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Binary Code Formats

NON-RETURN TO ZERO (NRZ)
 A “1” represents the active state and a “0”
the passive state
 A change of state occurs when there is 1-
to-0 or 0-to-1 transition
 A string of 1’s is a continuous pulse or
“ON” condition and a string of 0’s is a
continuous “OFF” condition
 Information is extracted from transitions or
lack of transitions in synchronous format,
and a single pulse completely occupies the
designated bit interval

NON-RETURN TO ZERO (NRZ)

• Is the transmission of digital pulses

between two or more points in a
communication system.

Binary Transmission Binary Code Formats

BIT
• Is a contraction of the term “binary digit” RETURN TO ZERO (RZ)
• A unit of information represented by either a ‘1’  There is a transition for every bit
or ‘0’
transmitted, whether a 1 or 0, and as a
BIT RATE / DATA RATE result, a pulse width is less than the bit
• The number of 0’s and 1’s that pass on a interval to permit the NZR condition
communication channel each second
• Transmission rate in bits per second

ERROR RATE
• A measure of data connectivity’s performance
• Often the unit of measurement is bit error rate
(BER), which is probability of error
• A BER of 1 in 105 means that there is a probability
of one error will occur for every 100,000 bits

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Binary Code Formats

BIPOLAR NRZ
 This is similar to NRZ except that binary 1’s MANCHESTER CODE
alternate in polarity.

Binary Code Formats Binary Information Codes

BIPOLAR RZ  Types of Characters
 Data Link Control Characters
 The same as bipolar NRZ, but there is a
-used to facilitate the orderly flow of
return-to-zero condition for each signal data from a source to a destination
element, and again, the pulse width is
always less than the bit interval.  Graphic Control Characters
-involve the syntax or presentation of
the data at the receive terminal

 Alphanumeric Characters
-used to represent the various symbols
used for letters, numbers, and punctuation
in the English language

Binary Code Formats Binary Information Codes

MANCHESTER CODE Data Communication Codes
 Is commonly used in digital fiber optic -character sets or character languages
systems.
 The binary information is carried in the
transition which occurs at midpulse.
 By convention, logic “0” is defined as a
positive going transition and logic “1” as a
negative going transmission. This signal can
either be unipolar or bipolar.

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Binary Information Codes Binary Information Codes

 MORSE CODE  EXTENDED BINARY CODE DECIMAL
the first fixed-length character code. It is INTERCHANGE CODE (EBCDIC)
a 5 bit character code, with a start bit and the true 8 level code
a 1.5 stop bits
Table of Morse Code

Binary Information Codes Binary Information Codes

 BAUDOT CODE  CCITT ALPHABET NO. 5 CODE
the first datacom code with a 7 bit character set which has 27 or 128
three unequal length symbols codes
also with a parity bit

 CCITT ALPHABET NO. 2 CODE

character length similar to Baudot code
but without start and stop bits

Jean-Maurice-Emile Baudot

Binary Information Codes Binary Information Codes

 AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR  HOLLERITH CODE
INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII) consist of 12 bits information with the
12th bit for parity.
 it uses 7 bits of
information, an 8th bit
for use as parity, a start
bit and two stop bits
Herman Hollerith

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Binary Transmission Conventions Synchronization on Digital Signals

• PARALLEL TRANSMISSION • SYNCHRONOUS
bits are transmitted character at a time transmission in which data are sent at a
i.e. eight bits are transmitted fixed rate, with the receiver and
simultaneously over eight wires. transmitter synchronized
an additional wire called strobe or clock synchronized transmission eliminates the
lead notifies the receiver unit that all the need for start and stop bits
bits are present on their respective wires
so that the voltages on the wires can be
sampled.

Binary Transmission Conventions Synchronization on Digital Signals

• SERIAL TRANSMISSION • ASYNCHRONOUS
bits are transmitted over a single line one transmission in which time intervals
bit at a time between transmitted characters may be of
used when the cost of the communication unequal length
medium is high transmission is controlled by start and
stop bits at the beginning and end of
each character

Synchronization on Digital Signals

PARALLEL AND SERIAL TRANSMISSION

• ISOCHRONOUS
a combination of asynchronous and
synchronous transmission
the data are clocked by a common timing
base, and bytes are also framed with start
and stop bits

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Digital Transmission Modes Digital Transmission Modes

