Non Linear Analysis

13 Non Linear Analysis

13.1 Introduction

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has become an integral part of design process in automotive, aviation,
civil Construction and various consumer and industrial goods industries. Cut throat completion in the
market puts tremendous pressure on the corporations to launch reasonably priced products in short
time, making them to rely more on virtual tools (CAD/CAE) accelerate the design and development
of products. As dependability of the industries on virtual tools increases, so the responsibilities of the
Finite Elements Analysts to provide results with most accuracy within available resources and time
constrains. FEA tools are being used to analyze multidisciplinary problems, including but not limited
to structures, thermal and fluid flow, biotechnology, electromagnetism, etc.

It’s very important for the FEA results consumers to understand that there is no absolute result for a
given problem, the result for same problem will vary depending upon several variables, such as size
and quality of the Finite Element (FE) model material properties input to the FE model, the FE solver
code and it’s version, the platform on which the solver is installed, the assumptions by analyst while
imposing loads and boundary conditions (B.C.). If FE models are not built to correctly represent real
world problems or the FEA results are wrongly interpreted, the cost to user could be enormously
high; the delay in product launch could put the company in competitive disadvantage. That’s why it’s
important that FEA is understood well before making it part of product design process.

FE analysis helps accelerating design and development of products by minimizing number of physical
tests, there by reducing cost of prototyping and testing; however FEA has not yet taken the place of
the validation by testing. Many organizations are working hard to achieve 100% virtual validation of
the products. To achieve this goal, FEA codes developers are working hard to help analysts simulate
more complex phenomenon by incorporating advanced algorithms, as a result FEA analysts are also
required to be equally educated and experienced to make best use of the FEA tools and hence to
provide results with highest accuracy.

In this chapter, we discuss the practical aspects of nonlinear static Finite element analysis . As
discussed in earlier chapter on Types of Analysis , when structure response (deformation, stress
and strain) is linearly proportional to the magnitude of the load (force, pressure, moment, torque,
temperature etc) then the analysis of such a structure is known as linear analysis. When the load to
response relationship is not linearly proportional, then the analysis falls under nonlinear analysis.
e.g. when a compact structure made of stiff metal is subjected to a load with relatively lower in
magnitude as compared to the strength of the material, the deformation in the structure will
be linearly proportional to the load and the structure is known to have subjected to linear static
deformation. But, most of the time the either material behavior is not linear in the operating
conditions or geometry of the structure itself keeps it from responding linearly. Due to cost or weight
advantage of nonmetals (polymers, woods, composites etc) over metals, nonmetals are replacing
metals for variety of applications, which have nonlinear load to response characteristics, even under
mild loading conditions. Also the structures are optimized to make most of its strength, pushing
the load level so close to the strength of the material, that it starts behaving nonlinearly. In order to
accurately predict the strength of the structures in these circumstances, it’s necessary to perform
nonlinear analysis.

190
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

P2
Linear Response:
P2’
P1/d1 = P2/d2
P1
Nonlinear Response:
Load

P1/d1’ ≠ P2’/d2

d2’ d1 d2

Fig. 1 Comparison of Linear and Nonlinear Response.

As discussed in the earlier chapter, the stiffness matrix relating to the load and response is assumed
to be constant for static analysis; however all the real world structures behave nonlinearly. The
stiffness matrix consists of geometric parameters like Length, Cross Sectional Area, and Moment of
Inertia of Section etc and material properties like Elastic Modulus, Rigidity Modulus etc. The static
analysis assumes that these parameters do not change when structure is loaded; on the other hand
nonlinear static analysis takes into account the changes in these parameters as load is applied to the
structure. These changes are accommodated into the analysis by rebuilding the stiffness matrix using
deformed structure configuration and updated property after each incremental load application.

13.2 Comparison of Linear and Nonlinear FEA

Based on the above we can write classify the parameters distinguishing between Linear and
nonlinear FEA and following table gives a detailed comparison.

