See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/225410474

Reducing drying energy and costs by process alterations at aggregate

stockpiles

Article  in  Energy Efficiency · May 2011

DOI: 10.1007/s12053-010-9093-3

CITATION READS

1 85

4 authors:

Geert Jan Thijssen Dingena Schott

Delft University of Technology Delft University of Technology
1 PUBLICATION   1 CITATION    81 PUBLICATIONS   477 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Ernst W. Demmink G. Lodewijks

1 PUBLICATION   1 CITATION   
UNSW Sydney
277 PUBLICATIONS   1,772 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

BioForce Project: Large scale transportation, logistics, and storage of densified torrefied biomass View project

Residual ultimate strength of seamless metalic pipeline with strcutural damage View project

All content following this page was uploaded by G. Lodewijks on 19 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233
DOI 10.1007/s12053-010-9093-3

Reducing drying energy and costs by process alterations

at aggregate stockpiles
Geert Jan Thijssen & Dingena L. Schott &
Ernst W. Demmink & Gabriel Lodewijks

Received: 4 February 2010 / Accepted: 10 September 2010 / Published online: 25 September 2010
# The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract In the field of bulk solids, handling knowledge Keywords Energy savings . Loss prevention .
on moisture behaviour in aggregate stockpiles can be Aggregates . Asphalt production . Stockpiles .
useful for process optimisation in terms of energy Moisture behaviour
consumption. In the asphalt industry, an increase in
moisture content leads to a significant increase in energy List of symbols
consumption. To determine the characteristics of moisture α Curve parameter
behaviour, correlations are investigated between theory 8 Porosity
on soil–water movements and moisture in aggregates. h Pressure head
With column drainage experiments with porous bottom, γw Weight density of water
similarities between theory and practice are found. This Kh Hydraulic conductivity
allows the use of theoretical hydrologic models to Ks Saturated hydraulic conductivity
determine and predict the moisture behaviour in drained = Pressure head
piles. The effect of process alterations within the system = ae Air-entry tension
of piles on energy consumption was investigated, and a n Curve parameter
significant reduction of energy consumption was found. m Curve parameter
p Water pressure
G. J. Thijssen : D. L. Schott (*) : G. Lodewijks qx Volumetric flow rate in the x-direction
Department of Marine and Transport Technology, Faculty Se Effective water content
of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, θ Water content
Delft University of Technology,
Mekelweg 2,
θfc Field capacity
2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands θres Residual water content
e-mail: [email protected] θsat Saturated water content
G. J. Thijssen z Elevation above arbitrary datum
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Lodewijks
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
E. W. Demmink
BAM Wegen,
Postbus 6217,
This paper investigates the effects of process alter-
4000 HE Tiel, The Netherlands ations at the aggregate stockpiles on the drying energy
e-mail: [email protected] and drying costs. Process alterations have a positive
224 Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233