• SIMPLEX • FULL/FULL DUPLEX (F/FDX)
data transmission is unidirectional data transmission is in both directions at
information can be sent only in one the same time but not the same two
direction stations
simplex lines are also called receive-only, F/FDX is possible only on multipoint
transmit-only, or one-way only lines circuits

Digital Transmission Modes Types of Data Circuits

• HALF DUPLEX (HDX) • TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT
data transmission is possible in both it involves a transmission medium that
directions but not at the same time either uses two wires (a signal and a
HDX lines are also called two-way reference lead or a configuration that is
alternate or either way lines equivalent to having only two wires
simplex, HDX, or FDX transmission is
possible

Digital Transmission Modes Types of Data Circuits

• FULL-DUPLEX (FDX) • FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT
data transmission is possible in both it involves a transmission medium that
directions at the same time but they must uses four wires (two are used as signals
be between the same two stations that are propagating in opposite direction
FDX lines are also called two-way and two are used for reference leads) or a
simultaneous, duplex, or both-way lines configuration that is equivalent to having
four wires

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Types of Data Circuits Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

• SWITCHED CIRCUIT AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
in telephone network, a call is  distortion caused by the variation of
automatically switched through its transmission loss with frequency
destination after dialing has been
completed.

Types of Data Circuits Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

• LEASED CIRCUIT PHASE DISTORTION
a permanent circuit used for private use  is the resultant of different velocities
within a communication network with the of propagation at different frequencies
line directly between two locations or across the voice channel.
routed through a central office

TRANSMISSION LEVEL POINT Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

• Is the ratio (in dB) of the power of a signal at NOISE

that point to the power of the same signal  it is a spurious or extraneous signal that
at the reference point interferes with the wanted signal.
• CCITT recommends -13 dBrn0 at 0 TLP

TLPdB + dBm0 = Psignal(dB)

Where: TLP = transmission level point in dB

dBm0 = signal magnitude referred to
0 TLP in dBm
Psignal = signal magnitude at a point

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Voice Channel Transmission Impairments Digital Modulation Techniques

CROSSTALK 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 it is defined as the undesired energy -two (2) power levels (high and low) are
appearing in one signal path as a to represent 1 or 0 based on amplitude (1-
result of coupling from another signal high; 0-low)
path

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments Digital Modulation Techniques

ECHO 1.a QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 it is the return of talker’s voice or other (QAM)
end-user signal -four (4) power levels are used to
represent 4 pairs of bits
SINGING
 it is the result of sustained oscillations
due to positive feedback in amplifying
circuits

Digital Modulation Techniques Digital Modulation Techniques

2. PHASE SHIFT KEYING
-there is a phase reversal of 180̊ to
indicate change in state from 0 to 1 or vice
versa

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Digital Modulation Techniques Digital Modulation Techniques

2.a BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK) 3. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)
-two output phases are possible for a -binary states are represented by two
single carrier frequency (1 & 0) different frequencies
-as the input signal changes state, the -a simple, low performance digital
phase of the output carrier shifts between 2 modulation
angles that are 180̊

Digital Modulation Techniques Digital Modulation Techniques

2.b BPSK-PHASE REVERSAL KEYING (PRK) 3.a BINARY FSK
- a biphase modulation - a form of constant envelope angle
- a form of suppressed carrier, square- modulation similar to conventional FM
wave modulation of a continuous wave except that the modulating signal is a
signal binary pulse stream that varies between two
- depending on the logic condition on discrete voltage levels rather than a
the digital input, the carrier is transferred to continuously changing analog waveform
the output either in phase or 180̊ out of - has a poorer performance than PSK or
phase with the reference carrier oscillator QAM
- it is seldom used for high-performance
digital radio system

Digital Modulation Techniques Digital Modulation Techniques

2.c QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING - its use is restricted to low-performance,
(QPSK) low-cost, asynchronous data modems for
data communications over analog, voice
- four (4) possible pair of bits are
band telephone lines
represented by 4 different phases of the
carrier

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Digital Modulation Techniques Error Detection and Correction Techniques

3.b FSK TRANSMITTER-BINARY FSK • ERROR DETECTION
-use voltage controlled oscillators (VCO): The process of monitoring the received
MARK -logic “1” frequency data and determining when a transmission
SPACE -logic “0” frequency error has occurred.