Sr. No. Characteristic Feature Linear Problems Nonlinear Problems

1. Load - displacement Relation Displacements vary linearly with It is nonlinear. Thus stiffness
applied loads. Thus Stiffness is varies as a function of load.
constant . Changes in geometry Displacements can be very large
due to displacement are assumed and hence an updated reference
to be small and hence are state called as “Updated
ignored. Original or undeformed Lagrangian” approach is used
state is always used as a reference sometimes .
state.
2. Stress-Strain Relationship Linear upto the proportional It is non-linear function of stress-
/ elastic limit . Properties such strain and time. These are difficult
as Young’s Modulus are easily to obtain and requires lot of
available. additional experimental material
testing.
3. Scalability Applicable . That is if a 1 N force Not applicable.
causes x units of displacement ,
then 10 N magnitude of force
will cause 10x displacement

191
Non Linear Analysis

4. Stress and Strain Measures Engineering or Nominal Stress Can be several such as :
–strain . 1. True strain / Natural Strain (
logarithmic ) – True / Cauchy
Stress.
2. Green / Almansi strain and
Kirchoff – Piola Stress.
5. Superposition Applicable. That is a combination Not applicable .
of load cases is possible.
6. Reversibility The behaviour of the structure is The final state after removal of
fully reversible upon the removal loads is different from the initial
of external loads . This also means state. Due to this superposition
that loading sequence is not of load cases is not possible.
important and the final state is Load history is very important.
unaffected by the load history.
7. Solution scheme The load is applied in one step Load is split into small increments
with no iterations (Except for with iterations performed to
solvers like ABAQUS ) ensure that equilibrium is satisfied
at every load increment.
8. Computational Time Small Large
9. Interaction with the software Least required Requires lot of monitoring as the
user software may fail to converge
sometimes.

13.3 Understanding the Types of Nonlinearity

There are three basic source of nonlinearity

1) Geometric Nonlinearities

Stiffness changes due to geometric deformations are categorized as geometric nonlinearities.

Following are the different kinds of geometric nonlinearities:

1) Large strain. 2) Large deflection (large rotation). 3.)Stress stiffening. 4.)Spin softening

1. Large Strain : If an element’s shape changes (area, thickness, etc.), its individual element stiffness
will change.

Fig. 2 : Element undergoing large displacement

2. Large Rotations : If an element’s orientation changes (rotation), the transformation of its local
stiffness into global components will change.
192
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

X
Fig. 3 : Element undergoing large rotation

It can be observed that the above effects induce large strains and rotations.

3. Stress Stiffening : This is associated with tension bending coupling . The more the tension in
the membrane , more its bending rigidity or stiffness . If an element’s strains produce a significant
in-plane stress state (membrane stresses), the out-of-plane stiffness can be significantly affected.

Y F

X x
y
Fig. 4 : Stress Stiffening Effect . As the vertical deflection increases (UY), significant membrane stresses (SX)
lead to a stiffening response.

4. Spin Softening : This is a phenomenon relating to stiffness change due to rotational speed
of the component. Most common in components such as shrink fit assembly rotating at a high
speed and the press fit interference changing into a clearance fit due to large circumeferential
deformation. Another example is change in tension in the cable or rope in brake dynamometer
as a function of the rotational speed of the drum .

When a structure undergoes large displacement , its stiffness changes significantly during the
loading process and then we cann’t use linear strain displacement relation.

Mathematically this means that we are considering the higher order derivatives in displacement
-strain relationships as follows :

ε x = du/dx + ½. [ (du/dx)2 + ( dv /dx)2 + ( dw/dx)2 ]

ε y = dv/dy + ½. [ (du/dy)2 + ( dv /dy)2 + ( dw/dy)2 ]
ε z = du/dz + ½. [ (du/dz)2 + ( dv /dz)2 + ( dw/dz)2 ]
ε xy = ½. [ (du/dy) + ( dv /dx) + ( du/dx) (du/dy) + ( dv/dx)(dv/dy) + (dw/dx )(dw/dy)]
ε yz = ½. [ (dv/dz) + ( dw /dy) + ( du/dy) (du/dz) + ( dv/dy)(dv/dz) + (dw/dy )(dw/dz)]
ε xz = ½. [ (du/dz) + ( dw /dx) + ( du/dz) (du/dx) + ( dv/dz)(dv/dx) + (dw/dx )(dw/dz)]

In Linear FEA we only consider only the first order terms. Another distinguishing feature of
geometric nonlinearity is that we form the equilibrium equations wrt the deformed geometry
which is not known in advance . The large displacement problem may be associated with a small
strain or large strain and the displacement strain relationship may or may not be linear.

