NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 11, NO.

2, DECEMBER 2014 31

Review of Electrical and Gravity Methods of

Near-Surface Exploration for Groundwater
W. O. Raji
Department of Geology and Mineral Sciences, University of Ilorin, P. M. B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT: The theory and practice of electrical and gravity methods of geophysics for groundwater exploration was reviewed
with illustrations and data examples. With the goal of reducing cases of borehole/water-well failure attributed to the lack of the
knowledge of the methods of geophysics for groundwater exploration and development, the paper reviews the basic concepts,
field procedures for data acquisition, data processing, and interpretation as applied to the subject matter. Given a case study of
groundwater exploration in University of Ilorin Campus, the three important techniques of electrical method of groundwater
exploration are explained and illustrated using field data obtained in a previous study. Interpretation of resistivity data shows
that an area measuring low resistivity (high conductivity), having thick pile of unconsolidated rock, and underlained by fracture
crystalline is a ‘bright spot’ for citing borehole for groundwater abstraction in a basement complex area. Further to this, gravity
method of groundwater exploration was discussed with field data from Wokbedilo community in Ethopia. Bouguer and reduced
gravity anomaly results were presented as maps and contours to demonstrate how gravity data can be inverted to map
groundwater aquifers and subsurface geological structures during groundwater exploration.

KEYWORDS: groundwater, gravity method, electrical method, aquifers, crystalline rocks

[Received April 29 2014; Revised December 7 2014; Accepted December 18 2014]

I. INTRODUCTION groundwater quality and it’s suitability for particular purposes.

Civil and water engineers participate in borehole drilling and
The use of geophysical methods for groundwater resource
casing installation, dam and water flow channel construction.
and water quality evaluation has increased dramatically over
Agricultural Engineers has a responsibility to fabricate and
the last 15 years, especially in developing countries where the
install facility for irrigation and other agricultural uses. All the
individual bears the responsibility of providing water for their
parties involved in the business of groundwater development
daily activities. In every big city, dozen of new boreholes or
require the basic knowledge of the science of groundwater
hand-dug wells are drilled monthly in order to meet the
exploration. Although this paper is concerned with the
demand for clean water. Subsequent to borehole/water-well
methods of finding groundwater- a primary responsibility of
drilling, pre-drill near-surface geophysical survey is done to
Geoscientist, the paper exposes other professionals in the
identify a suitable place for borehole/water-well location.
business of groundwater development to the essential
Despite the success of near-surface geophysical methods for
knowledge required to do checks and balances for a successful
groundwater exploration, cases of dry and failed boreholes and
groundwater development project.
hand-dug wells are still being reported (Olorunfemi and
Groundwater application of near surface geophysics
Opadokun, 1987; Odoh et al., 2012). Borehole failure has
include mapping the depth and thickness of aquifers,
been attributed to poor pre-drill geophysical survey, data mis-
delineating aquitards or confining units that may serve as
interpretation due to handlers’ inexperience, and poor
barrier to groundwater flow, locating preferential fluid
communication between geophysicists who handle the pre-
migration paths such as fractures and faults zones, identifying
drill geophysical survey and the drillers (Chaoka et al., 2006).
potential source of groundwater pollution such as salt water
Poor communication includes improper documentation of the
intrusion and leachates from industrial and municipal wastes
findings of geophysical survey and the inability of the drillers
(e.g., Olayinka and Barker, 1990; Jones, 1985). An aquifer is a
to comprehend the details of the geophysical interpretations as
geologic formation that contains sufficient saturated
shown in the report.
permeable material that can yield significant quantities of
Given the economic loss and social deprivation associated
water to wells and boreholes. In essence, Groundwater
with failed groundwater supply system, there is need to expose
exploration is all about the search for aquifers and structures
the basic science of groundwater exploration to non-
that aid groundwater flow.
geoscientist and other professional involved in groundwater
Theoretical and practical background to electrical and
development. Exposition of non-geoscientist involved in
gravity methods of geophysics have been extensively
groundwater development to the science and practice of
reviewed by experts including Grant and West (1965), Dobrin
groundwater exploration can further reduce the risk of
(1976), Telford et al. (1976), Fetter (1980), Burger et al.
dry/failed boreholes and water-wells. For this reason, Water,
(1992), McNeil (1980), Van Dongen and Woodhouse (1994),
Civil and Agricultural Engineers are the primary targets of this
Parasnis (1979) among others. Many geophysical methods
paper. While geoscientists deal with the search for
have been applied for the study of groundwater. Some show
groundwater, water chemists are concern with the study of
*Corresponding author’s e-mail address: [email protected]
32 RAJI: REVIEW OF ELECTRICAL AND GRAVITY METHODS OF NEAR-SURFACE EXPLORATION

