www.teachervision.fen.com/teaching-methods/resource/5810.

html

It is to S.P. Corder that Error Analysis owes its place as a scientific

method in linguistics. As Rod Ellis cites (p. 48), "it was not until the
1970s that EA became a recognized part of applied linguistics, a
development that owed much to the work of Corder". Before Corder,
linguists observed learners' errors, divided them into categories, tried
to see which ones were common and which were not, but not much
attention was drawn to their role in second language acquisition. It
was Corder who showed to whom information about errors would be
helpful (teachers, researchers, and students) and how.

There are many major concepts introduced by S. P. Corder in his

article "The significance of learners' errors", among which we
encounter the following:

1) It is the learner who determines what the input is. The teacher can
present a linguistic form, but this is not necessarily the input, but
simply what is available to be learned.

2) Keeping the above point in mind, learners' needs should be

considered when teachers/linguists plan their syllabuses. Before
Corder's work, syllabuses were based on theories and not so much on
learners’ needs.

3) Mager (1962) points out that the learners' built-in syllabus is more
efficient than the teacher's syllabus. Corder adds that if such a built-in
syllabus exists, then learners’ errors would confirm its existence and
would be systematic.

4) Corder introduced the distinction between systematic and non-

systematic errors. Unsystematic errors occur in one’s native language;
Corder calls these "mistakes" and states that they are not significant
to the process of language learning. He keeps the term "errors" for
the systematic ones, which occur in a second language.
5) Errors are significant in three ways:
- to the teacher: they show a student’s progress
- to the researcher: they show how a language is acquired, what
strategies the learner uses.
- to the learner: he can learn from these errors.

6) When a learner has made an error, the most efficient way to teach
him the correct form is not by simply giving it to him, but by letting
him discover it and test different hypotheses. (This is derived from
Carroll's proposal (Carroll 1955, cited in Corder), who suggested that
the learner should find the correct linguistic form by searching for it.

7) Many errors are due to that the learner uses structures from his
native language. Corder claims that possession of one’s native
language is facilitative. Errors in this case are not inhibitory, but rather
evidence of one’s learning strategies.

The above insights played a significant role in linguistic research, and

in particular in the approach linguists took towards errors. Here are
some of the areas that were influenced by Corder's work:

STUDIES OF LEARNER ERRORS

Corder introduced the distinction between errors (in competence) and

mistakes (in performance). This distinction directed the attention of
researchers of SLA to competence errors and provided for a more
concentrated framework. Thus, in the 1970s researchers started
examining learners’ competence errors and tried to explain them. We
find studies such as Richards's "A non-contrastive approach to error
analysis" (1971), where he identifies sources of competence errors; L1
transfer results in interference errors; incorrect (incomplete or over-
generalized) application of language rules results in intralingual errors;
construction of faulty hypotheses in L2 results in developmental errors.

Not all researchers have agreed with the above distinction, such as
Dulay and Burt (1974) who proposed the following three categories of
errors: developmental, interference and unique. Stenson (1974)
proposed another category, that of induced errors, which result from
incorrect instruction of the language.
As most research methods, error analysis has weaknesses (such as in
methodology), but these do not diminish its importance in SLA
research; this is why linguists such as Taylor (1986) reminded
researchers of its importance and suggested ways to overcome these
weaknesses.

As mentioned previously, Corder noted to whom (or in which areas)

the study of errors would be significant: to teachers, to researchers
and to learners. In addition to studies concentrating on error
categorization and analysis, various studies concentrated on these
three different areas. In other words, research was conducted not only
in order to understand errors per se, but also in order to use what is
learned from error analysis and apply it to improve language
competence.

Such studies include Kroll and Schafer's "Error-Analysis and the

Teaching of Composition", where the authors demonstrate how error
analysis can be used to improve writing skills. They analyze possible
sources of error in non-native-English writers, and attempt to provide
a process approach to writing where the error analysis can help
achieve better writing skills.

These studies, among many others, show that thanks to Corder's

work, researchers recognized the importance of errors in SLA and
started to examine them in order to achieve a better understanding of
SLA processes, i.e. of how learners acquire an L2.

STUDIES OF L1 INFLUENCE ON SLA

Various researchers have concentrated on those errors which

demonstrate the influence of one’s native language to second language
acquisition. Before Corder’s work, interference errors were regarded as
inhibitory; it was Corder who pointed out that they can be facilitative
and provide information about one’s learning strategies (point 7, listed
above). Claude Hagège (1999) is a supporter of this concept and he
mentions it in his book "The child between two languages", dedicated
to children’s language education. According to Hagège, interference
between L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In
adults it is more obvious and increases continuously, as a monolingual
person gets older and the structures of his first language get stronger
and impose themselves more and more on any other language the
adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as regards children, interference
features will not become permanent unless the child does not have
sufficient exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, then instead
of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as often
happens with phonetics features), interference features can be easily
eliminated. Hagège stresses that there is no reason for worry if
interference persists more than expected. The teacher should know
that a child that is in the process of acquiring a second language will
subconsciously invent structures influenced by knowledge he already
possesses. These hypotheses he forms may constitute errors. These
errors, though, are completely natural; we should not expect the child
to acquire L2 structures immediately (p. 81).

In addition to studies of L1 transfer in general, there have been

numerous studies for specific language pairs. Thanh Ha Nguyen (1995)
conducted a case study to demonstrate first language transfer in
Vietnamese learners of English. He examined a particular language
form, namely oral competence in English past tense making. He tried
to determine the role of L1 transfer in the acquisition of this English
linguistic feature as a function of age, time of exposure to English, and
place and purpose of learning English.

The influence of L1 on L2 was also examined by Lakkis and Malak

(2000) who concentrated on the transfer of Arabic prepositional
knowledge to English (by Arab students). Both positive and negative
transfer were examined in order to help teachers identify problematic
areas for Arab students and help them understand where transfer
should be encouraged or avoided. In particular, they concluded that
"an instructor of English, whose native language is Arabic, can use the
students' L1 for structures that use equivalent prepositions in both
languages. On the other hand, whenever there are verbs or
expressions in the L1 and L2 that have different structures, that take
prepositions, or that have no equivalent in one of the languages,
instructors should point out these differences to their students".

Not only was L1 influence examined according to language pair, but

according to the type of speech produced (written vs. oral). Hagège
(p. 33) discusses the influence of L1 on accent; he notes that the ear
acts like a filter, and after a critical age (which Hagège claims is 11
years), it only accepts sounds that belong to one’s native language.
Hagège discusses L1 transfer in order to convince readers that there is
indeed a critical age for language acquisition, and in particular the
acquisition of a native-like accent. He uses the example of the French
language, which includes complex vowel sounds, to demonstrate that
after a critical age, the acquisition of these sounds is not possible;
thus, learners of a foreign language will only use the sounds existing in
their native language when producing L2 sounds, which may often
obstruct communication.

STUDIES OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK

Corder elaborated on Carroll’s work to show that the most efficient

way to teach a student the correct linguistic form is to let him test
various hypotheses and eventually find the right form (point 6, listed
above). In these steps, Hagège points out the importance of self
correction (p. 82-83). According to Hagège, it is useful to always
perform an error analysis based on written tests administered by the
teacher, but without informing the student of the purpose of the test.
On that basis, self-correction is preferable to correction by the teacher,
especially if the latter is done in a severe or intimidating way. Self
correction is even more efficient when it is done with the help of
children’s classmates. According to teachers, the younger the children,
the greater the cooperation among them and the less aggressive or
intimidating the corrections. Hagège dedicates a section in his book to
the importance of treating errors in a positive way. In this section,
titled "The teacher as a good listener", he notes that it is useless, if
not harmful, to treat errors as if they were “diseases or pathological
situations which must be eliminated”, especially if this treatment
becomes discouraging, as occurs when teachers lose their patience
because of children’s numerous errors. This, of course, does not mean
that corrections should be avoided; after all it is the teacher’s duty to
teach the rules of the L2. But the correction of every error as soon as
it occurs is not recommended. The justification that Hagège offers is
the following: the linguistic message that the child tries to produce is a
sequence of elements which are interdependent; immediate
corrections which interrupt this message tend to produce negative
consequences, even to the less sensitive children; such consequences
include anxiety, fear of making an error, the development of avoidance
strategies, reduced motivation for participation in the classroom, lack
of interest for learning, reduced will for self correction, and lack of
trust towards the teacher. Esser (1984, cited in Hagège) also made a
similar point: repetitive and immediate corrections, he noted, may
cause sensitive children to develop aggressive behavior towards their
classmates or teacher. Thus, Hagège concludes, correction must not
be applied by the teacher unless errors obstruct communication. This
is the main criterion for error correction (i.e. obstruction of
communication) presented by Hagège; however there have been
studies which examined such criteria in greater detail, such as
Freiermuth's "L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques" (1997).
Freiermuth accepts Corder's view (point 6) and proposes criteria for
error correction in the classroom. These criteria are: exposure,
seriousness, and students' needs.

In the case of exposure, Freiermuth claims that when a child creates

language (for example, when he tries to express an idea by using a
linguistic form he has not yet acquired), he will most likely make
errors; correcting these errors will be ineffective because the learner is
not aware of them. Thus, error correction would result in the
acquisition of the correct form only if the learner has been previously
exposed to that particular language form.