effect on the energy for drying and as a result on and their moisture content is directly influenced by
drying costs, when the moisture content in the precipitation and evaporation and indirectly by drain-
aggregates is lower. Knowledge on the moisture age due to vertical redistribution of the water. The
content is desirable in all aggregate processing effect obviously depends on the process parameters or
industries like asphalt production, concrete production characteristics of the pile(s). Since the effects of
and coal fired power plants. For instance, 1% precipitation and evaporation can be directly deter-
moisture content reduction at asphalt production can mined with knowledge of area and residence time,
save up to €200,000 per year for a single plant, while first, the more complex effect of drainage will be
other researches have shown that a coal fired power determined by theory (the “Theory” section), experi-
plant has to fire €87,000 per year extra coal to ments and simulation of uniaxial vertical drainage
evaporate the moisture present in the material (Schott conditions (the “Method” and “Results” sections). In
et al. 2008; Thijssen 2009). the “Application of results to aggregate stockpiles”
Earlier research in this field was done by Eckersley section, the effect of process alterations on the final
for coal stockpiles (Eckersley 1994a, b, c). His moisture content of an aggregate is investigated. The
research was initiated because of the hazards of process alterations which are investigated are roofing,
flowslides caused by excessive moisture contents at capacity and height alterations of the piles and
the base of the stockpile. He gained knowledge on the restrictions on the initial moisture content.
threshold moisture content below which no significant
redistribution of water occurred and has indicated that
this threshold moisture content changes with height Theory
and residence time. However, the results of Eckersley
remain at theoretical level and are not translated to Hydrogeology
practice or concrete recommendations.
This research is inspired on the method of To determine the effect of drainage, theory on
Eckersley, but is extended to practice. Because the percolation of water in porous media is consulted
aim of the research is to reduce the drying energy and which belongs to the field of hydrogeology. Hydro-
costs, not only knowledge on the moisture behaviour geology is the study of water movements in soils.
is necessary, but also on the effect of process Soils are a porous media which means that they
alterations on moisture behaviour is important. Fur- consist of granular materials with voids in between.
thermore, it is based on aggregate drying at asphalt These voids can be filled with water, air or both.
production plant where lowest attainable moisture Large part of the study is the moisture behaviour in
content is of interest, while Eckersley aimed at the the soil during and after a precipitation event.
minimal moisture content below which no hazards of Figure 2 shows that a soil can be divided in a
flowslides occur. saturated and an unsaturated zone. The boundary
Figure 1 indicates the schematic process at the between the two zones is the water table. In the
aggregate stockpiles. Aggregates enter the stockpile, saturated zone, all voids are filled with water, and in
the unsaturated zone, the voids are partly filled with
water or dry. During a precipitation event, water
infiltrates in the unsaturated zone and is redistributed
Precipitation Evaporation to the saturated zone.
There are other water movements possible in soils,
but for this research all precipitation is assumed to
Aggregates In
Process
Aggregates out infiltrate and vertically redistributed.
parameters
Flow in unsaturated zone

Studies of Eckersley show that the largest part of a

Drainage
coal stockpile behaves like an unsaturated zone. This
Fig. 1 Process scheme of aggregate flow at stockpiles behaviour has also proven to be true for mineral
Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233 225

Fig. 2 Water movements in

soils (Dingman 2002)

unsaturated
zone

saturated
zone

aggregate stockpiles at, e.g. asphalt production plants Because in the scope of this research only flow in
(Brooks and Corey 1964). the vertical direction is considered (uniaxial vertical
Flows in an unsaturated porous medium are drainage), Darcy’s law can be rewritten as
described by Darcy’s law (Dingman 2002) as  
dy ðqÞ
  qz ¼ Kh ðqÞ  1 þ : ð2Þ
dz d ðp=g w Þ dz
qx ¼ Kh  þ : ð1Þ
dx dx
Here, = is the pressure head [L] which is defined
Here, qx is the volumetric flow rate in the x-direction as p/γw, θ is the volumetric water content of the
per unit cross-sectional area of medium [ms−1], z is the porous medium which is the ratio of water volume to
elevation above an arbitrary datum [m], p is the water soil volume and γw is the weight density of the water.
pressure [Nm−2], γw is the weight density of the water The latter is effectively constant for hydrologic
[Nm−3] and Kh is the hydraulic conductivity of the problems which do not involve temperature or salinity
medium [ms−1]. gradients. The hydraulic conductivity and the pressure
Darcy’s law describes the flow at a representative head depend on the volumetric water content. Both
elemental volume of the soil which includes pore are crucial determinants of unsaturated flow in soils.
spaces and soil particles. Flow occurs in response to Pressure in the unsaturated zone is negative and
the spatial gradients of mechanical potential energy, often referred to as suction or tension head. The
which has two components: the gradient of gravita- negative pressure is caused by the surface tension
tional potential energy dz/dx and the gradient of forces of water trapped in the menisci of the voids. If
pressure potential energy d(p/γw)/dx per unit weight the water content decreases then the surface tension in
of flowing water. This means that water always flows these menisci will increase causing the tension head
to a point where the combination of gravity and also to increase. The relation between tension head
pressure is higher than at the current point. The rate of and water content is often plotted on a logarithmic
flow is amplified by the hydraulic conductivity Kh scale creating the moisture characteristic curve or
which is a measure of the resistance of a material to soil–water retention curve (Fig. 3). When the volu-
flow. A high hydraulic conductivity means less metric water content is equal to the porosity 8, all the
resistance to flow and therefore higher flow rates. voids are filled with water and the soil is considered
The hydraulic conductivity is a material property saturated. This occurs at zero tension head. Figure 3
which depends on the pore-size distribution and the shows when the tension head increases from the point
water content in a material. of saturation, the water content changes little for a
226 Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233