193
Non Linear Analysis

Example 1 : A large cantilever beam subjected to an end moment rolling up into an circle. This is a
very standard test case for verifying almost every nonlinear FEA Code.

Before deformation

After deformation
Fig. 5 : A Large cantilever performing a roll up maneuver. Rotation at free end is 2π radians or 360 degrees .

Example 2 : An adhesive bonded joint between two plates subjected to shear loading. At large
shear loads , the joint undergoes a very large rotation in the middle porton.

Fig. 6 : Adhesive bonded joint undergoing large rotation .

It can be observed that large rotation is a typical characteristics of geometric nonlinearity.

2) Material Nonlinearities

Elastic –plastic
Stress
Elastic-Perfectly plastic

Strain

194
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

Stress
Hyperelastic

Nonlinear Elastic

Strain
20 %
Fig. 7 : Features of Material Nonlinearity

All engineering materials are inherently nonlinear as it is not feasible to characterize a nonlinear
material by a single constitutive law for the entire range of environmental conditions such as loading
, temperature and rate of deformation . We can idealize or simplify the material behaviour to account
for only certain effects which are important for the analysis . The linear elastic ( also called Hookean
) material assumption is the simplest of all . The material is nonlinear elastic if the deformation is
recoverable and plastic if it is irrecoverable . If the temperature effects on material properties are
important then the coupling between the mechanical and thermal behaviour should be properly
taken into consideration through thermo-elasticity and thermo-plasticity . If the strain rate has
significant effects on the mateial , we have to consider the theories of visco-elasticity and visco-
plasticity . A sample of material nonlinear behaviour has been given in Figure 4 .

A Brief classification can be given as follows :

1. Nonlinear Elastic
2. Hyperelastic
3. Elastic-Perfectly Plastic
4. Elastic-Time independent plastic
5.Time dependent plastic ( Creep )
6. Strain rate dependent elasticity –plasticity
7. Temerature dependent elasticity and plasticity

If we observe the stress-strain curves in Figure 7 , then material nonlinearity can be classified
further as follows .

Curve 1 : Linear Elastic-Perfectly Plastic

Curve 2 : Linear Elastic- Plastic . The plastic part in the stress-strain curve is time

independent and can be analysed into two main types :

a. Elastic- Piecewise linear plastic. ( as shown in Figure 8 )

b. Elastic – actual stress strain curve information.

195
Non Linear Analysis

σ
σ2
E3
E2
Stress

Stress
σ

E1
E1

Strain Strain
(a) (b)
Fig. 8: Stress Strain Curve for Material with Linear and Nonlinear Properties

Curve 3 : Nonlinear Elastic model characterizing materials with no fixed definition of Yield point
such as say Plastic but the strain still limiting well below say 20 % .

Curve 4 : Hyperelastic materials such as rubber undergoing very large displacements . A typical
application is a gasket material .

3) Boundary Nonlinearities

Boundary nonlinearity arises when boundary conditions in a FE model changes during the course
of the analysis. The boundary conditions could be added to or removed from the model due to
boundary nonlinearity as the analysis progresses. This kind of nonlinearity typically involves contact
sets in the model which could get engaged or disengaged as a response to applied loads. The load
transfer mechanism via contact pair is complicated phenomenon. Researchers have developed
several theories to describe load transfer via contact sets. A typical contact algorithm in FE codes
works as follows:

Check for open or closed situation for contact surfaces, this is done by measuring the distances
between the nodes on surfaces forming contact pairs. If contact is closed then apply reaction forces
to the nodes in contacts to keep them from penetrating through each other. If contact is open then
no load is transferred between those nodes. The reaction forces applied to the nodes is calculated
based on stiffness of the materials each of the surfaces in the contact set. Since load transfer through
contact set is not constants and it requires continuous check to determine open or closed status of
the contact, this analysis can not be handled by linear static analysis codes. More accurate results can
be obtained by checking the open or closed status of the nodes in the contact set more frequently.

13.4 Stress- Strain Measures for Nonlinear Analysis

This is a major distinguishing factor between linear static and nonlinear FEA. In Linear FEA we always
use the engineering stress – strain definitions whereas their limitations for Nonlinear Analysis are
well known.

196
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

There are different measures of strain and stress some are explained below

1) Engineering strain and engineering stress.

2) Logarithmic strain and true stress.
3) Green-Lagrange strain and 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress.