As regards the seriousness criterion, Freiermuth claims that the

teacher must determine the gravity of an error before deciding
whether he should correct it or not. Here Freiermuth sets a criterion
which agrees with that of Hagège's: "the error, he states, must impede
communication before it should be considered an error that
necessitates correction". But what constitutes a serious error? Which
errors are those which should not be corrected? As an examples of
non-serious errors, Freiermuth mentions those errors which occur due
to learners’ nervousness in the classroom, due to their stress or the
pressure of having to produce accurately a linguistic form in the L2.
These errors can occur even with familiar structures; in that case, they
are not of serious nature and are similar to what Corder called
"mistakes". Here again we see Corder’s influence in error analysis, and
in particular in the distinction between errors and mistakes. Freiermuth
goes on to suggest a hierarchy of errors (according to seriousness) to
help teachers decide which errors should be corrected: "Errors that
significantly impair communication [are] at the top of the list, followed
by errors that occur frequently, errors that reflect misunderstanding or
incomplete acquisition of the current classroom focus, and errors that
have a highly stigmatizing effect on the listeners". He also clarifies
what can cause stigmatization: profound pronunciation errors, or
errors of familiar forms.

Another important criterion that must be considered by the teacher is

individual students' needs. The importance of this factor is mentioned
in Corder, who in turn notes that this idea had been suggested
previously by Carroll (1955, cited in Corder 1967) and Ferguson
(1966, cited in Corder 1967). Each student is different and thus may
react differently to error correction. We infer from Freiermuth's claim
that the teacher must perform two main tasks: first, assess some
specific character traits of students, such as self-confidence and
language acquisition capability. Freiermuth agrees with Walz (1982,
cited in Freiermuth) that self-confident, capable students can profit
from even minor corrections, while struggling students should receive
correction only on major errors. This claim agrees with Esser and
Hagège's claim that repetitive corrections are likely to decrease
motivation; it is reasonable to accept that students who lack self-
confidence will be "stigmatized" to a greater degree than confident
students.

The teacher's second task, according to Freiermuth, is to listen to

learners' L2 utterances in order to determine where errors occur (i.e.
which linguistic forms cause students difficulties), their frequency, and
their gravity (according to the severity criteria mentioned above).
Then the teacher can combine the outcome of these tasks and decide
on correction techniques for individual students.

A different approach to error correction was suggested by Porte

(1993), who stressed the importance of self-correction. Porte refers to
Corder's distinction of errors and mistakes and points out that many
students do not know the difference. It is important, Porte notes, that
students know how to identify an error in order to avoid it in the
future. She agrees with Corder that it is more efficient for learners to
correct themselves than be corrected by the teacher, and goes on to
suggest a four-step approach for self-correction. This approach
consists of questions that the teacher provides to students. After
writing an essay, students should read it four times, each time trying
to answer the questions included in each of the four steps. Thus, in
each re-reading task (each step) they concentrate on a different
aspect of their essay. In brief, the first task asks them to highlight the
verbs and check the tenses; in the second task students concentrate
on prepositions; the third task requires them to concentrate on nouns
(spelling, agreement between subject and verb); finally in the fourth
task students should try to correct potential personal mistakes. Porte
also offers some clarification of what is meant by personal mistakes, in
order to help the students identify them.

The studies mentioned above are only a few examples that

demonstrate how S. Pit Corder's work influenced the area of error
analysis in linguistics. The concepts that Corder introduced directed
researcher’s attention to specific areas of error analysis; they helped
linguists realize that although errors sometimes obstruct
communication, they can often facilitate second language acquisition;
also they played a significant role in training teachers and helping
them identify and classify students' errors, as well as helping them
construct correction techniques.
REFERENCES

Corder, S. P. 1967. "The significance of learners’ errors”. International

Review of Applied Linguistics 5: 161-9.

Dulay, H., and Burt, M., “Errors and strategies in child second
language acquisition”, TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136, 1974.

Ellis, R., “The Study of Second Language Acquisition”, Oxford

University Press, 1994.

Esser, U., “Fremdsprachenpsychologische Betrachtungen zur

Fehlerproblematic im Fremdsprachenunterricht”, Deutsch als
Fremdsprache, 4:151-159, 1984, (cited in Hagège 1999).

Freiermuth, M. R., “L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques”, The

Language Teacher Online 22.06,
http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/sep/freiermuth.html,
1997.

Hagège, C. “L’enfant aux deux langues” (The child between two

languages), Greek translation, Polis editions, Athens 1999. (Original
publication: Editions Odile Jacob, 1996).

Kroll, Barry, and John C. Schafer. "Error-Analysis and the Teaching of

Composition", College Composition and Communication 29: 242-248,
1978

Lakkis, K. and Malak, M. A.. “Understanding the Transfer of

Prepositions”. FORUM, Vol 38, No 3, July-September 2000. (Online
edition: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol38/no3/p26.htm)

Mager, R.F. “Preparing Instructional Objectives”, Fearon Publishers,

Palo Alto, CA 1962.

Nguyen, Thanh Ha. “First Language Transfer and Vietnamese Learners'

Oral Competence in English Past Tense Marking: A Case Study.”,
Master of Education (TESOL) Research Essay, La Trobe University,
Victoria, Australia1995.

Porte, G. K., “Mistakes, Errors, and Blank Checks”, FORUM, Vol 31, No
2, p. 42, January-March 1993. (Online edition:
http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol31/no1/p42.htm)

Richards, J., “A non-contrastive approach to error analysis”, English

Language Teaching 25: 204-219, 1971.

Stenson, N. “Induced errors” in Shumann and Stenson (eds.), 1974,

cited in Ellis (p. 60).

Taylor G., “Errors and explanations”, Applied Linguistics 7: 144-166,

1986.

MONDAY, MARCH 30, 2009

Should all errors made by foreign language learners be

corrected at any cost?
Should all errors made by foreign language learners be
corrected at any cost?
(Overcorrection should be avoided at any cost)

Error correction may prove to be a difficult task to language teachers because it involves
decision-making about what to correct, when to correct, how to correct and how much to
correct. Several approaches to correcting student errors have been suggested. One of them
holds that all errors made by learners should be corrected at any cost. On the surface, this
approach seems to be of much benefit to students. However, a close examination will reveal
that this approach to error correction will do students more harm than good.

The first reason that teachers will undermine students’ confidence if they correct student
mistakes all the time. It is not difficult to realize the demotivating effect of this
overcorrection. Perhaps there is nothing more disconcerting or intimidating to students than
to be interrupted every time they make a mistake in oral practice. Distracted and discouraged
in this way, they may forget what they intend to say or feel that they will never be able to say
anything right. The damage that over written correction does to students is no less serious.
Most students will feel a sense of failure or defeat when they see their piece of written work
covered with red corrections and comments from the teacher. Only very few well-motivated
students will not lose heart in this case. Thus the teacher’s over emphasis on accuracy at the
expense of fluency or comprehensibility has a detrimental effect on students indeed. It goes
against the principle of language teaching that part of the teacher’s job is to support and
encourage students, not to discourage or demotivate them.
The second reason is that overcorrection fails to focus students on genuine errors.
Apparently, teachers who tend to overcorrect think that all incorrect forms produced by
learners are dangerous and need to be fixed. However, their indiscriminate treatment of
student errors may backfire because students may not understand what is worth correcting.
There are many kinds of errors or mistakes and if all the errors or mistakes are picked up and
dealt with, students will assume that they are of equal importance. In reality, some of the
inaccuracies produced by learners are just unfortunate mistakes resulting from mere
confusion, from lapses of memory, from slips of the tongue or the pen, etc. Given time and
help or guidance form the teacher and friends, learners can remedy these mistakes
themselves. In contrast, genuine errors reflect students’ lack of knowledge about the target
language. For example, they do not know what the correct form or word should be or they
believe that what they are saying or writing is correct. In other words, these errors are clear
indications of problem areas to students and as such they should be addressed immediately if
teachers do not want them to persist and hinder learning in the long run.

The last and also the most important reason is that teachers who are in favor of constant
error correction fail to realize that mistakes are a natural and important part of learning. If
teachers insist on putting right anything incorrect in students’ oral and written
communication, they will over time reinforce the false belief that mistakes of any type are
something to be feared and should be avoided at any cost. However, in so doing, they ignore
a very basic fact that even native speakers, those who are supposed to have a good, if not
perfect, command of the language, make mistakes all the time. The main reason is that
communication, oral or written, is a complex activity. To process the language people have to
simultaneously make use of several language systems such as syntax, lexis, phonology. They
also need to draw on their communicative competence to use the language appropriately. It
is understandable why any instance of using the target language is quite challenging to
learners. It is therefore quite unrealistic to ask learners’ speech or written work to be
faultless. So teachers have to be open to the fact that mistakes made by learners are natural
and inevitable. What is more important, not all mistakes are regrettable and should be
condemned; they have a role to play too. As an expert in language teaching puts it, mistakes
are sometimes “healthy proof that learning is taking place”. It may sound strange but it is
true. A telling example can be found when students are adventurous enough to experiment
with the structure or the word or the sound they have just learned instead of sticking to the
safe old one. In this case the students’ brave attempt should be encouraged rather than
thwarted.

In summary, error correction is an area in which teachers can offer direct service to students.
However, they will do their students a grave disservice if they insist on overcorrection. The
implication for foreign language teaching is that remedial work done by the teacher should
highlight important mistakes to encourage students to use the correct form to improve their
performance. Moreover, teachers should be sensitive enough to tolerate some errors,
especially those that are evidence of learning taking place. Such an attitude to errors on the
part of the teacher will have positive effects on students the most important of which is to
boost their confidence and overcome their fear of making mistakes.
The advantages and disadvantages in teaching English to
Adult Learners
The advantages and disadvantages in teaching English to Adult Learners in the Current
Situation in Vietnam

A brief look at the current English language teaching and learning context in Vietnam will
show that the demand for English learning is very great. This is clearly seen in the multitude
of institutions and centers that offer English courses as well as in the great number of
learners who go to English classes. Among these learners adult learners form a big special
group. Due to some of their characteristics the teaching of English to this group of adult
learners has some advantages and disadvantages as follows.