more success than the other. Gravity and magnetics have been
used to map regional aquifers and large-scale basin structures
for groundwater development (Carmichael and Henry 1977,
Al-Garni, 2005, Levi et al., 2011). Electromagnetic and
electrical methods have shown superior suitability for
groundwater exploration because rock properties that are
crucial to hydrogeology (permeability, porosity, and dissolved
minerals) have direct correlation with electrical resistivity or
electromagnetic conductivity. Electrical and gravity methods
measure variation in the rocks’ physical properties which
depend on the rock matrix component, mineral type, pore
spaces and size, and fluid content. Rocks exhibit different
parameter-anomaly based on their physical properties, size of
the target, depth of burial. The unique property of the target is
an important factor that informed the choice of a geophysical
Figure 2: Equipment layout for electrical resistivity survey.
method.
(Image extracted from http://www.wtsgeo.com/index.php)
In this paper, electrical and gravity method of groundwater
exploration are discussed with case histories from University Resistivity meter measures the resistance a geological
of Ilorin Campus, Nigeria, and Wokbedilo Community of formation poses to the flow of current. The apparent resistivity
Ethiopia. Following the introductory section, the details of of a geologic formation, Pa is defined as:
electrical and gravity methods are discussed in the respective V
order, with particular attention to field procedure for data Pa = 2π G (1)
I
acquisition, theory of the methods, data processing and where I is the current, V is the potential difference, and G is
interpretation. For electrical method, data used for illustration the geometric factor.
is from the author’s thesis and published papers (Raji, 2005, Geometric factor is dependent on the arrangement of the
Olasehinde and Raji, 2007, and lecture note). For Gravity metallic electrodes, and the distances between the electrodes.
method, data used for illustration is from a report by Levis et The conductivity, ρe of a porous rock varies with the volume
al. (2011). The report is in the public domain and thus gives and arrangement of pore spaces, the amount and conductivity
permission for reproduction and redistribution with proper of contained water (Waxman and Thomas, 1974) as given in
acknowledgement. This paper is a review of the electrical and eqn (2).
gravity methods of geophysics as applied to groundwater
Pe = aΦ − m S − n ρ w (2)
exploration. Its main contribution is that it brings together, the
experiences and scientific ideas scattered in published papers where Φ is fractional pore volume (porosity); S is the fraction
and textbooks that are not readily available to the of pores containing water, ρw is resistivity of water. The
audience/readership. constant n equals 2; 0.5 ≤ a ≤ 2.5; 1.3 ≤ m ≤ 2.5.Variation in
the properties of different rocks and the fluids within them
II. ELECTRICAL METHOD OF NEAR-SURFACE give rise to different conductivity or resistivity signatures. In
GEOPHYSICS general, soil with high clay content and/or moisture will show
higher conductivity than others. This is due to the presence of
Electrical method of Geophysics is by far the most mineral particles that potentially carry electrical charges, and
patronized geophysical method for groundwater exploration. the presence of moisture that aids electrolytic conduction.
This is partly due to the affordability of its equipment, and the Fractured consolidated rocks would measure lower resistivity
simplicity of the method (Olasehinde and Raji, 2007). Being than similar rocks with no fractures because fractures are
one of the earliest geophysical methods, it enjoys wide potential paths for groundwater flow, and they usually harbour
application for several geophysical studies ranging from fluids. Contaminated water and saline water will show higher
down-hole measurement to near surface applications for conductivity (or lower resistivity) compared to fresh water
groundwater exploration, groundwater contamination study, because they contain dissolves ions that aid electrical
bedrock depth and topography measurement, salt water conductivity. The different techniques of electrical resistivity
intrusion study, mineral exploration and quarry study, fracture survey for groundwater include Vertical Electrical Sounding,
depth and direction probing, post foundation study and road Horizontal Resistivity Profiling and Azimuthal Electrical
failure investigation, etc. There exist a direct correlation Resistivity Probing. Depending on the purpose of a survey and
between electrical properties, geologic formations and rock the complexity of the geology of the area, two of the three
fluid content (Zohdy et al, 1974; McNeill, 1980). Electrical methods are often combined. Groundwater exploration usually
method of groundwater survey is based on electrolytic starts with Horizontal Resistivity Probing (HRP) to study the
conduction, where four metallic electrodes are coupled to the lateral variation in the rock properties at near surface depth
ground and connected to the resistivity meter (known as (usually less than 10m). Measured value of resistivity is
terrameter) through conducting wires (Figure 1). The two plotted with horizontal distance. Locations with anomalous
outer electrodes A and B introduce current to the rock value (low resistivity, or high conductivity) along the profiles
formation; the two inner electrodes M and N measure the are marked for detailed study using Vertical Electrical
potential difference.
NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 11, NO. 2, DECEMBER 2014 33

