y −e + −κB
 κu +
e − 1 − κU −
+ (
κU + ) − (κU ) 
2 + 3

 2 6 
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Fig. 6-11 shows a comparison of this equation with

experimental data obtained very close to the wall. The
agreement is excellent. It should be recognized that
obtaining data this close to the wall is very difficult.

Details of the Outer Law

At the end of the overlap region the velocity defect is

given approximately by:
𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 −𝑈𝑈
= 9.6(1 − 𝜂𝜂)2
𝑢𝑢∗

With pressure gradient included, the outer law becomes

(Fig. 6-10):

Ue −U
= g (η , β )
u*
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δ * dpc Clauser’s equilibrium

η = y /δ β=
τ w dx = parameter

Clauser (1954,1956):

BL’s with different px but constant β are in equilibrium,

i.e., can be scaled with a single parameter:
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Ue −U
u*
vs. y / ∆

∞
Ue −U
∆ = defect thickness = ∫ *
dy = δ *λ
0
u

λ = 2/C f

Also, G = Clauser Shape parameter

∞
1  U −U 
2

= ∫  e *  dy = 6.1 β + 1.81 − 1.7

∆ 0 u    
Curve− fit by Mach

Which is related to the usual shape parameter by

H = (1 − G / λ )−1 ≠ const. due to λ = λ ( x)

Finally, Clauser showed that the outer layer has a wake-

like structure such that

µt ≈ 0.016 ρU eδ *

Mellor and Gibson (1966) combined these equations into

a theory for equilibrium outer law profiles with excellent
agreement with experimental data: Fig. 6-12
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Coles (1956):

A weakness of the Clauser approach is that the

equilibrium profiles do not have any recognizable shape.
This was resolved by Coles who showed that:

Deviations above log-overlap layer

+ +
U − 2.5 ln y − 5.5 1
+
≈ W(y /δ )
U e − 2.5 ln δ + − 5.5 2

Max deviation at δ Single wake-like function of y/δ

π y 
W = wake function = 2 sin   = 3η − 2η , η = y / δ
2 2 3

 δ
 2
curve fit
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Thus, it is possible to derive a composite which covers

both the overlap and outer layers, as shown in Fig. 6-13.

1 π
U+ = ln y + + B + W(y /δ )
κ κ
π = wake parameter = π(β)
= 0.8( β + 0.5) 0.75 (curve fit for data)

Note the agreement of Coles’ wake law even for β ≠

constant. Bl’s is quite good.

We see that the behavior in the outer layer is more

complex than that of the inner layer due to pressure
gradient effects. In general, the above velocity profile
correlations are extremely valuable both in providing
physical insight and in providing approximate solutions
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for simple wall bounded geometries: pipe, channel flow

and flat plate boundary layer. Furthermore, such
correlations have been extended through the use of
additional parameters to provide velocity formulas for use
with integral methods for solving the BL equations for
arbitrary px.

Summary of Inner, Outer, and Overlap Layers

Mean velocity correlations

Inner layer:

U + = f (y+ )
U + = U / u* y + = y / u∗ u* = τ w / ρ

Sub-layer: U+ = y+ for 0 ≤ y ≤ 5 +

Buffer layer: where sub-layer merges smoothly with

+
log-law region for 5 < y ≤ 30

Outer Layer:

Ue − U δ*
= g (η , β ) η = y /δ , β= px
u* τw

for η > 0.1

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Overlap layer (log region):

1
U+ = ln y + + B inner variables
κ

Ue − U 1
= − lnη + A outer variables
u* κ

for y+ > 30 and η ≤ 0.3

Composite Inner/Overlap layer correlation

+ + −κb  κb (κU + ) 2 (κU + )3 

+
U = y −e e − 1 − κU − − 
 2 6 
for 0 < y ≤ 50
+

Composite Overlap/Outer layer correlation

π 
U+ =
1
ln y + + B +
2π
W (η ) W = sin 2  η  = 3η 2 − 2η 3
κ κ 2 
π = 0.8( β + 0.5) 0.75

for y+ > 50
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Reynolds Number Dependence of Mean-Velocity Profiles

and Reynolds stresses

Figure: Pope (2000, Fig. 7.13)

1. Inner/overlap U+ scaling shows similarity; extent of

overlap region (i.e. similarity) increases with Re.

2. Outer layer for px = 0 may asymptotically approach

similarity for large Re as shown by ∆U (= 2π / k ) vs.
+

Reθ, but controversial due to lack of data for Reθ 5 x

104.

3. The normalized Reynolds stresses �����/𝑘𝑘, 𝑢𝑢𝚤𝚤 𝑢𝑢𝚥𝚥

production-dissipation ratio and the normalized
mean shear stress are somewhat uniform in the log-
law region. Experiments in flat plate boundary layer,
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2018 36

pipe and channel flow shows k = 3.34 - 3.43 u*2 in

lower part of log-law region.

4. Decay of k ~ y2 near the wall.

2
5. Streamwise turbulence intensity u+ = u * vs. y+
u
shows similarity for 0 ≤ y ≤ 15 (i.e., just beyond the
+

point of kmax, y+ = 12), but u+ increases with Reθ.

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