The first advantage is that adult learners have some degree of extrinsic motivation. They may
study English for a variety of reasons but they all do so because they want to or need to. For
some students, the motivation may be in the form of integrative motivation because they
wish to integrate themselves into the culture of an English-speaking country like Britain,
America, Canada or Australia. For others, the motivation is instrumental in the sense that the
mastery of the English language is seen as an instrument that can bring them a better job or
position. When these adult students go to class with some motivation they are easier to teach
than those who bring no motivation to the classroom.

The second advantage is that adult students can transfer those study skills and learning
strategies they have acquired in their first language to their study of English. Unlike children
and adolescents, adults are autonomous in some way. They have finished their studies or
have undertaken at least some in their own language, so they must have gained some basic
skills like reading, summarizing, identifying and applying formulae and information and
such critical thinking skills as analyzing, synthesizing, hypothesizing, speculating, etc.
Moreover, they may also have some well-established strategies for learning. Therefore, the
English language teacher can make his job easier by creating conditions for adult students to
reactivate these study skills and learning strategies and apply them to their study of a new
language.

One more advantage is that adult learners can make use of whatever kind of knowledge they
have accumulated in their own language. Again this advantage cannot be seen in other
groups of learners like children and adolescents. First, adult learners have extensive
experience of using a language, which is their mother tongue. Now that they start learning
English, they can remember the new langue system better by making use of what they know
about their own language. It is not uncommon to see learners comparing and contrasting
their first language with the foreign language they are learning to find out areas in which the
two languages are different or similar so that they can learn the new language more quickly.
Second, adult students’ life experience, world knowledge and specialist knowledge can
contribute much to their learning a foreign language. It can help them a lot when they have
to read about or discuss complex or controversial topics in English. So the English teacher
can engage adult learners more easily if he knows how to tap the knowledge they have gained
over time.

On the contrary, there are some disadvantages to the teaching of English to adult students as
well. The first disadvantage is that English learning makes a strong demand on adult learners
in terms of time. As a matter of fact, it is really difficult for adult students to make time to
learn English. As most institutions and centers teach English in the evening adult students
have to study after work. Three one-hour-and-a-half sessions or three three-hour sessions a
week seem not to add up to a lot of time but not all adult students can manage to set aside
that much time for study purposes. The simple reason is that they all have their own lives to
live outside the classroom or they all have other commitments in life than learning English.
As a result, some students fail to invest as much time and effort in learning as they should. Of
course, teachers will have difficulty in monitoring the performance and progress of those
students who cannot attend class regularly.

Another factor that can interfere with or even impede adult students’ learning English is their
fear of failure and frustration with lack of progress. As can be seen, some adult students are
very successful professionals or have a high status at their work place. And now, at school
they are just normal students coping with tasks, assignments, examinations, etc. as they have
been successful in their career, they do not want to fail to achieve their desired goal of
mastering English. They may therefore put themselves under unnecessary stress if they do
not give themselves enough time to achieve their goals or if they set themselves unrealistic
goals. Other students may be hard on themselves in a different way. For example, adult
intermediate and advanced students, those who already know a lot, may find progress
difficult to perceive. In this case, the teacher has more work to do: they must help these
students get the level of challenge right or view success in a broader sense.

In addition, the lack of well-qualified teachers and the poor physical conditions of the
classrooms at some English language schools and centers can be damaging to student
motivation. Currently, in Vietnam a great number of institutions and centers provide English
courses and they range form universities and their satellite centers, joint-venture centers,
privately-owned centers to privately-run home-based classes. Such proliferation of schools
and centers is useful in the sense that it offers students a wide variety of programs to choose
from. However, because of a lack of quality control, the reality of some schools and centers
may fall short of student expectations. Some teachers are untrained or inexperienced,
delivering boring or uninteresting lessons; the physical classroom conditions and resources
for learning are just basic. All this cannot of course supply students in general and adult
students in particular with any intrinsic motivation, a crucial factor for successful language
learning.

In general, this analysis of the current teaching context for adult learners of English in
Vietnam in general and of the characteristics of this group of learners in particular partly
reflects the increasing need for English language learning and mainly shows the advantages
and disadvantages that adult students have in their English study. Both teachers and
students need to be aware of these findings of the analysis so that they can find ways to
maximize the advantages and minimize the disadvantages. Only in this way can teachers
deliver quality English language programs for students to benefit from.
SATURDAY, JULY 26, 2008

The difficulties in learning English and how to overcome them

The difficulties in learning English and how to overcome them

Beginners of foreign language always meet difficulties from the outset. For me, I had to
overcome these problems when I started learning English.

English pronunciation is my first obstacle. The pronunciation in English puzzles me a lot

because the same letter has different sounds. For example the letter “a” in “bath” is not
pronounced in the same way of that in “bathe”. The “ou” in “South” is also different from
“ou” in “Southern”. Generally verbs and nouns are pronounced differently although they are
written the same. Record is a good example to illustrate it.

In order to solve this puzzling question I carefully study The A.P.A (The International
Phonetic Alphabets) which helps me pronounce English words correctly.

In order to have an accent just like the native speakers, I often listen to tapes and repeat after
them, trying to imitate them. Moreover, my everyday conversation with the foreigners I meet
in the street will enable me to acquire a proper accent.

Compared with French, English grammar is much easier. However, this does not mean that
learners meet no difficulties in learning it. It took me a long time to learn how to master the
tenses in English grammar, to endeavor to do as many grammar exercises as possible and
read various grammar books.
In writing English, English language has its own style. In order to drill writing skills, I have
tried to read famous novels of distinguished America and English writers. I enjoy the
humorous style of writing in Mark Twain’s masterpieces, the elaborate and polished style of
George Eliot and the sentimental and lyrical style of John Keats.

After long and hard years of English study, how pleased I feel when I am able to read English
and American authors without any obstacles and difficulties at all.

Read related posts:

MONDAY, MARCH 30, 2009

How can a teacher help students enlarge their vocabulary?

Ways to help students enlarge their vocabulary
It is a self-evident truth that a good command of a language requires a knowledge of both its
grammar and vocabulary as structural patterns serve as building blocks that hold lexical
items together. Therefore, in addition to teaching grammatical rules, English teachers must
help their students enlarge their vocabulary. This will not come as a daunting task to
language teachers if they know that they can offer assistance to their students in their
vocabulary learning and vocabulary expansion in the following ways.

Teachers can first help by raising students’ awareness of the importance of vocabulary
learning and expansion. As can be seen, not all students are fully conscious of the necessity of
having a wide vocabulary of English. Some students may emphasize the acquisition of
linguistic structures over that of vocabulary because the former, in their opinion, can help
them operate effectively inn English. However, it is not difficult to find cases in which it is
words, not grammatical structures that help one get his message across. For example, a
speaker can still make himself understood even though he produces a grammatically
incorrect sentence like ‘Yesterday I meet mine old friend’. Therefore, language teachers
should give priority to making students aware of the important role that vocabulary plays in
language learning. Only when students realize the significance of knowing the lexis of a
language will they make effort to learn words and increase their vocabulary.

Second, teachers can help students enrich their vocabulary by teaching words in context. The
reasons for this technique are not difficult to understand. For one thing, the environment in
which a word occurs with other words that will decide which meaning of the word is
intended. Lexical items should thus not be presented to student in isolation; they should be
presented in clear and meaningful contexts so that students can work out which sense of the
word concerned in used. For another thing, students will get into the habit of guessing the
meaning of new or unknown words form context, a badly needed skill for their vocabulary
expansion. It is because when they first encounter new vocabulary items students will rely on
the context as a clue to their intended meaning. In this way the meaning or use of the word
will be retained longer in their mind.

Moreover, teachers can promote students’ vocabulary learning and expansion by teaching
words in relation to other words. It is highly recommended that specific words such as red,
blue, yellow should be related to the generic term color, that words like happy should
compared with happily, happiness, unhappy, unhappily and unhappiness, that words like
book should be extended to notebook, textbook and handbook and that acceptable
combinations like headache, earache, stomachache should be identified as opposed to
illegitimate ones like eye ache or throat ache. In other words, teachers do not simply teach
certain words as discrete lexical items; teachers have to present words in a network
established by such language phenomena as sense relations word formation and collocation.
An additional teaching tip is that teachers can present vocabulary in categories of words
depending on topics. Teachers can ask students to keep a notebook to record words in
different sections for different themes or topics so that they can develop their vocabulary
systematically. In this sense, students not only learn, for example, a single word happy but
several connected forms like happily, happiness, unhappy, unhappily and unhappiness and
other words referring to human emotional states like glad, pleased, sad, and depressed. This
will certainly lead to a massive increase in the number of words students learn and acquire.

One more thing that teachers can do to help their students to widen their vocabulary is to
train them in dictionary using skills. Naturally, teachers cannot provide students with all the
words they need. So dictionaries will serve as their best source of reference outside class
time. And that is the reason why students should be given practice in using dictionaries.
Teachers can start by recommending a good bilingual dictionary such as an Oxford or
Cambridge or Longman learners’ dictionary. Certainly, a monolingual dictionary has a role to
play but an English – English dictionary would expose learners more to the language. As
learners’ dictionaries often define more complex words by means of simpler words, students
can get at the meaning without switching back to their mother tongue. What is more, as easy
and familiar words are used to explain new words, the former are recycled, thus facilitating
students’ comprehension and acquisition of the latter. Then teachers can spend some of their
class time showing students how to use the dictionary they have recommended. For example,
they can set exercises in which students have to look up some new words from their reading
or listening texts. This will force them to get to know the symbols and abbreviations used in
the dictionary and to choose the most appropriate meaning of the words from a range of
meanings listed in the dictionary.