Fig. 3 Typical forms of

hydraulic relations = (θ) − θ
and Kh(θ) − θ for unsaturat-
ed soils. For this soil poros-
ity 8=0.5 (Dingman 2002)

θres θfc θsat

while and then decreases rapidly and later on more approximations of these relations are used. Various
gradually. Two significant points are recognised: the models use analytic approximations ranging from
air-entry tension = ae and the field capacity θfc. The relatively simple equations to extended models. In
air-entry tension is the point of deflection from this paper, the model of Mualem–Van Genuchten will
saturated to rapidly decreasing water content. At this be used because it is best suited for practical
point, volumes of air begin to appear in the soil pores. applications where the results do not depend on
The field capacity is the moisture content to which a minimal differences in the water flow at small time
soil will drain under normal circumstances and increments or at the boundaries of full saturation or
measurable time intervals. The lowest moisture residual water content (Van Genuchten 1980). Other
content is the residual water content θres which can models, among which the Brooks and Corey model is
only be reached with extreme suction. well known (Brooks and Corey 1964), show the same
The hydraulic conductivity Kh also depends on the range of results.
moisture content. Figure 3 shows that initially the The Mualem–Van Genuchten model is based on the
hydraulic conductivity drops rapidly and then equations from Mualem’s model (Mualem 1976).
decreases more gradually with decreasing moisture Mualem has derived an equation for predicting the
content. relative hydraulic conductivity from knowledge on the
soil–water retention curve. Van Genuchten has added
The Mualem–Van Genuchten model formula to analytically approximate the soil–water
retention curve from observed soil–water retention data.
Both the pressure head–water content and hydraulic The Mualem–Van Genuchten Model is described as
conductivity–water content relations need to be  q sat q res
known to apply Darcy’s law for flow calculations. q res þ ð1þ h<0
qðhÞ ¼ ð3Þ
m
jahjn Þ
The pressure head–water content relation can be q sat h0
determined by field measurements or laboratory
experiments, but determination of the hydraulic
conductivity–water content relation is more difficult    
1 m 2
KðhÞ ¼ Ks Se1 1  1  Sem : ð4Þ
(Dingman 2002). For this reason, often analytical
Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233 227

Here, θ(h) is the relation between water content holes were made in the column as sampling points for
and pressure head and K(h) is the relation between determination of the aggregate moisture content. The
hydraulic conductivity and pressure head. Further- column of the first series was equipped with five
more, α, n and m are dimensionless curve parameters sampling points and in the second series with eight.
obtained from observing soil–water retention curves. The bottoms of the columns were provided with a coarse
These parameters determine the shape of the curve filter and a glass container for the drained water to
while θsat and θres are the left and right boundaries simulate the drainage behaviour in practice.
between which the curve propagates. Ks is the During an experiment, a column is filled with the
saturated hydraulic conductivity [LT−1], and Se is the concerned aggregate. The aggregate is prepared to the
effective water content defined as desired initial moisture content and remains in the
 m column during a certain drainage period. Aggregate
1 samples are taken from sample points when the
Se ¼ : ð5Þ
1 þ ðahÞn drainage period is expired.