Sounding (VES) Technique. VES probes into deeper Garni (2004, 2005), Abubakar et al. (2014) demonstrated the
subsurface than HRP. As shown in Figure 2, the farther the applications of electrical techniques for siting wells and
separation between the current electrodes, the deeper the depth boreholes locations in crystalline basement aquifers in sub-
of penetration of the current introduced to the subsurface. Saharan Africa Countries. Ako, (1976), Olasehinde and
Adelana (1999) applied electrical resistivity survey to the
study of proposed dam sites.
Different rock layers give different electrical properties
depending on the porosity, permeability, presence of
moisture/water, and dissolved ions. Rock layers with high
Depth, m

groundwater potential usually measure low resistivity (or high

Conductivity). For such rock to be called an aquifer, it must be
reasonably thick and porous to provide accommodation for
water accumulation. Typically results of electrical method for
groundwater study are presented in the form of profiles, curves
and tables. The results can be interpreted using manual
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of Vertical Electrical Sounding. methods and computer algorithms (Orelana and Money, 1960;
Olayinka and Mbachi, 1992) to deduce the number of geo-
The rule of thumb is that the depth probed is, at best, about electric layer, thickness of each layer, the layer’s resistivity,
40%-50% of the current electrode separation (Zhody et al., fracture depth and direction. In some cases the hydraulic
1974; Haberjam, 1975). The value decreases with complexity conductivity and yield of the aquifer unit are also determined.
of the local geology. Measured resistivity is plotted with half Other electrical methods rarely used for groundwater study
of the current electrode separation. Azimuthal Electrical include dipole-dipole method, Spontaneous potential method,
Probing (AEP) Technique is used to determine the presence, magnetotelluric method, and electromagnetic method. Except
direction and depth of fractures in rocks. AER is used in electromagentic method, the other three methods are more
combination with VES in crystalline rock terrains where suitable for Mineral exploration. Different technique has its
fractures basement rocks are expected to be the source of peculiar electrode configuration or arrangement. All electrical
groundwater aquifer. In AEP, resistivity is measured with methods of geophysics are limited to about 50m depth in
depth at different angles (azimuth). Results are plotted with crystalline rock terrain. Beyond this depth, results are less
half electrode separation along different azimuth. Deviation reliable. The limitations of electrical methods include
from the radial structure (Figure 3a) indicates electrical suppression and equivalence. It is advisable that borehole or
resistivity anisotropy probably caused by the presence of well log data around the study area is correlated with electrical
fracture at subsurface. It shows equipotential surface where resistivity data to guide interpretation, and reduce the risk of
electrical resistivity in rock does not change with profile dry boreholes.
orientation - isotropy. Figures 3b and c show where resistivity
changes with profile orientation- anisotropy. III. ELECTRICAL METHOD FOR GROUNDWATER
ρt EXPLORATION – A CASE STUDY
ρv
TENT IAL SURF To add values to the description of electrical method of
PO
UI AC groundwater exploration, I present a case study (Raji, 2005;
Q
PL Olasehinde and Raji, 2007) of groundwater exploration in a
E