In conclusion, there are just a few ways in which teachers can help their students enlarge
their vocabulary. It is hoped that with the help and guidance from the teacher, students can
first discover the value of vocabulary learning and expansion in language learning and then
develop strategies to increase their vocabulary.

Student-centred learning (or student-centered learning; also called child-centred

learning) is an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students, rather than
those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and administrators.
This approach has many implications for the design of curriculum, course content, and
interactivity of courses.

For instance, a student-centred course may address the needs of a particular student
audience to learn how to solve some job-related problems using some aspects of
mathematics. In contrast, a course focused on learning mathematics might choose areas
of mathematics to cover and methods of teaching which would be considered irrelevant
by the student.

Student-centred learning, that is, putting students first, is in stark contrast to existing
establishment/teacher-centred lecturing and careerism. Student-centred learning is
focused on the student's needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles with the teacher as a
facilitator of learning. This classroom teaching method acknowledges student voice as
central to the learning experience for every learner. Teacher-centred learning has the
teacher at its centre in an active role and students in a passive, receptive role. Student-
centred learning requires students to be active, responsible participants in their own
learning.
CONTENTS

[hide]

• 1 Background
• 2 What student-centred learning is not
• 3 Implementation considerations
• 4 Assessment of student-centred learning
• 5 Application to Higher-Education
• 6 See also
• 7 External resources

• 8 References
[EDIT] BACKGROUND

Traditionally, teachers direct the learning process and students assume a receptive role in
their education. With the advent of progressive education in the 19th century, and the
influence of psychologists, educators have largely replaced traditional curriculum
approaches with "hands-on" activities and "group work", which the child determines on
his own what he wants to do in class. Key amongst these changes is the premise that
students actively construct their own learning. Theorists like John Dewey, Jean Piaget,
and Lev Vygotsky whose collective work focused on how students learn is primarily
responsible for the move to student-centred learning. Carl Rogers' ideas about the
formation of the individual also contributed to student-centred learning. Student-centred
learning means reversing the traditional teacher-centred understanding of the learning
process and putting students at the centre of the learning process. Maria Montessori was
also an influence in centre-based learning, where preschool children learn through play.

Student-centred learning allows students to actively participate in discovery learning

processes from an autonomous viewpoint. Students consume the entire class time
constructing a new understanding of the material being learned without being passive, but
rather proactive. A variety of hands-on activities are administered in order to promote
successful learning. Unique, yet distinctive learning styles are encouraged in a student-
centred classroom. With the use of valuable learning skills, students are capable of
achieving life-long learning goals, which can further enhance student motivation in the
classroom. According to Deci and Ryan “The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) focuses
on the degree to which an individual’s behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.”
Therefore, when students are given the opportunity to gauge his or her learning, learning
becomes an incentive. Because learning can be seen as a form of personal growth,
students are encouraged to utilize self-regulation practices in order to reflect on his or her
work. For that reason, learning can also be constructive in the sense that the student is in
full control of his or her learning. Over the past few decades, a paradigm shift in
curriculum has occurred where the teacher acts as a facilitator in a student-centred
classroom.

Such emphasis on learning has enabled students to take a self-directed alternative to

learning. In the teacher-centred classroom, teachers are the primary source for
knowledge. Therefore, the focus of learning is to gain information as it is proctored to the
student. Also, rote learning or memorization of teacher notes or lectures was the norm a
few decades ago. On the other hand, student-centred classrooms are now the norm where
active learning is strongly encouraged. Students are now researching material pertinent to
the success of their academia and knowledge production is seen as a standard. In order
for a teacher to veer towards a student-centred classroom, he or she must become aware
of the diverse backgrounds of his or her learners. To that end, the incorporation of a few
educational practices such as Bloom’s Taxonomy and Howard Gardner’s Theory of
Multiple intelligences can be very beneficial to a student-centred classroom because it
promotes various modes of diverse learning styles. The following provides a few
examples of why student-centred learning should be integrated into the curriculum:

• Strengthens student motivation

• Promotes peer communication
• Reduces disruptive behaviour
• Builds student-teacher relationships
• Promotes discovery/active learning
• Responsibility for one’s own learning

These changes have impacted educator's methods of teaching and the way students learn.
In essence, one might say that we teach and learn in a constructivist-learning paradigm. It
is important for teacher’s to acknowledge the increasing role and function of his or her
educational practices. As our educational practices changes, so does our approach to
teaching and learning change. Therefore, the mindset about teaching and learning is
constantly evolving into new and innovative ways to reach diverse learners. When a
teacher allows their students to make inquiries or even set the stage for his or her
academic success, learning is more productive.

With the openness of a student-centred learning environment, knowledge production is

vital when providing students the opportunity to explore their own learning styles. In that
respect, successful learning also occurs when learners are fully engaged in the active
learning process. A further distinction from a teacher-centred classroom to that of a
student-centred classroom is when the teacher acts as a facilitator. In essence, the
teacher’s goal in the learning process is to guide students into making new interpretations
of the learning material.

In terms of curriculum practice, the student has the choice in what they want to study and
how they are going to apply their newfound knowledge. According to Ernie Stringer,
“Student learning processes are greatly enhanced when they participate in deciding how
they may demonstrate their competence in a body of knowledge or the performance of
skills.” This pedagogical implication enables the student to establish his or her unique
learning objectives. This aspect of learning holds the learner accountable for production
of knowledge that he or she is capable of producing. In this stage of learning, the teacher
evaluates the learner by providing honest and timely feedback on individual progress.
Building a rapport with students is an essential strategy that educators could utilize in
order to gauge student growth in a student-centred classroom. Through effective
communication skills, the teacher is able to address student needs, interests, and overall
engagement in the learning material. According to James Henderson, there are three basic
principles of democratic living, which he says are not yet established in our society in
terms of education. The three basic tenets, which he calls the 3S’s of teaching for
democratic living, are:

• (Subject Learning)- Students learn best from subject matter thoughtfully

presented.
• (Self-Learning)- One must engage oneself in the generative process.
• (Social Learning)- Empathy is wealth in this regard, social interaction with
diverse others the target for generosity.

Through peer-to-peer interaction, collaborative thinking can lead to an abundance of

knowledge. According to Lev Vygotsky’s theory, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD),
students typically learn vicariously through one another. Through a socio-cultural
perspective on learning, scaffolding is important when fostering independent thinking
skills. Vygotsky proclaims, "Learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that
have already been reached is ineffective from the view point of the child's overall
development. It does not aim for a new stage of the developmental process but rather lags
behind this process." In essence, instruction is designed to access a developmental level
that is measurable to the student’s current stage in development.
[EDIT] WHAT STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING IS NOT

In teacher-directed instruction:

• Students work to achieve curricular objectives in order to become critical thinkers

• Students complete activities designed by the teacher to achieve academic success
• Students respond to positive expectations set by the teacher as they progress
through activities
• Students are given extrinsic motivators like grades and rewards in which
motivates children to internalize information and objectively demonstrates their
understanding of concepts
• Student work is evaluated by the teacher

A teacher-directed approach to learning recognizes that children require achievable

expectations and that students must have a solid foundation before learning a new
concept. For example, in order to learn multiplication properly, a student must understand
repeated addition and grouping. This process cannot be discovered by most students
without the direction of a teacher.
[EDIT] IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS

To implement a student-centred learning environment, attention must be given to the

following aspects of learning:

• What the child wants to do

• How the teacher is able to accommodate the child's whims
 • What makes the child happy
• Student interaction

Because much of the power resides with students, teachers must realize that they are
submissive in the learning process. This is a role teachers must be comfortable with if
they are to implement a student-centred learning environment. To be considered a
student-centred learning environment it will be open, dynamic, trusting, respectful, and
promote the primacy of children's subjectivity over objective learning. Students will
collaborate on hands-on problems with little to no teacher instruction and make their own
conclusions. This experiential learning involves the whole person -- their feelings,
thoughts, whims, social skills, and intuition. The result is a person who is empowered
against conventional societal norms; a student who is carefree and doesn't judge others.
[EDIT] ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING

One of the most critical differences between student-centred learning and teacher-centred
learning is in assessment. In student-centred learning, students participate in the
evaluation of their learning. This means that students are involved in deciding how to
demonstrate their learning. Developing assessment that support learning and motivation
is essential to the success of student-centred approaches. One of the main reasons
teachers resist student-centred learning is the view of assessment as problematic in
practice. Since teacher-assigned grades are so tightly woven into the fabric of schools,
expected by students, parents and administrators alike, allowing students to participate in
assessment is somewhat contentious.
[EDIT] APPLICATION TO HIGHER-EDUCATION

The student-centred learning environment has been shown to be effective in higher

education.

A certain university sought to promote student-centred learning across the entire

university by employing the following methods: • Analysis of good practice by award-
winning teachers, in all faculties, to show that, they made use of active forms of student
learning. • Subsequent use the analysis to promote wider use of good practice. • A
compulsory teacher training course for new junior teachers, which encouraged student-
centred learning. • Projects funded through teaching development grants, of which 16
were concerned with the introduction of active learning experiences. • A programme-
level quality enhancement initiative which utilised a student survey to identify strengths
and potential areas for improvement. • Development of a model of a broadly based
teaching and learning environment influencing the development of generic capabilities, to
provide evidence of the need for an interactive learning environment. • The introduction
of programme reviews as a quality assurance measure (Kember, 2009).