By finding the correct values for the parameters in (3) Software simulation
to (5) the water content–pressure head and hydraulic
conductivity–pressure head can be inserted into The parameters needed for the Mualem–Van Gen-
Darcy’s law to calculate the water flow properties. uchten model will be derived from column drainage
experiments. Figure 4 shows that three columns with
two different heights were constructed. The columns
Method were filled with material having homogeneous mois-
ture content throughout the height. The material was
The final goal of the method is to determine the left to drain during a specified residence time. Once
influence of residence time on the threshold moisture this residence time had passed, firstly, the density of
content. The threshold moisture content is the average the total column was determined and, secondly,
moisture content in a stockpile below which no samples for moisture content determination were
drainage occurs in the associated residence time. This taken from the column at different height levels.
relationship will be depicted as drainage curves in the The sample data on moisture content is set out
next section. Since drainage is caused by percolation, against height to construct the moisture characteristics.
the Mualem–Van Genuchten model will be used to With aid of these moisture characteristics combined
determine the percolation effect in the selected with software simulation program Hydrus 1D (version
materials. The selected materials originate from the 4.12, 2005–2008; Šimůnek et al. 2008), the needed
asphalt industry and are mineral sand and recycled parameters for the Mualem–Van Genuchten model are
asphalt. The experiments and simulations deal with a derived in the following steps (Hydrus 1D, version
porous bottom or a uniaxial drainage condition. 4.12, 2005–2008):
– The curve parameters α and n are assumed equal
Column drainage experiments
to those of typical sand
– With bulk density known, the average porosity in
With these experiments, the drainage behaviour in the
the columns is equal to the saturated moisture
aggregates could be observed under more controlled
content
circumstances. Two series of column drainage experi-
– The field capacity can be derived from the
ments were conducted. The first series consisted of
smaller column and is converted to the residual
one column of 159 cm high and was primarily
moisture content with Hydrus 1D
designed for the comparison with literature. The
– The saturated hydraulic conductivity K s is
second series consisted of two columns of 268 cm
obtained by iteration to the retrieved moisture
high. These columns were constructed for more
characteristics with Hydrus 1D
resemblance with the situation in practice.
The columns were constructed of PVC cylinders of Previous research has indicated that the data from
12.5 cm outside diameter. At height intervals of 36 cm, the column drainage experiments complies with the
228 Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233

Fig. 4 Construction of
column drainage
experiments

field measurements as well as with the theory on Results

water movement in the unsaturated zone. This means
that the data from the experiments can be used as a Column drainage experiments were conducted for the
basis for modelling the moisture behaviour in the same materials as in the field measurements. With
aggregates stockpiles (Thijssen 2009). these experiments, the drainage behaviour in the
As described earlier, the model of Mualem–Van aggregates could be observed under more controlled
Genuchten will be used. The simulation is done with circumstances. The gained data from the experiments
the software program Hydrus 1D which uses a finite is compared with the results from field experiments
element method for calculating the water flow and with the literature for reliability of the simulation.
characteristics (Hydrus 1D, version 4.12, 2005– With the results of the column drainage experiments,
2008). In this program, a vertical column of desired the moisture behaviour is simulated by Hydrus 1D
height is specified and constructed with one or more which finally led to the construction of drainage
materials of choice. The vertical column is divided in curves. Drainage curves show how the average
a specified number of nodes. For each node, the moisture content in stockpiles at different heights
spatial flow characteristics are calculated according to respond to the residence time.
Darcy’s law. The vertical column can be accommo-
dated with observation point for which the flow data Column drainage experiments
is logged. This data can be studied after simulation.
With the parameters known, Hydrus 1D is used to The experimental plan consists of experiments with
extrapolate the moisture behaviour to other heights relatively high or average moisture contents set out to
and residence times, based on a practical situation. different drainage periods ranging from relatively
With this extrapolation, the drainage curves are short to long periods.
constructed to gain insight in the threshold moisture For the results, the moisture contents from the
content at different heights. sample points are set out to the corresponding heights
Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233 229