We will examine these various stress and strain definitions through a simple one-dimensional
example.

l
l0 ∆l

Fig. 9 : A one dimensional rod undergoing axial deformation

1) Engineering strain and engineering stress.

Engineering strain is a small strain measure, which is computed using the original geometry. The
engineering strain measure is a linear measure since it depends on the original geometry, (i.e. length)
which is known beforehand. It is limited to small rotations of the material because a moderate rigid
body rotation will result in non-zero strains.
∆l
εx= —
l0

Engineering stress (σ), is the conjugate stress measure to engineering strain (ε). It uses the current
force F and the original area A0 in its computation.
F
σ= —
A0

2) Logarithmic strain and true stress.

Logarithmic strain / natural strain / true strain is a large strain measure, which is computed as
l dl
 l 
εl = ∫ — = Ln —
 l 
l l0 0
0

This measure is a nonlinear strain measure since it is a nonlinear function of the unknown final length.
It is also referred to as the log strain. The 3-D equivalent of the log strain is the Hencky strain.

The importance of this strain measure and its use in nonlinear analysis is so well known as this is
a additive strain measure as compared to linear strain .

e.g. Let us consider a bar with say initial length of 1m undergoing deformation in 3 steps as
follows :

197
Non Linear Analysis

Step 1 : deformation from 1 m to 1.2 m

Step 2 : deformation from 1.2 to 1.5 m

Step 3 : deformation from 1.5 to 2 m

In the following table we compare the engg. Strains against true strains and one can clearly see
that the additivity is retained in only true strain and hence this one should be used in nonlinear
analysis.

Step Engg Strain True Strain

1 0.2 Log(1.2/1) = 0.1823
2 0.3/1.2=0.25 Log(1.5/1.2) = 0.2231
3 0.5/1.5=0.33 Log(2/1.5) = 0.2876
Addition of strains in 0.78 0.6931
all the steps
Total : From 1 to 3 (2.0 – 1.0 )/1.0 = 1.0 Log(2/1) = 0.6931
CONCLUSION Engg. Strain is not additive and doesn’t True Strain is additive and thus preserves
preserve the history of deformation the history of deformation correctly.
correctly .

True stress (τ) is the conjugate 1-D stress measure to the log strain (εl ), which is computed by dividing
the force F by the current (or deformed) area A. This measure is also commonly referred to as the
Cauchy stress.
F
τ- —
A

3) Green-Lagrange strain and 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress.

Green-Lagrange strain is another large strain measure, which is computed in 1-D as

1  l2 - l02 
εG = —  ———— 
2 l02

This measure is nonlinear because it depends on the square of the updated length l , which is an
unknown. A computational advantage of this strain measure, over the log or Hencky strain, is that it
automatically accommodates arbitrarily large rotations in large strain problems.

The conjugate stress measure for the Green-Lagrange strain , is the Second Piola-Kirchoff stress (S). It
is computed in 1-D by
l0 F
s= — —
l A0

It should be noted that this stress has little physical meaning.

198
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

13.5 Solution Techniques for Nonlinear Analysis

As we learned earlier, the stiffness matrix in a nonlinear static analysis needs to be updated as analysis
progresses. How is it accomplished by an FEA code? We will understand in next few paragraphs. When
any structure is subjected with an external load, internal loads are generated within the structure to
react the load. These internal loads are caused by stresses in side the structure. For the structure to
be in equilibrium, each node in FE model representing the structure should be in equilibrium. The
condition of equilibrium is checked by determining residual load, which is defined as difference
between external and internal load. For the structure to be in perfectly equilibrium, the residual load
must be zero, which is very unlikely situation in nonlinear analysis. The FEA codes assume the nodes
to be at equilibrium if the residual load is negligibly small. The FEA codes provide user interface to be
able to select the acceptable residual load criteria. Let’s understand how FEA codes iterate to achieve
an equilibrium condition at a node.