The success of this initiative was evaluated by surveying the students. After two years the
mean ratings indicating the students' perception of the quality of the teaching and
learning environment at the university all rose significantly (Kember, 2009).
The success of the initiative at the university in this study indicates that by adapting a
more student-oriented approach to education, the students will enjoy a more positive
learning experience which will likely help them develop greater passion for learning and
lead to more success in their learning endeavours.
[EDIT] SEE ALSO

Ledlow: You told me you make a distinction between active learning and cooperative learning
and you do both of those things. Could you talk a little bit about how you distinguish those
methods?

Felder: Active learning is anything course-related that students do besides listening to a lecture.
They may write, reflect, discuss, solve problems, whatever. They may do it individually or
together. As long as it is something other than watching and listening to me, it is active learning.
Cooperative learning is a more formal kind of activity where students work in teams that stay
together for extended periods of time under conditions that involve five criteria. (I should say that
I’m using a model of cooperative learning developed by Johnson and Johnson—there are
several others out there.) The first criterion is positive interdependence—the team members have
to count on one another to do what they are supposed to do, otherwise everyone loses. Second
is individual accountability, which means everyone is held responsible for understanding both
their part of the work and everyone else’s parts. Third is face-to-face interaction at least part of
the time. That rules out the familiar “You do problem one, you do problem two, I’ll do problem
three,” and we come together, staple the problems together, and hand them in. That happens a
lot, but it isn’t cooperative learning. The fourth criterion is the development of interpersonal skills
needed to work effectively in teams. Students are not born knowing how to do conflict resolution,
communication, leadership, time management, and so forth—some attention must be paid to
helping them learn how to do those things. And the fifth criterion is regular self-assessment of
group functioning. Periodically, teams have to stand back from what they’re doing and ask
themselves, “What are we doing well as a team? What could we be doing better? What are we
going to differently next time?” The extent to which groupwork has those five elements in place is
the extent to which it qualifies as cooperative learning.

Ledlow: It sounds like a lot of new skills for students to be learning. What about faculty? Do they
have to learn new skills to do this well?

Felder: Yes, but it’s not rocket science. Many faculty members who come to my workshops are
afraid I’m telling them that they have to throw out everything they’ve ever known about teaching,
everything they’ve ever done, and start from scratch. And it really doesn’t require that. Most of the
active learning exercises I do require no redevelopment at all. Instead of asking the whole class
a question and enduring the silence that follows, you tell students to turn to a neighbor, give them
thirty seconds to come up with an answer to the same question, stop them, and call on a few of
them for their responses, and move on. You don’t need to acquire any new skills and it doesn’t
even take extra preparation time. Now, there are some things faculty need to learn in order to
make formal, structured cooperative learning work well, but it doesn’t take a massive re-
education. In the workshops that Rebecca Brent and I give, we spend two to three hours talking
about those things, and then the rest of the learning is experiential. You try things and they work,
or they don’t work and you modify them. That’s how we learn to do everything—this is no
different.

Ledlow: A lot of faculty who come to workshops that I give on cooperative learning ask me a
question that I bet you get too. It is “Yeah, this seems like a lot of fun, and I bet the students are
really engaged, but does this work any better than the traditional lecture?”

Felder: The answer is very simple—yes.

Ledlow: Could you tell us a little bit about the research?

Felder: What we say early, and then repeat frequently, is that this business is not just a matter of
opinion—it’s not Felder coming in saying, “Hey, you should do cooperative learning because I
really like it and so do the students.” Cooperative learning is probably the most exhaustively
researched instructional method in all of education. There are literally thousands of studies out
there that have looked at cooperative learning in every conceivable setting: K–12, higher
education, laboratory settings, natural classroom settings, and so forth. The overwhelming body
of evidence is that cooperative learning, done right—and that means with those five elements in
place and not just turning students loose to get into groups to do something—has a positive effect
on almost every learning outcome you can think of. Whether you look at achievement in the
classroom, performance on standardized tests, skill development, students’ attitudes toward their
education—you name it and there are studies out there showing that you get those benefits if you
use cooperative learning correctly. An important part of the workshops is pointing people to the
research. We urge the participants to think critically the way they’ve been trained to do—don’t
take our word for it but check the research out for yourselves, and if it’s persuasive, try the
methods.

Ledlow: I’d like to turn to the topic of setting the climate in the classroom. A lot of faculty tell me
that they were convinced themselves about the research, but they don’t necessarily share that
with the students. When you have faculty who are new to cooperative learning, and trying it out in
their class for the first time, what would you recommend that they tell their students about what
they’re doing and why they’re doing it?

Felder: The first thing we recommend is to do just that. You have to tell the students what you’re
doing and why you’re doing it. If you don’t, then they jump to one of two assumptions. Some
assume you’re playing some kind of game with them—and engineering students in particular
don’t like that. Others assume you are running some sort of research study with them as the
guinea pigs, and they’re not too thrilled about that either. So at the beginning of class, I always
tell them, “Here’s what we’re going to be doing. We’re going to be doing team activities in class—
answering questions, solving problems, troubleshooting—and you’re going to be doing most of
your homework in teams. This isn’t a game or a research study. I don’t need to research these
methods, because it’s been done many times and here’s some of what the research shows....” I
don’t give them a whole seminar on cooperative learning after that, but I talk enough about its
proven benefits to students to make it clear that I’m not doing it for my own good but to help them
learn more, get better grades, and have a better experience. Some of them may not like it—
usually a lot of them don’t like it at first—but as long as they think that I’m doing it with their
interests in mind, they’re willing to sit still for it long enough to see the benefits for themselves.

Ledlow: How would you recommend that faculty set up teams? Must teams always be
heterogeneous? How long should they stay together? How big should they be?

Felder: Let’s make the distinction again between active learning in class and formal cooperative
learning for homework and projects. For the active learning exercises, where you give them a
problem or question and they work in groups to solve it, my teams vary from two to four students
sitting in adjacent seats, and I don’t worry about the composition. Anything less than two is not a
team and anything more than four is unwieldy, but you can do four in a class, even in a fixed seat
auditorium—two people lean one way, two people lean toward them, or two people turn around
and work with the people behind them. Once in a while for variety I tell them at the beginning of a
class to sit with different people, but that’s as far as I go in structuring groups.

For formal cooperative learning, where they’re working in teams outside class, I form
teams of three or four. Pairs are not good for two reasons: you don’t get enough diversity of
ideas, which is one of the things you’re looking for in group work, and there is no built-in
mechanism for conflict resolution, so the dominant member of a pair will win every argument,
whether they are right or wrong. Once you get up to five, unless you’re doing a project that really
requires five people, somebody in the group will probably be off in a corner somewhere not fully
participating. I’ll tend to have more teams of four in the beginning so that if anyone drops the
class, I’m still left with a viable group. When I form the teams, I use ability heterogeneity and
common blocks of time to meet outside of class as my main criteria. Also, in the first two years of
the curriculum I try to avoid having at-risk minority students isolated in a group. I can say a bit
more about that if you like.

My primary condition for forming a group is heterogeneity in ability levels. This is very
important. What I don’t want are all the top students in the class clustered together, leaving the
weak students to fend for themselves. If I have a heterogeneous group with some good students
and some weaker students, everybody wins. The weaker students get the benefit of one-on-one
tutoring if the team is working the way it’s supposed to, and the strong students get an even
greater benefit. If you ask any instructor “When did you really learn structural dynamics? When
did you really learn advanced circuit analysis?” or whatever, we’ll all tell you the same thing. “I
really learned it when I had to teach it.” When I take a body of material and figure out how to
make it comprehensible—trying to find examples and clearer ways of expressing concepts—I’m
learning that material at an absolutely unparalleled depth. And now when you’re doing
cooperative learning, some of the students are getting the same benefits, and the ones that get
the greatest benefits are the strongest students. If you have homogeneous groups composed of
all strong students then they’re not going to get that benefit. They’ll also tend to divide the work
among themselves with no real interaction.

Ledlow: How long do you keep your teams together?

Felder: I form the groups at the beginning of the semester and tell them, “You’re going to stay
together for about five weeks and then I’m going to dissolve all the groups and form new ones,
unless I get signed statements from each group member saying, I like my group and want to stay
in it.” If I get those statements I let them stay together for the entire semester. I teach big classes,
so I’ll have twenty to forty groups in a class, and I’ve never had more than two groups elect to
dissolve. Frequently it’s one; sometimes it’s none. If it’s one, I distribute the members among
existing groups of three.

Ledlow: Let us go back a little bit and talk about the issue of the token minority, or woman, or at-
risk student in the team. Some people feel it is important to have at least two women on the team
or two students who might be classified somehow at-risk for dropping out. I know there is some
research in social psychology, particularly that of Delia Saenz, talking about the effects of
tokenism. That if you’re the only woman on a team, or even the only man on a team of women,
that you might not be as attentive to the content. You might not learn as much, because you’re
nervous or under stress. What do you think about team formation in that way? Is it critical to not
isolate women or other groups that are at-risk?