A Voltage Controlled Oscillator

Digital Modulation Techniques Error Detection

3.c MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING 1. REDUNDANCY
- a form of continuous phase shift -involves transmitting each character
keying (CPFSK) with mark and space twice. If the same character is not received
frequencies synchronized with input binary 2x in succession, an error has occurred
rate separated by ½ of bit rate -retransmission of the entire message is
- it requires synchronizing circuits and is very inefficient, because second
more expensive transmission of a message is 100%
redundant

PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) Error Detection

MODULATOR 2. PARITY-CHECK (50% detection)
• the most common circuit used for -the simplest error detection scheme
demodulating binary FSK signal
-used for data communications systems
and with both vertical and horizontal
redundancy checking
-with parity, a single bit is added to each
character to force a total number of 1’s in
the character, including the parity bit, to
be either an odd (odd parity) or even
PLL NATURAL FREQUENCY number (even parity)
• Center frequency of FSK modulator

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Error Detection Error Detection

• EVEN PARITY 2.a VERTICAL REDUNDANCY CHECKING
Bias bit = logic “0” (VRC)
> a “1” indicates an error, “0” means no -an error detection scheme that uses
error parity to determine if a transmission error
has occurred within a character
-VRC is XORing of the bits within a single
character

CHARACTER PARITY
-each character has a parity added to it
prior to transmission

Error Detection
Error Detection 2.b HORIZONTAL / LONGITUDINAL
• ODD PARITY REDUNDANCY CHECKING
Bias bit = logic “1”
(HRC OR LRC)
– an error-detection scheme that uses
> a “1” indicates no error, “0” means there is parity to determine if an error has
no error occurred in a message (message parity)
– with LRC, each bit position has a parity
bit
– LRC is the result of XORing the characters
that make up a message and only even
parity is used. The bit sequence of an LRC
is often called Block Check Sequence
(BCS)
– VRC bit for each character is computed in
the vertical direction, LRC bit is computed
in horizontal direction

Error Detection Error Detection

• VERTICAL & HORIZONTAL REDUNDANCY 3. EXACT COUNT ENCODING
CHECK (95-98% detection) - the number of 1’s in each character is
-a parity bit is added to each character the same
to force the total number of 1’s in the 4. ECHOBACK / ECHOPLEX
character including the parity bit, to be - a character is sent back to the operator
either an odd number (odd parity) or an for the operator to check errors
even number (even parity) - mode of transmission that achieves less
than full-duplex but more than half-duplex
- achieved by having the answer DTE
retransmit (echo) the received message back
to the originating DTE for decoding and
display

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Error Detection Error Correction

5. CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC) R. W. HAMMING CODE
- most reliable scheme for error • The most popular correcting code
detection; 99.95 % of errors are detected
• Developed by R. W. Hamming at Bell Labs
- it is generally used with 8 bit codes
such as EBCDIC or 7 bit codes without • The number of bits in a Hamming code is
parity dependent on the number of bits in the
- the CRC character is the remainder of a data character,
division process using an XOR operation. If
no transmission occurred, the remainder
will be zero. 2n ≥ m + n +1
- the number of bits in CRC code is equal
to the highest exponent o the generating Where: m = no. of bits in the data
polynomial. The exponent identifies the bit character
positions that contain a 1. n = no. of Hamming bits

Error Correction Levels of Synchronization

1. SYMBOL SUBSTITUTION 1. BIT OR CLOCK SYNCHRONIZATION
-designed to be used in a human - identifies the start / beginning and
environment at the receiver stop / end of each bit transmitted
-a reverse question mark is - it ensures that the transmitter and
substituted for “bad character” receiver agree on a precise time slot for the
2. RETRANSMISSION / AUTOMATIC occurrence of the bit
REQUEST FOR RETRANSMISSION (ARQ) - it allows the receive DTE to know when
-resending a message when it is to sample the incoming bit stream
received in error. The received terminal - Fast or slow bit sampling rate result to
automatically calls for retransmission of errors
the entire message
-optimal ARQ message blocks = 256
to 512 characters

Error Correction Levels of Synchronization

3. FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION 2. CHARACTER SYNCHRONIZATION
- the only error correction scheme that - identifies start and stop of each
actually detects and corrects transmission individual character transmitted
errors at the receive end without calling for 3. BLOCK OR MESSAGE SYNCHRONIZATION
retransmission of the entire message
- addresses the start and stop of large
- bits are added to the message prior to
transmission amounts of data
4. MODEM OR CARRIER SYNCHRONIZATION
- performed between modems so that
the received signals may be properly
demodulated