ρv part of the basement complex of Nigeria- University of Ilorin

I Campus, Ilorin. The rock types in the area include Banded
PT 3b ρt Gneiss, Granite Gneiss, Augen Gneiss, Granodiorite,
Horizontal beds
3c Microgranite, Pegmatite and Quart Vein. These rocks are in
ρt
ρt Anisotropy ellipse places covered by loose unconsolidated rocks formed by in
3a Dipping beds situ weathering. In other places, crystalline rocks outcrop to
the surface. Structural elements in the area include fold, joints,
Figure 3: Electrical resistivity isotropy and anisotropy. foliation and banding. Groundwater exploration study in the
areas involved the use of the combination of Electrical
The direction of the long axis of the ellipse is taken to be Resistivity Profiling, Vertical Electrical Sounding, and
the strike direction of the fracture. Koefoed (1970), Malik et al Azimuthal Electrical Probing to identify suitable areas for
(1983), Jones (1985), Olorunfemi and Opadokun (1987), Van citing boreholes for groundwater development. The
Overmeeren (1989), Olasehinde et al., (1998), Olasehinde exploration programme began with Horizontal Resistivity
(1999), Raji (2005), Olasehinde and Raji (2007), Bayewu et Profiling. 16 resistivity profiles of various lengths were
al. (2012), Odoh et al. (2012) showed the use of electrical traversed covering some parts of the University Quarters,
resistivity survey for delineating rock types, mapping University Dam, Faculty of Agriculture, Works Department,
boundary conditions and fractures in aquifer systems. Beeson and the students’ hostel. Profile length range from 200 m to
and Jones (1988), Olayinka and Barker (1990), Hazell et al. 320 m. Resistivity values plotted with distance for one of the
(1992), Barker et al. (1992), Carruthers and Smith (1992), Al profiles is shown in Figure 4 for the 15 m and 30m station
*Corresponding author’s e-mail address: [email protected]
 34 RAJI: REVIEW OF ELECTRICAL AND GRAVITY METHODS OF NEAR-SURFACE EXPLORATION

intervals. Based on the HRP results from the 16 profiles, 23 their interpretations, places around 90m and 180m were
locations were selected for detailed study using Vertical recommended for borehole drilling. In this study, the selection
Electrical sounding of Schlumberger array. of an area for groundwater development (e.g., borehole/well
siting) is informed by the presence of low resistivity, presence
App. Resis vity, Ωm

800#
of thick unconsolidated/weathered rocks and fractures. These
600# three elements are the essential indicators of aquifers system
400# in a crystalline rock terrain.
200#

0#
N!
50# 100# 150# 200#
Distance, m

Figure 4: Horizontal resistivity plotted with distance for the

profile covering the University Primary School junction.

The VES curve for a location around 180 m along the

profile covering the university primary school junction is
shown in Figure 5. This curve and the others were interpreted
manually using master curves, and later using computer
iteration method. The black line is the curve from the
smoothed data. Using master curve and computer iteration
method, 3 geo-electric layers are interpreted from this curve.
!
104
Figure 6: Azimuthal Electrical Probing results showing two
episodes of fractures around location 90 m.
Apparent Resis vity (Ohmm)

103
Depth (m)

102

101
100 101 102 103
0 2km

AB/2 (m)
Figure 5: VES curve from the Vertical Electrical Sounding at Figure 7: Geo-electric cross-section distance around 90m in blue
distance 90 m along the profile shown in Figure 4. arrow, VES2. Cross-section shows the number of geo-electric layers,
thickness and depth of each geo-electric layer and their resistivities.
At the final stage of the exploration study, Azimuthal
Electrical Probing is applied to 8 locations (distance 90m, and IV. GRAVITY METHOD FOR GROUNDWATER
other not shown here) to determine the depths and directions EXPLORATION
of fractures. The resistivity polygon computed from the Gravity method of geophysics measures difference in the
Azimuthal Electrical Probing of distance 90m on figure 4 is Earth’s gravitational field at specific location due to the rock
presented in Figure 6. The polygon shows two episodes of mass property. The method is suitable for near surface
fractures: a northwest - southeast trending fracture at shallow groundwater exploration in areas where poorly-
depth, and a northeast-southwest trending fracture at greater consolidated/unconsolidated low-density rock overlies denser
depth. This fracture is suspected to be responsible for the very Precambrian basement rocks. Because gravity is directly
low resistivity at AB/2 of about 15m in Figure 5. Finally, related to mass, the difference between the two rock masses
electrical resistivity pseudo-sections are computed for this will produce noticeable anomaly in the earth’s gravity field. If
profile. The pseudo-section shows the number of layers, the anomaly is properly measured, it can be used to estimate
thickness of each geo-electric layers and their resistivities. the thickness of the unconsolidated rock (Chandler, 1994). In
Putting together the results of the different techniques and crystalline rock terrain, unconsolidated rock usually forms
NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 11, NO. 2, DECEMBER 2014 35

groundwater aquifer because of their high porosity, 15#

permeability and transmissivity. The bulk density, ρsm of a # Total#(observed#Gravity)"
fluid saturated rock is defines as
10# # La: tude#effect#removed#