of the sample points to construct the moisture field capacities for river sand and recycled asphalt are
characteristics in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. Four experiments obtained from the column drainage experiments and
from the first series and two of the second series are found to be respectively 0.060 and 0.074 volumetric or
selected to be presented in this paper. 4.2% and 4.6% gravimetric which results in residual
For comparison with literature, the following can water contents of 0.055 and 0.069.
be observed: The second step is taken by fitting the drainage
curves obtained from the column drainage experi-
– Both materials in the first series drain within a
ments to the moisture data generated by the simula-
measurable time interval to a minimum moisture
tion. This way, the only parameter left for iteration,
content. Since the aggregate is not subjected to
the saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks, is determined.
extreme suctions, this moisture content is the
The results of these two steps are displayed in Fig. 8,
above discussed field capacity θfc
where the drainage curves for the two materials at two
– The drainage curve for river sand resembles a
different heights are constructed. It becomes clear that
typical retention curve for sand
for both materials within a few days the largest part of
– The drainage curve for recycled asphalt does not
the water is drained. The material was given enough
resemble a typical drainage curve for sand as
time to drain towards constant moisture content. The
close as river sand, but has a field capacity which
difference between the materials is that mineral sand is
is comparable to sand. As discussed in the results
able to absorb more water than recycled asphalt and
of the field observations, recycled asphalt tends to
drains slower. Noticeable is the final moisture content
behave like sand but with an extreme high
which is about equal for both materials given enough
hydraulic conductivity caused by the smooth
time. Figure 8 also shows an increase in height
bitumen present around the particles
resulting in slower drainage for both materials.
According to the “Introduction” section of this paper,
Drainage curves height alterations are considered one of the process
alterations in order to reduce energy costs which will
The first step in simulating the moisture behaviour for be further discussed in the next section.
the aggregate stockpiles is to define the soil hydraulic
parameters from (3) and (4). The curve parameters α, n
and m are set equal to the values for typical sand which Application of results to aggregate stockpiles
are provided by Hydrus 1D (Table 1). The saturated
water content θsat is equal to the porosity of the In this section, the application of the results to the
material which is determined from the column drainage aggregate stockpiles in order to reduce the drying
tests by measuring the bulk density. The residual water energy costs is investigated. First, the current mois-
content θres differs by 0.005 from the field capacity θfc ture behaviour at an aggregate stockpile is analysed
with the chosen curve parameters α, n and m. The followed by the impact of process alterations on this

Fig. 5 Results column River sand, first series

drainage experiments river 300
sand, first series
250

200
height (cm)

1 day
initial moisture
4 days
150 1 day
4 days
100

50 drainage curves

0
0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
volumetric moisture content
230 Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233

Fig. 6 Results column Recycled asphalt, first series

drainage experiments 300
recycled asphalt, first series
250

200

height (cm)
initial moisture
150
2 days
14 days
100 2 days
drainage curves
14 days
50

0
0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
volumetric moisture content

behaviour. As a case study, two stockpiles of mineral precipitation, the moisture content increases to 4.9%
sand and recycled asphalt are selected for analysis. and drains towards 4.2%. This means that granulated
recycled asphalt will benefit from measures which
Current moisture behaviour limit or prevent the effect of precipitation.