Felder: I have a conditional answer. I agree about the desirability of avoiding one woman or one
at-risk minority in a group, and the main reason I want to do that is that those students tend to be
relegated, or relegate themselves, to passive roles within the group. Their views may be
discounted, which has a demoralizing effect, and I want to avoid that. But I think this precaution is
only important early in the curriculum, when those students are at greatest risk for attrition. So if
I’m teaching a freshman or sophomore course, I avoid groups with isolated at-risk minorities.
Later on in the curriculum, my job is no longer to help them survive. By the time they’re juniors,
they have survived—the overwhelming chance is that they‘re going to make it to graduation. Now
my job is to prepare them for the workplace, where nobody is going to be watching out for them in
that way, so now I tend to let that rule go. Sometimes the minorities will be isolated in groups, but
that’s okay.

Ledlow: How important are formal team-building activities?

Felder: There’s a lot of disagreement on that in the literature. I do some up-front things that
involve goal-setting and differentiated team roles, but I don’t use other formal team-building
exercises. It’s not that I think there is anything wrong with them; I’ve just made the decision that I
don’t want to take that much time at the beginning of the semester to do them. What I prefer to do
is just form the teams and let them get into the work and start to beat their heads against the
interpersonal problems that invariably emerge. In other words, I use a problem-based learning
approach, rather than giving teamwork theory and exercises at the outset. Once the students
start to run into the problems, I start introducing strategies for dealing with them.

I’ll give you an example. The problem that almost always surfaces first is someone not
pulling his or her weight in the group—not preparing for meetings, not even showing up for the
meetings, things like that. So about two weeks into the semester, I’ll come into class and say,
“I’ve been hearing from several of you that you’re having problems with slackers in groups. I want
to give you some ideas about dealing with that problem.” I get them into small groups in class and
say, “Let’s suppose you’re in a homework group in which somebody is not pulling their weight.
What I want you to do is brainstorm possible things the group can do. I’m not just looking for
good things—I’m looking for good things, bad things, illegal things, anything goes. You’ve got
one minute. Go!” I turn them loose and they start churning out ideas, and then I stop them and I
collect the ideas, possibly throwing in a few of my own if I feel moved to do that. Then I say,
“Okay, that was the creative part of the exercise. Now what I want you to do is go back and
choose the best response to a hitchhiker (as they’re called in the cooperative learning literature). I
want you to decide on the most appropriate first response, then on the best thing to do if the first
response doesn’t work, and finally on a last resort response—what you would do when you’ve
tried everything else and nothing works.” Then I turn them loose, give them a couple of minutes,
and stop them and collect their ideas. Then I go on teaching the course. Now all of the students
leave with an arsenal of really good techniques for dealing with hitchhikers, and the hitchhikers
have been put on notice that their behavior is not acceptable and that their team members have
things to do if they keep it up. That knowledge often straightens them out. If another week or two
goes by and I start getting complaints about, say, the student who dominates the group and
doesn’t let any team members get a word in edgewise, we’ll do another one of these mini-clinics
to deal with that problem. This is my main way of equipping students with the skills they need to
deal with team dysfunctionalities.

Ledlow: What sorts of skills do you think it’s important for students to take away from their
college preparation—before they get into their first team in an engineering environment?

Felder: You need to be able to communicate, to express your ideas reasonably clearly, and to
deal with differences of opinion. You need to have the skill of leadership, because you never
know when you’re going to be called on to take charge of a team effort, and you need to know
how to do it assertively without becoming domineering or abrasive. You need to know how to
listen—this is a really important skill—to hear what the other person is saying, or trying to say,
and to respond to it in an appropriate way as opposed to putting your defenses up immediately
and going on the attack if you feel that your ideas have been criticized. These are not easy skills.
They are not abilities students bring in with them. I talk some about them in class and in my
office. Individuals and teams having problems sometimes come into my office and we work
explicitly on helping them develop some of those skills, particularly listening, which I sometimes
think may be the hardest thing for them to learn to do.

Ledlow: Let’s get into planning to use cooperative learning. Under what circumstances would you
give people the advice that cooperative learning would be an appropriate strategy, versus some
other strategy, such as lecture or problem-based learning, or cases? When do you say, “Yeah,
this is a good opportunity for you to use cooperative learning”?

Felder: I can’t think of a situation where I would say, “This is not a good place to use cooperative
learning.” I’m not saying that such situations don’t exist, I’m just saying that I haven’t found one
yet. But it’s not an either/or question. First, remember that when I say cooperative learning I’m
talking about what I do in homework; in class I’m doing active learning, but I don’t do exclusively
active learning—I still lecture. I know there are approaches—guided inquiry is one—where the
whole class consists of students working in groups on questions and problems. I don’t do that.
One of the buzzwords in the teaching workshops I give is “variety.” I believe that the more you
can mix things up in class—the more different techniques you use—the more interesting the class
will be and the more likely the students will be to achieve your learning objectives. So in any class
that I teach, I’m going to be doing some lecturing interspersed with active learning exercises with
varying formats. Sometimes I have the students work in pairs, sometimes in groups of three and
four, sometimes individually, sometimes individually then in pairs, and so forth. Sometimes I’ll
give them a quick series of these exercises; sometimes I’ll go for ten to fifteen minutes without
doing it. It’s never the same—they never know what I’m going to do next—and that’s what keeps
active learning from getting stale.

Regarding cooperative learning versus problem-based learning versus case studies and
so on, I don’t really have any basis for saying, “Use this method under these circumstances and
that method under those circumstances.” If someone is a passionate advocate of problem-based
learning (which I also strongly believe in), I say go with it. Group work is an important part of
problem-based learning, so introduce it in that context. If PBL is not something that you’re
interested in doing and you want to stay with the way you’ve been teaching only using groups to a
greater extent, then hold off on PBL until you’re ready to try something new. There’s no rush
about this—you have decades to figure out the right balance. Just keep playing with it until you
find the approach that works best for you now, and remain open because that’s probably not
going to continue to be the approach that works best for you. Teaching is a dynamic profession.

Ledlow: Yes I agree. In my own teaching, I’ve begun mixing cooperative learning a lot with the
use of cases. To some people that seemed like a surprising idea, “Oh, well case teaching is
Socratic, and cooperative learning is in small groups.” But I certainly know that at ASU we are
recommending that people mix and match and pick and choose among these strategies. How do
you feel about that?

Felder: That is absolutely my philosophy. Whether you’re doing problem-based learning, cases,
or straight expository teaching, you can blend active and cooperative learning in with whatever
else you’re doing and make your teaching more effective. (Incidentally, I don’t see why you have
to be Socratic when you use cases—I know the lawyers do it, but since when are they our role
models?)

Ledlow: A lot of us started with pre-designed cooperative learning strategies like Think-Pair-
Share or Jigsaw or Academic Controversies. What are some of the advantages of starting that
way, of picking a structure or a design and plugging your own content in as a way of getting
comfortable using cooperative learning?

Felder: The biggest advantage is that you are starting with something that has been tested by
many, many people under many different circumstances and has been found to work well in
almost every conceivable educational setting. Knowing this should inspire confidence. Another
advantage is that you can go to the literature and get a lot of pointers on how to make the
technique work effectively. On the other hand, if you invent your own strategies as you go along,
you’re to be admired but you’re going to have to go through a fairly long trial-and-error learning
curve, making the same mistakes that the people who first tried the standard techniques made,
which is not particularly efficient and can be painful. I think it makes more sense to start with the
proven strategies and then gradually modify them to suit your own teaching style.

Ledlow: And then when we get to that point where we are ready to start modifying, what are
some of the tips for planning your own lessons from scratch? What are some of the things you do
to make sure students are prepared and that the activity is productive? How do you go about
designing a cooperative learning lesson or activity or homework assignment?

Felder: I really don’t do anything special, which is an important point to note. Faculty members
have this misconception that undertaking these methods is a huge undertaking—that to plan an
active learning lesson or a cooperative learning homework assignment requires a major creative
effort. It doesn’t. You can of course choose to make such an effort, but it isn’t necessary. When
you are lecturing, teaching how you have always taught, I presume you occasionally stop the
lecture and ask a question. Take the identical question that you would have asked under any
circumstances but instead of asking the whole class, just tell them to turn to their neighbors or get
into groups of three and answer that question. Give them thirty seconds, a minute, whatever you
think is appropriate. Then stop them, collect a couple of the answers—it is vitally important that
you collect some answers initially rather than asking for volunteers—and then go on about your
business. I also find that if I spend five minutes before class looking over my lecture notes for
possible active learning exercises, I’ll always find as many as I want.

For the cooperative learning exercises in lecture courses (as opposed to labs and project
courses), I take the homework I would give in a traditional class and up the ante. If you’re giving
homework that the students could just as easily do individually, then they’re going to resent the
extra time they have to spend meeting with their teams. And so I increase the difficulty of the
assignments. Not necessarily their length—I don’t want to double the length of the assignments,
because it takes time for the students simply to meet outside class. But instead of the usual 10-
15% of the assignment being the high-level material that separates the “A” students from the “B”
students, I may kick it up to 30–40% high-level stuff and the rest of it basic. That’s the only
change I make.

Ledlow: I want to back up. You said a minute ago that it is very important that you collect two or
three of these answers from groups in your class. Why is that?

Felder: Because if you don’t, many of them won’t bother to do the thinking. Engineering students
tend to be sort of introverted, and the first time I tell them to get into groups and do something, I’m
looking at a class full of people staring straight ahead at their papers, probably thinking “If I look
over and say something and they’re not into it, I’m going to look stupid.” If they know that at the
end of the exercise I’m just going to call for volunteers, they have no incentive to do the work and
many will continue to just sit there staring straight ahead, knowing that sooner or later somebody
will provide the answer (usually me). Students are driven heavily by fear of embarrassment.
That’s why most of them never ask questions in class or volunteer answers when you ask
questions—they don’t want to risk saying something that looks stupid to their classmates. And so
most of them really don’t want to be in a position of having been given something to do with two
or three other students and then being called on individually and having nothing to say, which will
also make them look foolish. Since they know I am going to call on somebody, almost all of them
will make it their business to get into the group activity so that they’re ready with something in
case I happen to land on them. I may just call on one or two and then open it up to other groups
or individuals who want to provide answers, but without that one or two up front, it’s not going to
work.