Gravity values (mgal)

 ρ 
ρ sm = ρ r 1 − %  + ρ % 100
# Topo#&#Lat#effect#removed#
(3)
 100  5#
Mass of the rock, m = ρsmv where ρr is the density of the rock,
ρ% is the percentage porosity, and v is the volume.
The gravitational effect, F of the earth on such rock can be 0#
defined as:
GmM
F= ( 4) %5#
R2 %10# %8# %6# %2# 2# 10#
%4# 0# 4# 6# 8#
Where M and R are the mass and radius of the earth
respectively, G is the universal gravitational constant, and m is Distance (m)
Figure 8: Importance of gravity correction. Thickline - gravity reading
the mass of the rock. The higher the mass of a rock, the higher
plotted with distance for observed gravity anomaly, dashline – after
the gravity effect of the body. Unconsolidated rocks are
latitude effect is removed from the observed anomaly, dotline - after
potential aquifers for groundwater because of their high topographic/terrain effect is removed from the observed anomaly.
porosity and permeability. They usually have lower density
and hence posses lower gravity values compared to denser anomaly, regional gravity value is usually subtracted from the
Precambrian rocks. bourguer anomaly to obtain residual gravity anomaly. The
Gravity survey has been used (sometime in combination separation can be done using manual approach, computer
with other methods of geophysics) to study bedrock methods, or both (Fajklewicz, 1976; Butler, 1984a & b; Cady,
topography underlying unconsolidated aquifer, buried J. W., 1980). The residual gravity anomaly can then be
basement channel in crystalline rock terrain, buried alluvium modeled by computer methods (Cady, 1980; Telford et al.,
aquifers in tropical areas, basin fill aquifers in arid regions, to 1990) to determine the depth and geometry of the source of
determine water table levels, and for locating structural the anomaly.
features that are critical for groundwater accumulation and
flow (Ibrahim and Hinze, 1972; Carmichael and Henry, 1977; V. GRAVITY METHOD FOR GROUNDWATER
Van overmeeren, 1975; 1981; Cornwell and Carruthers, 1985; EXPLORATION - A CASE STUDY
Allis and Hunt, 1986, Telford et al., 1990; Adams and Hinze,
1990; Lewis et al., 2011 ). Gravity data for groundwater study Gravity survey for groundwater exploration in Wokbedilo
are usually acquired on grids or profiles depending on the (Lewi et al., 2011) is presented as a case study. Wobekdilo, a
scale of the survey and size of the target, using high precision part of Borena zone, is located in the southern part of Ethopia.
gravimeter. Gravity is measured using gravimeter; its unit is Gravity survey for groundwater exploration was carried out
Gal (m/s2). with the aim of identifying places suitable for citing boreholes.
During data acquisition, a base station is established. At The study area was divided into grid points. High precision
regular interval, the field crew will have to return to the base gravimeter was used to acquire gravity data at every grid
station to take measurements, or keep another gravimeter in point, and a differential GPS was used to measure the
the base station to take gravity measurements at specified time coordinates of data points. At regular interval, base station is
interval, in order to measure the tidal effect on gravity values. reoccupied to measure changes in tidal effects. Data acquired
Data acquired by gravimeters is known as observed data. was corrected for instrumental drift, tidal effects, free-air
Observed data is usually corrected for instrument drift and correction, bouguer correction, latitude correction and terrain
tidal effect. In addition to this, the data is subjected to latitude correction. The bourger anomaly computed for the study area
correction, terrain correction, free-air correction, and bouguer is presented in form of a map in Figure 9.
correction (Cogbill, 1990, Telford et al., 1990; Burger et al., Further to this, regional gravity anomaly is subtracted from
1992). Figure 8 shows the effect of gravity correction on the bourger gravity anomaly to obtain the residual gravity
bouguer gravity anomaly. Bouguer gravity anomaly, ∆gB can anomaly as presented in Figure 10. The residual gravity
be described as: anomaly was interpreted (Lewis et al., 2011) to delineate
locations that are suitable for borehole drilling. The two places
∆ = + − + (5) recommended for drilling are indicated by stars in Figure 11,
modified from Lewis et al., 2011. Geological interpretation
where is the measured data, is the free air and the geometry of the body causing the gravity anomaly is
correction, is the bouguer correction, and is the shown in figure 10. One of the boreholes drilled in this area
terrain correction. has a yield of 22 litres per minute.
The gravity data obtained after these corrections is known
as bouguer gravity anomaly. Bouguer gravity anomaly is VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
usually presented in form of maps or contour lines or both. To The theory and practice of electrical and gravity methods of
interpret the subsurface sources causing the Bouguer gravity