Let’s consider point 1 in the load-displacement curve for a node in a FE model, which is in equilibrium;
meaning the difference between external load (P1) and internal load (I1), is zero. When external load
is increased by small amount to P2, the incremental displacement using linear elastic theory is-

d2-d1 = k1 (P2-P1) ………….. (3.4)

Where k1 is stiffness based on configuration at point. The FEA code now calculates the internal load
at point 2 using configuration properties at point 2 and compares the residual load at point 2, which
is given by-

R2 = P2-I2 ………… (3.5)

k1 k2
k3
2 3’

3’
2’
P

d
Fig. 10: The Newton Raphson procedure

If R2 is more than the acceptable residual load, the FEA code locates new point 3 using linear
relationship-

d3-d2 = k2 (P2-P1) ……… (3.6)

Then new stiffness matrix k3 is formed based on the configuration at point 3 and corresponding
199
Non Linear Analysis

internal load I3 is calculated. The residual load at point 3 becomes-

R3 = P2-I3 ……… (3.7)

If R3 meets the residual load criteria, the solution is said to have converged for that particular
increment and each attempt of calculating residual load for an increment is called iteration. Each
iteration in a nonlinear static analysis process involves same amount of calculation as in a static
analysis. No wonder why nonlinear static analysis takes a lot more computational time than a static
analysis. Once solution is converged for a load increment, FEA code accepts it as equilibrium and
increases the load by further increments. This process is repeated until entire load is applied to the
structure. ( The procedure given here is a stiffness update every step and is called Newton Raphson
method. Another common option is to updates the stiffness after a number of steps and this is
called Modified Newton Raphson method )

In the earlier sections we realized that the geometric nonlinearity can be accounted for in the
analysis calculations by applying the load in several steps in such a way, that the structure geometry
is updated to take deformed shape due to prior load before applying the next step of load. In the
cantilever beam example, the accuracy of the results can be improved by applying the load in more
than two steps. Similarly martial nonlinearity can be accounted by representing stress-strain curves
by many small straight segments. More the segments in the stress-strain curve, more accurate will be
the results. If load is applied
Acceptable Result
at Reasonable Cost
Theoretical Result
Results

Computationally
Expensive

Model Refinement

Fig. 11: Cost of Accuracy

in too many steps or the material stress-strain curves are represented by too many segments, the
computational cost will be high. As the number of load steps in geometric nonlinearity solution and
number of stress-strain segments in material nonlinearity solution tends to reach infinite, the FEA
results will approach towards the theoretical results. After certain point, the significant improvement
is not observed with further increase load steps or with added data points in stress-strain curve. This
threshold point can be determined by running several runs on the same model with increasing
number of load steps or number of stress-strain data point and comparing improvements in results.
The final FEA results depend upon several factors, like quality and accuracy of the FE model, material
properties, load & boundary conditions, analysis codes and computational platforms. The FE analysts
need to make judgment regarding how refined the model should be based on the applications and
associated risks.

200
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

FE analysts control the number of steps in a nonlinear static analysis by specifying maximum
increment (% of total load) in the nonlinear parameter card. The solver never exceeds the specified
maximum increment during the analysis. FE analyst are also required to specify the minimum step,
which signals termination of analysis if the step needs to be smaller than minimum increment for
continuation of the analysis.

13.6 Issues Related to the Convergence of Newton Raphson Method

A sudden change in stiffness or sudden change in load can cause convergence difficulty. To settle
this issue , it is always better to break sudden changes down into a series of many small incremental
changes. I.e. we must use ramped loading, small time steps.

In case of Newton-Raphson method it will converge if the starting configuration is inside radius of
convergence circle. If Xstart is inside the radius of convergence the solution will converge; if outside,
the solution diverges as shown in fig.12

Load Load
Diverging!
Converged

F F

xstart x Displacement xstartx Displacement

Fig. 12 : Problems with convergence of Newton Raphson Method.

If your starting configuration is outside the radius of convergence, two techniques can help you
obtain a converged solution as :

Load Load

F F

1
u u
ustart ustart
(a) (b)
Fig. 13 : Remedies to obtain convergence

201
Non Linear Analysis

a. Apply load incrementally to move the target closer to the start as shown in (a)

b. Use convergence-enhancement tools to enlarge the radius of convergence as shown in(b)

Experienced users typically combine both strategies to obtain convergence

13.7 Essential steps to start with Nonlinear FEA

Nonlinear FEA is not too difficult once you have a bit of experience. Some of the essential steps that
must be followed can mean that one can solve a range of nonlinear problems and avoid common
difficulties.

1. Learn first how the software works on a simple model before you use a nonlinear
feature which you haven’t used . Also guess how your structural component will
behave .