As an example, the knowledge on drainage is applied

Process alterations
to the stockpile situation at an asphalt production
plant. Figure 9 denotes the moisture behaviour at the
The previous section has shown that a granular
stockpiles of river sand and granulated recycled
material can either benefit from measures which limit
asphalt. River sand enters the stockpile with a yearly
the effect of precipitation or increase the effect of
average of 5.8% and increases to 6.5% due to
drainage. As stated in the “Introduction” section of
precipitation, while the drainage curves show that
this paper, by applying process alterations, the effect
the material drains towards a yearly average of 4.9%.
on the drying costs will be determined. According to
This means that river sand loses water because the
Fig. 1, the following effects are analysed:
initial moisture content is higher than the threshold
moisture content and will therefore benefit from – Altering process parameters: pile capacity and height
measures which lower the threshold moisture content. – Precipitation prevention by roofing
Granulated recycled asphalt behaves opposite to – Restrictions on initial moisture content
river sand. This material enters the stockpiles with an
initial moisture content of 3.1% which is lower than Increasing capacity and decreasing height are meas-
the threshold moisture content of 4.7%. Due to ures which result in lower threshold moisture contents

Fig. 7 Results column River sand, second series

drainage experiments river initial moisture
sand, second series 300

250

200
height (cm)

150
1 day
4 days
100
1 day
4 days
50 drainage curves

0
0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
volumetric moisture content
Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233 231

Table 1 Soil hydraulic properties the effects of altering capacity, height and roofing for
River sand Granulated recycled asphalt mineral sand. The right figure also shows the effect of
initial moisture content restrictions for recycled
α (cm−1) 0.145 0.145 asphalt. As expected, reducing height and increasing
n 2.68 2.68 capacity results in a cost reduction for mineral sands
m 0.63 0.63 and in a cost increase for granulated recycled asphalt.
θsat 0.49 0.40 In these pile configurations, when height is halved
θres 0.055 0.069 and capacity doubled, it saves 240 t of water per year
Ks (cm/h) 400 1,000 due to longer and faster drainage in these piles.
However, the cost reduction is higher when height is
increased and capacity lowered for recycled asphalt.
because increasing capacity leads to longer residence For instance, when height is tripled and capacity
times and thus more time for drainage and decreasing halved, it saves up to 900 t of water per year because
height results in a lower drainage curve. In analogy with of the area reduction and thus limited effect of
the previous section, these measures would have a precipitation. Compared to the maximum amount of
positive effect on materials entering the process with precipitation to be prevented by roofing (1,200 t per
higher initial moisture content than the threshold year), this means that already more than 70% can be
moisture content. This is applicable to river sand. saved by altering process parameters alone.
Decreasing capacity and increasing height have Figure 10 also shows that setting a restriction on
opposite effects on the threshold moisture content, but initial moisture content not only influences the final
have a positive effect on precipitation limiting, because moisture content directly, but also indirectly. For
both measures result in an area decrease. For this reason, instance, practice has shown that when a restriction
materials which gain in moisture content due to of 3% moisture content is set on the supplied
precipitation would benefit from these measures. This granulated recycled asphalt, the effect of increasing
is applicable to granulated recycled asphalt. Further- height and reducing capacity becomes amplified as
more, limiting precipitation by roofing would also indicated by the grey areas.
benefit the materials with higher threshold moisture
contents than initial moisture contents, the most.
Conclusions
Effect on energy costs
By conducting column drainage experiments similar-
Figure 10 shows the percentage cost reduction that ities have been found between hydrologic models and
comes along with the measures. This figure is a the moisture behaviour in aggregate stockpiles. The
distillate of the two materials: river sand and moisture in the aggregate stockpiles behaves similar
granulated recycled asphalt. The left figure shows to the unsaturated zone in soils. The drainage curves
Fig. 8 Resulting drainage Drainage Curves
curves from simulation
10.0%
Treshold Moisture Content

Mineral sand 4.5m

8.0%
Mineral sand 9m
Recycled asphalt 3.5m
Recycled asphalt 10.5m
6.0%

4.0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Drainage time (days)
232 Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233