Ledlow: If we are doing active learning or some of the more formal cooperative learning
activities in class, what do you recommend that we do while our students are working on those in-
class activities?

Felder: Float around if you’re giving them more than 30 seconds. I’ll go out into the class, look
over people’s shoulders, and kibitz. Sometimes people see me coming and they’ll raise their hand
because they have a question their group couldn’t figure out. Occasionally, I’ll see a group that
seems to be wandering off task, so I’ll just head in that direction and that’s usually enough to get
them back on task. That helps me keep track of what’s going on during the activities, and if there
seems to be general confusion about what’s going on, it lets me jump in and straighten them out
and get them back on task.
Ledlow: That’s easy to do when they’re in class, but when they’re out of class, how do you make
sure you don’t have that common complaint of, “one student did all the work,” or “one person
dominated”? How do you build in individual accountability with out-of-class cooperative learning?

Felder: Giving individual tests is the most common way, and collecting peer ratings from team
members and using them to adjust the team grade is another way. Peer ratings are critically
important in the way I do cooperative learning. What I don’t want to do is have a team do
something, hand it in, and get a common grade, because that inevitably leads to resentment over
hitchhikers not doing the work and getting the same high grade as their more responsible
teammates. So in my class, three times per semester the team members rate themselves and
their teammates on citizenship. (The first time is just for practice, and the second two count.) Not
on how smart are you, or what percentage of the work did you do, or anything like that, but did
you show up for meetings, notify team members if you weren’t going to be able to make a
meeting, make the best effort that you could to prepare beforehand, ask questions, help
teammates if you could, and so forth. I give the students a rating form and spell out the criteria,
and they rate themselves and one another on a verbal scale that starts with “excellent”, “very
good”, and “satisfactory”, and proceeds all the way down to “no show”. I tell them I’m going to
adjust the team grades based on those ratings, and I do. (They think I’m just going to make some
fuzzy adjustment, but I actually have a rigorous quantitative method to do it.) Now even if they’re
willing to keep putting the hitchhiker’s name on the assignment, they’re not going to rate him or
her with the same “excellent” as the people who are really doing the work. And if they’ve really
been messing up, they’ll get a very low rating which will be reflected in their individual grades.

Another thing I do for individual accountability is to offer last-resort options for firing and
quitting. If someone is just not doing the work, refusing to cooperate, and the rest of the team
has tried everything else they can think of and the student is still not working, they can send a
memo (with a copy to me) to that student saying, “Unless you straighten out, you’re fired.” If they
still get no cooperation, the next memo (again copied to me) says, “You’re off the team.” Those
who get fired have the responsibility for finding a team of three willing to take them on as a fourth
member; otherwise, they get zeroes for the rest of the course or project. It very rarely happens.
The knowledge that it can happen is enough to get some of these miscreants to get their acts
together.

Ledlow: There is a lot of controversy about what proportion of group and individual grades
instructors should give. How do you feel about that?

Felder: It depends on the course I’m teaching. If I’m teaching a straight lecture course with
weekly homework assignments and no major team project, then I generally count the team
homework 15–20% and the individual work, mostly the tests, counts for 80–85%. If I’m teaching a
project course, such as the capstone design course, and traditionally the team project has been
100% of the grade, then I give some individual exams or quizzes to get the individual
accountability. In this case the individual work may count for 15-20% of the course grade and the
group project count for 80-85%.

The cooperative learning criterion usually missing in the laboratory course or the
capstone design course is individual accountability. I use my peer rating system in such courses,
and even if the team gets a high grade on the lab or project report, somebody who has not
contributed will get a low grade...plus, they probably won’t do very well on the individual tests that
cover every aspect of the project and so they’ll crash and burn in the course, even if they’re on a
very good team.

Ledlow: What’s a good way for you or other instructors to get feedback on whether or not
assignments that you have designed—either in-class or out-of-class—were well-designed? If they
accomplished their goals? Do you get feedback from students, from colleagues, or from whom?
Felder: Well, I certainly get feedback from students, and if I’ve assigned them to do something, I
can judge the quality of what they’ve done. If I’ve given a test, I can judge the difficulty of the test,
and see how the students have done compared to how I think they would have done before I was
using cooperative learning. The peer ratings also tell me a lot about how well the teams are
working. Teams that are working well together turn in reasonably consistent peer ratings, while
teams on the verge of fistfights turn in peer ratings that vary wildly.

Also, I always do a mid-term assessment, which is another one of my standard

recommendations to people using cooperative learning. The assessment can be just a simple
“How is this class working for you? What would you like me to keep doing? What would you like
me to change?” The reason to do this is that under normal circumstances, you only hear from the
people who don’t like groupwork. They’ll grumble to you that they don’t want to work in groups,
they work better by themselves, you have no right to make them do it, and so on. Many
instructors encountering that resistance get discouraged and figure, “Wow, this is failing. I’d better
go back to the old way of doing it.” But if you do a mid-term assessment, and you’ve been paying
attention to how you’ve been implementing cooperative learning—making sure all five criteria are
being addressed—the overwhelming response from the students is generally: “This is great—it’s
really working for me,” and there will also be several students who are still complaining bitterly. I’ll
share those results in the next class. It’s healthy for the people who have been complaining to
find out that most of the class is doing just fine with groupwork—it quiets down the resistance
pretty effectively.

Ledlow: For what size classes do you think active learning and cooperative learning is
appropriate?

Felder: Anywhere between four and infinity. In fact, the larger the class the more imperative it is
to use cooperative learning and active learning. Active learning—getting students to do things in
small groups in class—is the only conceivable way to get large-scale student involvement in a
class. Some students will be willing, in a class of fifteen or twenty, to ask questions, or, if you ask
questions, to volunteer answers. However, very, very few students have the courage to open their
mouth in front of 299 classmates and risk looking foolish. We can make all the speeches we want
about how there is no such thing as a dumb question, but forget it. They are not buying that, and
they know that any question they ask has the potential to sound like a dumb question. If they ask
it, they run the risk of looking like an idiot in front of all their classmates. If they keep their mouths
shut, they risk nothing. So they keep their mouths shut. But there is nothing threatening about
talking to two other people in a small group, and so really the only difference between a class of
200 and a class of twenty is you have ten times as many little groups in the larger class. It could
get noisy, but you just give them some rules about keeping it down so it doesn’t get deafening in
class. When I’ve got a very large class and call on students for responses after an active learning
exercise, I overload on the back of the room, which is where they go to hide. They learn that you
can run, but you can’t hide; and in fact, if what you’re trying to do is remain invisible, the back of
the class is the worse possible place you could go.

Regarding the cooperative learning outside class, again, there’s no limitation on class
size, and if I have a really large class, having them do their homework in teams is the only way I
can keep my homework grading load manageable. If I’m teaching a class of a hundred with
weekly homework assignments, that’s a hundred papers I have to grade every week. If I’m doing
it in teams of four, then that’s twenty-five papers I have to grade every week, and that’s obviously
a much nicer number.

Ledlow: Does class size have any impact on what kind of activities you may choose to do?

Felder: None that I can think of.

Ledlow: As you personally have gotten more skilled as a teacher using active and cooperative
learning, how have you changed? Have you evolved over the years? Do you see the faculty you
work with growing more skilled, evolving? Or do you learn to do cooperative learning and then
stick with what you do?

Felder: No, it never stays the same. I go to meetings like this [Multicoalition Conference] and the
annual ASEE [American Society for Engineering Education] meeting, and people who are
using CL have come up something else that they’ve tried in class or a new way of assessing
learning or team functioning. If something sounds interesting, I may go back and try it. Another
change is that I’ve become more familiar with the student resistance—what forms it takes and
how to deal with it—and so I’ve been progressively more willing to try more, go out on more of a
limb, delve more deeply into cooperative learning. But it’s a gradual progression. Speaking
generally, if anything I do in my classes were to stay exactly the same from one semester to
another, I would think that it’s probably time to get into another line of work.

There is one more thing that I wanted to say, going back to the active learning. In the
workshops, somebody always says something like, “What do I do about students who won’t
participate? I tell them to get into groups to do something and there will be some students in the
class that just sit there like, ‘I’m not going to play this stupid game. If you ask me a question, I’ll
just say I don’t know. I don’t care.’” This situation really bothers instructors, especially if they are
new to active learning, and many of them think, “This is failing—I’d better abandon it.” But that’s
the wrong way to look at it. Here’s the right way. Let’s suppose that you’re doing an active
learning exercise in your class and ten percent of the students are just sitting on their hands,
refusing to participate. It’s never nearly that high in my classes after the first week, but let’s just
suppose that ten percent are not involved. That means that while you’re doing active learning,
you’ve got ninety percent of the students in your class actively engaged in thinking about what
you want them to think about, interacting with the material, doing what you want them to do, and
ten percent out to lunch.