2. Try to understand the software’s supporting documentation , its output and

warnings.

3. Know apriori what you are looking for . Prepare a list of questions which your
analysis you think should be able to answer. Design the analysis such as model ,
materal model , boundary conditions in order to answer the questions you have
in mind.

4. Always perform a few preliminary analysis on small models to gain insight of the
software features , behaviour of the structure , time steps and tools needed
to obtain a solution . Using relatively large time steps and loose convergence
tolerances in the initial stages helps to keep the computational cost of nonlinear
FEA lesser.

5. Keep the final model as simple as possible. A linear analysis done apriori can
provide a lot of information such as Where are the high stresses in the model ,
Where the initial contact my occur , What level of load will introduce plasticity in
the model . Are the boundary conditions correct and whether the mesh is able
to represent the physical phenomena to a reasonable level of accuracy.

6. Verify the results of the nonlinear FEA Solution . Before you start the analysis
, you should have a rough idea of the results through studies, experience ,
benchmarks . When the results seem unreasonable, that is they are too much
different from what you expect , then try to understand the WHY part of it.

7. Try to look into the assumptions made with respect to the structural component,
its geometry behaviour wrt large strain ( ON / OFF ), look into different material
models if the earlier model is unable to give you a result you expect (sometimes
softwares only make some models compatible with commonly used elements
and in this case you might look into a possibility of changing the element
formulation )

202
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

13.8 A General Procedure for Nonlinear Static Analysis Project

A typical nonlinear static analysis project requires following steps:

Build FE Model: FE model building is very important step in FE analysis, irrespective of what kind of
analysis to be performed. Selection of appreciate element for certain application has already been
discussed in earlier chapter. The FEA group is provided with part surface data, which is required
to be meshed with elements to get the component mesh. When all the parts in the assembly are
meshed, they are all connected together using appropriate fastening elements. In general, Quad
and Hexa elements should be preferred over Tria, Penta and Tetra. Important features like fillets,
holes, cutouts should be captured in the model appropriately. If there are to be fasteners or welds
between two parallel surfaces, attempts should be made to create similar mesh on both surfaces,
this will facilitate placement of weld or rigid elements normal to the surfaces without distorting the
shell elements. However, many FEA codes support node independent Welds which is based on Tied
contact concept, which allow the FEA user to place Weld elements independent of the nodes in
the parts to be welded. It’s recommended to mesh the complex portion of a part first then proceed
towards the simple or plane areas to ensure good quality mesh in the model. Correct representation
of fasteners, joints and welds are necessary in the model for correct load transfer within the structure.
The stiffness and preloading should be defined for these elements as applicable for better accuracy.
If load transfer is supposed to take place from one surface in a structure to the other, a contact set
should be defined between them. Each FEA code has its own format to input contact parameters. A
typical contact definition requires master and slave nodes or elements, coefficient of friction, offset
(gap) distance between surfaces and contact algorithm.

Apply Loads and Boundary Conditions: No matter how good the FE mesh is, the results are not
going to be accurate if FE model is not constrained appropriately or load applied is not representative
of intended loading. The mesh size and node location sometimes puts constrains on how and where
loads and B.Cs. are applied to the model, It wouldn’t hurt to re-mesh the FE model locally at the
locations where to be applied to make sure Loads and B.Cs. are represented best possible way.

If the FE analysis is being done to virtually validate any test done at Lab, then it is a good practice to
visit the testing facility and take important measurements on test fixtures and loading devices. These
measurements will help apply loads and B.Cs. in FE model to in the same way as the part or test
specimen is subjected to at the time of testing. For example, measurements of loading device would
help placing the loads on certain nodes or elements. Similarly the fixture dimensions would dictate
constraints locations (nodes) and its degrees of freedom.

Assign Material Properties: Material nonlinearity is defined in the FE model via this very important
step. The response of the structure depends on the properties are supplied to the FE model. The
software manual should be referred to understand the input format of the material data card, as
different software codes may have different format. If the software expects the true stress-strain
data then the test stress-strain data should be converted into true data before feeding them to the
FE model. Sufficient stress-strain data points should be included to capture the nonlinearity of the
material.