*Corresponding author’s e-mail address: [email protected]

 36 RAJI: REVIEW OF ELECTRICAL AND GRAVITY METHODS OF NEAR-SURFACE EXPLORATION

the intended readership. The review and the explanation

provided in this paper can be followed to carry out successful
groundwater exploration. The objective of the paper is to
equip water and civil engineers, agricultural engineers and
‘new comers’ geoscientists with the knowledge required for
successful groundwater exploration and development. It is
hoped that the circulation of this paper will reduce cases of
borehole and water-well failure attributed to the lack of
knowledge of the geophysical methods.
Following the introductory section, the two methods of
near-surface geophysics for groundwater exploration, namely
electrical method and gravity method are reviewed and
illustrated with data examples from a University of Ilorin
Campus and Wokbedilo Community of Ethiopia.
Figure 9: Bouguer gravity anomaly map from groundwater Electrical method measures the resistance a rock unit poses
exploration data at Wobekdilo (Lewis et al., 2011). to the free flow of electric current. The presence of water in a
rock unit is expected to reduce the resistivity and increase the
conductivity properties of rocks. The three techniques of
electrical method discussed are Horizontal Resistivity
Profiling (HRP), Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and
Azimuthal Resistivity Profiling (ARP). HRP is most suited for
very shallow resistivity profiling during reconnaissance
geophysical survey. Its result can be used to elucidate lateral
variation in rock resistivity, delineate geological boundaries,
lateral extent of shallow fractures, faults, and aquifers. VES
gives indication of the changes in the electrical properties of
rock with depth. The method is widely used for locating the
depth and vertical position of different geological units, for
example, the depth and thickness of an aquifer. ARP is most
Figure 10: Reduced gravity anomaly map for Wokbedilo. (Lewis et suited for fracture/fault mapping, especially in the
al., 2011). determination of fracture depth and direction. The paper also
detailed the successive order of combining the three methods
and interpreting their results.
Gravity value (mgal)

Gravity value (mgal)

2000# 2000#

1000# 1000# Following this, gravity method of groundwater exploration

0# 0# is reviewed. Subtle gravity difference between loose semi-arid
%1000#
%1000# !!!!!!!!Calculated! sediments and the crystalline bedrock was mapped to explore
%2000# !!!!!!!!Observed! %2000#
%3000# %3000#
groundwater potential of Wokbedilo Community of Ethiopia.
!1# 1.0# 3.0# 5.0# 7.0# 9.0# 11.0# 13.0# Gravity data acquired in the area was subjected to various
Distance (km) corrections and regional reduction in order to extract the
0" 0"
200"
gravity anomaly that is due to density contrast between the
Depth (m)

200"
semi-arid sediments (aquifer) and the bedrock (Lewis, et al,
Depth (m)

400" 400"

600" 600" 2012). Interpretation of the reduced gravity anomaly suggested

800" 800" two areas that are suitable for borehole drilling. Model and
1000" 1000" structural interpretations of the anomaly showed that the
aquifer system in the area is enhanced by the presence of a
Figure 11: Cross-section and geological model interpreted from the normal fault.
reduced/corrected gravity anomaly for one of the places
recommended for borehole citing at longitude 344000 and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
longitude.
I thank the anonymous reviewers and the Managing Editor
geophysics for groundwater exploration are discussed with for the useful comments and suggestions.
data examples. Starting from field procedure for data
acquisition to data processing, results presentation and
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