Fig. 9 Moisture behaviour Moisture Behaviour Aggregate Stockpiles

stockpiles 8%

6.5%

Gravimetric moisture content

6% 5.8%

4.9%
4.9%

4.2%
4%

3.1%

2%
Mineral sand
Recycled asphalt

0%
Residence time

of river sand are in accordance with part of the Usually, the soil parameters to use in the model are
retention curve of typical sand and have a field determined by extensive laboratory research. This is
capacity of 4.2%. The recycled asphalt behaves like done by determining the moisture retention curves or
sand at the field capacity of 4.6% and at high creating and counselling soil property databases.
hydraulic conductivities. However, for most aggregates, no soil property
The hydrologic model of Mualem–Van Genuchten databases exist. For aggregate stockpiles, the data
can be used to determine and predict the behaviour. from column drainage experiments can be used to

River Sand Recycled Asphalt

Only 3%
restriction

Less height Less height

More capacity More capacity

process alteration

process alteration

Combined

More height More height

Less capacity Less capacity

Combined

-10% 0% 10% 20% 30% -10% 0% 10% 20% 30%

yearly drying cost reduction yearly drying cost reduction

Fig. 10 Effect process alterations

Energy Efficiency (2011) 4:223–233 233

estimate these parameters. This method can be used permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are
because the required knowledge of aggregate stock-
credited.
piles is less than the desired knowledge for standard
hydrologic research.
With knowledge on this percolation behaviour, the
References
effect of process alterations can be determined. It
becomes clear that stockpiles must be divided into two
Brooks, R. H., & Corey, A. T. (1964). Hydraulic properties of
categories: initial moisture content above the threshold porous media, hydrology paper no. 3. Fort Collins: Civil
value and initial moisture content below the threshold Engineering Dep., Colorado State Univ.
value. Dingman, S. L. (2002). Physical Hydrology. Prentice-Hall,
When the initial moisture content is above the ISBN 0-13-099695-5.
Eckersley, J. (1994a). Moisture movement in coal stockpiles 1:
threshold value, the drying energy and costs can be laboratory investigations. The Australian Coal Journal no. 43.
reduced by reducing the stockpile height and increas- Eckersley, J. (1994b). Moisture movement in coal stockpiles 2:
ing the capacity. When the initial moisture content is instrumented stockpile experiment. The Australian Coal
above the threshold value, a reduction can be realised Journal no. 43.
Eckersley, J. (1994c). Moisture movement in coal stockpiles 3:
by increasing the stockpile height and reducing the analysis of vertical distribution. The Australian Coal Journal
capacity depending on the practical situation and no. 43.
taking logistics into account. Hydrus 1D, version 4.12, University of California Riverside,
2005–2008, http://www.pc-progress.com/en/default.aspx?
downloads
Mualem, Y. (1976). A new model for predicting the hydraulic
Recommendations conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Water Resources
Research, 12, 513–522.
Knowledge on the drainage curve of a selected material Schott, D. L., Maan, O. C., et al. (2008). Environmental
management accounting applied for storage systems. Bulk
can be used to intelligently operate the stockyard. With Solids Handling, 8(7), 464–474.
knowledge of initial moisture contents and precipitation Šimůnek, J., van Genuchten, M. T., & Šejna, M. (2008).
effects, the minimum required residence time can be Development and applications of the HYDRUS and
determined for different materials. Furthermore, the STANMOD software packages and related codes. Vadose
Zone Journal, 7(2), 587–600. doi:10.2136/VZJ2007.0077.
moisture characteristics have indicated that materials Special Issue.
can be significantly wetter at the bottom of the pile, thus Thijssen, G. J. (2009) Pre-reducing the moisture content
for plant operation from reducing energy consumption, in aggregates at asphalt production plants of royal
it would never be advisable to obtain material from the BAM group, Delft University of Technology, Dep.
Transport Engineering and Logistics, 2009.TEL.7384,
bottom part of the pile. MSc thesis
Van Genuchten, M. T. (1980). A closed-form equation for
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which Soil Science Society of America Journal, 44, 892–898.

View publication stats