Analysts should request material suppliers to provide certified properties for the exact same material
which is going to be used to build the parts. The properties for commonly used materials can either
be pulled from the supplier’s website or it could be available at www.matweb.com or www.matls.com.
203
Non Linear Analysis

Specify Nonlinear Analysis Control Parameters: The basic controlling parameters for nonlinear
static analysis are initial increment, minimum and maximum increment, maximum numbers of
iterations, the interval at which results file are to be output and convergence criteria for iterations
(acceptable residual load).

Run the Analysis: The FE model is now ready to be run. The analysis run command may have options
to specify solver version, memory size, and number of CPUs to better control execution.

Review and Interpret Results: It’s highly recommended that the analysis results should carefully
reviewed and checked for accuracy before making any conclusions based on simulations. There are
many ways the FEA results can be checked, some of them are:

- Observe for unexpected movements in the animation.

- Compare the reaction forces against applied forces.

- Check if stresses and strains are as per material properties supplied to the FE model.

- Check interacting surfaces in the contact set for any malfunction.

- Make quick hand calculations by simplifying the problem and compare it with the FE
results.

While reporting the FE results, analysts should always disclose all the assumptions made while
building the FE model. In the industrial environment, there is always pressure to complete the FEA
sooner to meet tight launch schedules, still the FEA analysts must check the model thoroughly and
review the results carefully before releasing the results to the consumers. The FEA results should
always be verified using engineering judgment, past results with similar FE model. Unrealistically
high or low results should trigger further reviewing of the model. It’s highly recommended to
maintain consistency in the model to increase accuracy of the results, especially when analysis is
being performed to evaluate effect of changing certain parameter in the model.

13.9 Exercise Problem

This exercise problem has been designed to demonstrate following aspects of the FEA-

- Good modeling practice

- Fastener representation in the FE model

- Contact set modeling

- Cyclic symmetry boundary conditions

- Leak prediction through gasket joint

204
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

32 8

28
Fluid Pressure
6 12 Typ 4 Fasteners

Fig. 14: Pressure vessel subjected to fluid pressure. A project

FE Mesh Generation:

- Mesh 1/24th slice of the cover plate similar to the one shown in Figure 3.9 (a). The mesh shown
is not as per the scale and the purpose of this sketch is to show typical elements layout, the actual
number of elements will vary depending upon lengths of 3-D elements along all three directions.
Make sure that to place nodes and elements in such a way that same mesh pattern can be used to
model Bolt Head, Gasket and the Flange of the Container.

- Copy and reflect about line of symmetry and merge duplicate nodes at symmetry line to create
1/12th sector of the cover plate.

- Drag the 2-D elements by 3 mm and put 3 elements across the drag length.

- Use the set of the 2-D elements similar to those shown in Fig 3.9 (b), (c) (d) and (e) and drag them by
appropriately to build the Gasket, Vessel Flange, Vessel Wall, Vessel Base Fastener Head and the Nut
to complete the mesh for the 1/24th sector of the pressurized vessel using the dimensions shown
in Figure 3.8.

Fine layout to facilitate 3

layers of elements across
{

vertical wall of the vessel.

(a) Cover Plate

205
Non Linear Analysis

(b) Gasket and Vessel Flange (c) Vertical Wall of the Vessel

(d) Vessel Base (e) Fastener Head and Nut

Maintain small gap (about 0.1 mm) between elements representing different parts along the surfaces
which are going to have contact interaction.

-Reflect the 1/24th model about the plane of symmetry passing through center of the fastener hole
to develop 1/12th sector of the pressure vessel.

-Delete all the 2-D elements in the model.

Material Properties:

-Assume following properties for this example:

• Vessel, Cover, Fastener Head and Nut: Specific Gravity= 7.83, Elastic Modulus =2.07E+5 MPa, Poisson’s
Ratio=0.30

Engineering Stress-Strain

Points Strain, % Stress, MPa

1 0.0 0
2 1.0 180
3 2.0 200
4 3.0 190
5 10.0 240

• Gasket: Specific Gravity= 6.0, Elastic Modulus =1.15E+4 MPa, Poisson’s Ratio=0.46

206
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

Engineering Stress-Strain Data

Points Strain, % Stress, MPa

1 0.0 0
2 1.0 23
3 3.0 46
4 4.3 55
5 6.0 62

Do not forget to convert the stress strain data into true stress-strain data if the FEA code to be used
receives stress-strain in true format. Use following equations to get true stress-strain data-

εt = loge(1+εn) …. (3.8)

σt = σn(εn+1) …..(3.9)

Sometimes software require a true plastic strain – true stress data and in this case you will have to
subtract the elastic strain from equation 3.8 as follows :

εt = loge(1+εn)- σyp/E ........(3.10)

- Use elastic steel properties for the Bar/Beam element representing the Fastener Stud.