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EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing
RS 232C RS 357
• It is an interface between the DTE (Data • It defines interface between Facsimile
Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data Terminal Equipment and VF Data Terminal
Communications Equipment) employing Equipment
serial binary data interchange
• It is a first level protocol standard as well as RS 366
an electrical standard specifying
handshaking and functions between the DTE • It defines interface between DTE and
and DCE Automatic Calling Equipment for Data
Communications
• Transmission rate is 20 kbps for a distance
not more than 50 ft.; load impedance at
terminator side is between 3000 to 7000
ohms

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing
RS 422A RS 408
• It defines electrical characteristics of • It recommends the standardization of the
balanced-voltage digital interface circuits. two interfaces between the numerical
• It is a differential balanced voltage interface control equipment (such as tape reader) and
standard capable of significantly higher data the serial-to-parallel converter with less than
rates over long distances. 40 ft (12 m) distance.
• It can accommodate 100 kbps over a
distance of 4000 ft (1200 m) or rates up to
10 Mbps over a maximum distance of 40 ft
(12 m)

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing
RS 423A RS 449
• It defines electrical characteristics of • It is general-purpose 37-position and 9-
unbalanced-voltage digital interface circuits position interface for DTE and DCE
• Single-ended, bipolar and unterminated employing serial binary data interchange.
voltage circuit like RS 232C • It offers greater immunity to noise and
• It extends the distance and data rate increase the data signaling rate to 2 Mbps
capabilities to distances up to 4000 ft (1200 and permits an increase up to 200 m in the
m) at a data rate of 3 kbps or at higher data length of the interconnecting cable.
rates of up to 300 kbps over a maximum
distance of 40 ft (12 m)

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CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing
CCITT Rec. V.10 / X.26 CCITT Rec. V.35
• It defines electrical characteristics of • Defines interface circuits similar to RS 232C
Unbalanced Double Current Interchange and Rec. V.24 with balanced line on
Circuits for General Use with IC Equipment Transmit Data, Receive Data, Transmit
in the field of Data Communications. Clock, and Receive Clock.

CCITT Rec. V.11 / X.27 CCITT Rec. V.57

• It defines electrical characteristics of • Comprehensive Data Test Set for High Data
Unbalanced Double Current Interchange Signaling Rates.
Circuits for General Use with IC Equipment
in the field of Data Communications.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing
CCITT Rec. V.24 CCITT Rec. V.36
• It gives the list of definitions for interfacing • It covers the synchronous data transmission
circuits between DTE and DCE for transfer of modems using 60-108 kHz group band
binary data and control and timing signals. circuits and is applicable to the extension of
• The definitions are applicable to a PCM channel at 64 kbps, extension of the
synchronous and asynchronous data Single Channel Per Carrier, SCPC circuit
communications. from a satellite earth station, and the
transmission of a multiplex aggregate bit
stream for telegraph and data signals.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing CCITT Signaling System (SS)

CCITT Rec. V.28 CCITT SS 4
• It defines the electrical characteristics for • System in Europe only for operator-
Unbalanced Double-Current Interchange controlled and full automatic international
Circuits . services on unidirectional circuits.
• Electrical characteristics specified are
applicable to interchange circuits operating
with data signaling rates below 20 kbps.
CCITT SS 5
• Uses two in band frequencies for line and
supervisory signals (2400-2600 Hz).

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CCITT Signaling System (SS) CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

CCITT SS 6 X.26
• International specification for common • Electrical characteristics for Unbalanced
channel signaling Double Current Interchange Circuits for
General Use with Integrated Circuit
equipment in the field of Data
CCITT SS 7 Communications
• Common channel signaling system use
between SPC exchanges
X.27
• Designed for use in a digital environment • Electrical characteristics for Unbalanced
Double Current Interchange Circuits for
General Use with Integrated Circuit
equipment in the field of Data
Communications

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.21
• Interface between DTE and Data
Terminating Equipment for Synchronous
operation on Public Data Networks

X.24
• List of Definitions for Interchange Circuits
between Data Terminal equipment and Data
Terminating Equipment on Public Data
Networks

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.25
• Interface between DTE and DCE for
Terminals Operating in the Packet Mode on
Public data Networks.
• It is a standard protocol for interfacing a
terminal to packet network.
• Defines the architecture of three levels of
protocols existing in the serial interface
cable between a packet mode terminal and
give away to a packet network.

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