Contact Set Definitions:

- Define 4 contact sets using following information-

• Master Set-Fastener Head, Slave Set-Cover Plate, Friction Coefficient = 0.15

• Master Set-Cover Plate, Slave Set-Gasket, Friction Coefficient = 0.35

• Master Set-Vessel Flange, Slave Set- Gasket, Friction Coefficient = 0.35

• Master Set-Vessel Flange, Slave Set- Nut, Friction Coefficient = 0.15

Fastener Modeling:

- Create nodes at the centers of the fastener holes on the upper surface of the Fastener Head and
lower surface of the Nut.

- Create two Rigid Link elements with above two nosed as independent nodes and dependent nodes
being the nodes on the fastener-hole surfaces of the Head and the Nut as shown in Figure 3.10.

207
Non Linear Analysis

Rigid Link

Bar/Beam

Rigid Link

Fig. 16: FE representation of Fastener

Connect two independent nodes creating a Bar or Beam elements with and assign it with properties
of 4 mm diameter circular section.

-Check a design handbook to find out clamping force for a typical fastener with 4 mm diameter and
use of following two techniques to simulate clamping force in the fastener-

• Calculate temperature gradient required between each end of the beam element
to develop force equal to clamping force when the beam is not allowed to expand.
(Coefficient of thermal expansion for fastener stud material will be needed to complete
this calculation.

• Apply equal and opposite compressive force with magnitude same as clamping force
at both ends of the Bar/Beam representing the fastener stud.

Load and Boundary Conditions:

- Create a cylindrical coordinate system with Z-axis coinciding with axis of symmetry. Assign this
coordinate system to all the nodes in the nodes in the model.

-Apply a pressure load ( How much this should be ? It is a good idea to perform preliminary
hand calculations so that you can compare the validity of linear Vs. Nonlinear analysis . In this case
you can always use the thin cylinder theory formulae and perform a quick check ) to the inner faces
of the Cover Plate and Vessel elements which are going to be in contact with the fluid pressure.

-Constrain all the nodes on planes of symmetry (both sides of the 1/12th sector) with cyclic symmetric
(axisymmetric) boundary conditions.

-Constrain all three translational degrees of freedom for the nodes on the bottom of the Vessel
Base.

208
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

Analysis Control parameters:

- Use Minimum increment as 0.01, Maximum Increment as 0.05 and Maximum number.

- Request Displacements, Stresses, Strains, Contact Stresses/Pressures, Bar/Beam Forces.

- Request output files at every 0.05 increment.

Post Processing the Results:

-Check for completion of analysis to make sure 100% of load applied to the model.

-Review the results and check for any unexpected behavior or stresses in the model.

-Check the stresses across the section of the vertical wall of the Vessel compare it with analytically
calculated stresses using Thick Cylindrical Shell Theory.

-If the FEA results pass all the credibility check, they’re ready to be used for interpretation followed by
make engineering conclusions.

Assignments:

• Find out the contact pressure at either side of the Gasket and calculate the shear component
(along the gasket surfaces) which is contact pressure multiplied by friction coefficient (0.35), if it
is less than fluid pressure inside the Vessel, fluid leakage is likely through the joint.

• If there is leakage, then suggest increased fastener clamping force, which will stop the leakage.
Referring design handbook, recommend fastener type which will provide required clamping
force.

• If there is no leakage, then find out what is maximum fluid pressure the vessel can sustain
without leakage.

• Plot the fastener stud load variation against % of pressure load applied.

• Using the 1/12th sector of the model, build the full model and rerun the analysis. Compare the
results with the one with cyclic symmetry conditions.

References:

1. Robert. D . Cook , Davis S Malkus , Michael E Plesha : Concepts and applications of Finite element Analysis , 3rd ed, John
Wiley and Sons.

2. Ted Belytschko , Wing K Liu , Brian Moran : Nonlinear Finite elements for Continua and Structures , John Wiley and
Sons.

3. W. C. Young, R. G. Budynas : Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain ,7th Edition , McGraw Hill

209