Now think about what goes on during a traditional lecture when you’re just holding forth
up there, dispensing pearls of wisdom, writing on the board, asking questions and getting few or
no responses. During workshops, I ask the participants, “When you’re lecturing, what percentage
of your students would you say are actively engaged with what you’re saying—thinking about it,
trying to solve problems in their head, doing what you want them to do? Speculate.” And
generally, the answer is around ten percent, which is my guess as well. So the point to remember
about active learning, cooperative learning, all of these methods, is that none of them comes with
a hundred-percent guarantee. No instructional technique in existence is guaranteed to reach all
students all the time. The best that we can do as instructors is go with the odds, and I like nine to
one in my favor better than nine to one against me, and so I use active learning. And as for the
ten percent who are not participating, it’s really not my problem: they’re the ones who are losing.

Ledlow: Well, that brings us to our final question. You said that faculty tend to get a little upset
when they’re first starting and students don’t respond in the way that they had hoped, or it doesn’t
go exactly the way they had planned. What advice do you give to engineering faculty who come
to you and say, “I’m on the verge of trying this. I’m thinking about it. It seems like a good idea, but
. . . how do I start?” What advice would you give that person?

Felder: First thing I’d say is, take it easy. If you’ve been teaching traditionally and abruptly plunge
in and completely overturn everything that you’ve been doing to go into whole-hog one-hundred-
percent cooperative learning, you’ll probably fail. The student resistance will be overwhelming,
and you won’t know how to deal with it because you’ve never done it. Faced with that firestorm,
you’re likely to decide, “Who needs these headaches? Let’s go back to something safe.” So the
advice I give to new and traditional faculty members is, start small. Give some in-class exercises
and get a feeling for active learning, then maybe do a couple of team homework assignments just
to get a feeling for what that’s like. Don’t worry about all the cooperative learning bells and
whistles right from the start. Then in the next course you teach, try doing more. There is no rush
about this—you’ve got your whole career to develop your teaching style, and as you gradually
increase your use of the non-traditional methods, you’ll find that your level of comfort with them
will keep changing and your teaching will evolve accordingly.

Another reminder is that you’re not inventing these methods and you’re not required to
learn them all the hard way. Many people have blazed these trails, and a great deal is known
about how to do active and cooperative learning and what the pitfalls are and how to avoid them.
If you are having a problem, go back and look at the standard references to see how other people
have dealt with it, or talk to a more experienced colleague or someone with your campus center
for teaching and learning. There are lots of resources out there—take advantage of them.

Ledlow: You obviously still have a lot of enthusiasm for this technique, considering how long
you’ve been using it. What’s the best thing about cooperative learning? When you think about the
way you teach, what’s the best thing about it?

Felder: My students learn the things I want them to learn to a much greater extent than they ever
did when all I did was lecture and give individual homework assignments. They learn the course
content, and they learn how to solve complex engineering problems that call on them to use high-
level thinking skills. But even more important than that, they are acquiring some of the critical
social skills they will need to succeed as professionals. They are learning how to communicate.
They’re learning how to work in teams, which they will have to do no matter whom they go to
work for. They’re acquiring leadership skills and time management skills, and they’re learning a
lot about themselves and how they learn best. These are all lifelong learning skills, and to me
they’re all much more important than learning to design a distillation column or solve a differential
equation. When I use cooperative learning, my students acquire those skills; watching me,
listening to me in class, and going off to do homework by themselves, they don’t. Why wouldn’t I
stay with this technique?

Ledlow: Thank you, Dr. Felder.

Teaching by Principles: An
Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy
Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to
language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Regents. 416 pp.
Reviewed by Gail Schaefer Fu
The Chinese University of Hong Kong

H. Douglas Brown's Teaching by Principles is intended for teachers in training

-- those who intend to be teachers but who have little or no classroom
experience -- and for teachers who train teachers. It is centered, not
surprisingly, around certain principles of language teaching and learning,
echoing Brown's own Principles of Language Teaching and Learning (1994).
His new book Teaching by Principles is itself a manifestation of the principles
which it espouses and, while one is again tempted to say "not surprisingly," it
is not always a given that authors in our profession themselves "do as they
say."

Brown does.

The book is organized into four main sections: Foundations for Classroom
Practice; Context of Teaching; Designing and Implementing Classroom
Techniques; and Classroom Practicalities. In an early chapter, Brown takes "a
broad, sweeping look at twelve overarching principles of second language
learning from which sound practice springs and on which [the reader's]
teaching can be based" (p. 16). These he groups as cognitive, affective, and
linguistic principles: 1. Automaticity; 2. Meaningful Learning; 3. The
Anticipation of Reward; 4. The Intrinsic Motivation Principle; 5. Strategic
Investment; 6. Language Ego; 7. Self-confidence; 8. Risk-taking; 9. The
Language-Culture Connection; 10. The Native Language Effect; 11.
Interlanguage; and 12. Communicative Competence.

If we turn Brown's principled approach around and apply it to the book itself,
we can characterize twelve "principles of recommendation" which put
Teaching by Principles on the "must read" list for anyone intending to be a
teacher or anyone involved with those who are. These principles of
recommendation follow:

THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT: Brown's first chapter "where Do I Begin?"

itself begins with a detailed description of a class and the sequence of activities
which were observed during the lesson. While the lesson, Brown tells us
beforehand, is "reasonably well planned, efficiently executed, and
characteristic of current communicative language teaching methodology" (p.
5), it is not "perfect" and the reader might question or take issue with some
things that happen in the class. He encourages the reader to note these aspects
of the lesson and then compare them with Brown's own comments and
questions which follow the description of the lesson. The book starts, in other
words, with a concrete example of a context and it continues, where
appropriate, in the same vein: the book feels grounded, throughout, in the
classroom.

THE PRINCIPLE OF INTERACTIVITY: At the end of the first and every other
chapter, Brown provides "Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research" which
encourage readers to interact both with the text itself, with classmates, and
with their own beliefs, convictions, and ideas. In his chapter on "The Present:
An Informed Approach" Brown offers topics which invite readers to compare
their responses with a partner, to observe an ESL class, to share their ideas in
a small group, to write out definitions of their own, and to think back -- with
certain criteria and characteristics in mind -- on lessons that they themselves
may have taught. He attempts, in other words, to bring as much reflection,
discussion, and interaction as he can (within the confines of the printed word)
into this enterprise of learning to teach by principle.

THE PRINCIPLE OF PRACTICE: At appropriate points throughout the book,

Brown includes opportunities for the reader to try to put into practice some of
the ideas or principles which he has been discussing. In the chapter on
"Techniques and Materials," for example, he reproduces a few pages from a
typical course book and then asks his readers to think about the kinds of lesson
plans they might draw up from such materials or the kinds of techniques and
exercises they might employ to best effect with their students. Elsewhere he
talks about the exciting but complex task readers would have before them if
their teaching situation allowed them to actually choose the textbook
themselves. He refers to extensive and comprehensive textbook evaluation
checklists and then provides an abridged form of such a checklist for
illustration. He invites readers, as they read through this form, to "think of an
ESL textbook that you are reasonably familiar with and ask yourself how well
that book meets the criteria" (p. 149). He provides, in other words,
opportunities to practice and to make practical application even within the
confines of the book itself.

THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-PONTIFICATION: Brown does not make

pronouncements, nor does he pretend that he, or anyone else in our field for
that matter, has all the answers. Instead he gives broad historical recognition
of various "schools of language teaching thought" and acknowledges, where
appropriate, the strengths on which we can draw and the insights from which
we can benefit (even if that is primarily what does not work so successfully!).
Further, when discussing whether or not grammar should be directly
addressed in a given classroom, Brown outlines six variables that might
influence the teacher's decision. He then points out that these six categories
"should be looked on as general guidelines for judging the need for conscious
grammatical focus in the classroom, but none of these suggestions here are
absolute" (p. 350).

THE PRINCIPLE OF EMPATHY: Throughout the book, Brown demonstrates,

quite clearly from his own experience, that he understands what the new
teacher may be feeling. At the end of the chapter on group work, for example,
he recognizes that the reader may "feel overwhelmed or put off by the prospect
of doing group work in your classroom. If so, that need not be the case! All of
the guidelines and reminders and do's and don'ts included in this chapter will
in the due course of time become a part of your subconscious intuitive teaching
behavior" (p. 187). For a teacher in training who may indeed be feeling
insecure and perhaps inadequate to the task ahead, this empathetic tone of
encouragement will undoubtedly fall on welcoming ears.

THE PRINCIPLE OF REALITY: Brown recognizes that real teachers teach in

real classrooms in real institutions in real communities. He does not assume
that every class will be of an ideal size, that every classroom will be ideally
equipped, that every administrator will be ideally supportive of a teacher's
curricular and pedagogical suggestions. In the chapter on sociopolitical and
institutional contexts, he refers to institutional factors which may influence the
way in which a teacher plans a lesson or carries out a technique within the
given curriculum (these factors include the textbook, "which you may detest!")
He admits that curricular constraints may sometimes be "the biggest hurdle
you have to cross," but he also believes that it is possible to find ways to
"compromise with the system and yet to feel professionally fulfilled" (p. 129).
Energy can thus be directed towards creative teaching rather than railing
against an immovable institutional force. One can adapt things, in other words,
to fit realities without trying to change an entire system.

THE PRINCIPLE OF READABILITY: Brown's prose is a pleasure to read

because it is clear, concise, and to the point. He does not strive to make
straightforward ideas appear more complex than they actually are and, in
reverse, he can explain ideas that are complex or specialized in ways that do
not require an advanced degree in research methodology to understand. For
example, when discussing the matters of input and intake in second language
acquisition, Brown writes: "In other words, you could be `exposed' to great
quantities of input, but what counts is the linguistic information that you
ultimately glean from that exposure though conscious and subconscious
attention, through cognitive strategies of retention, through feedback, and
through interaction" (p. 234). In part Brown achieves such readability by being
generous with his use of examples and illustrations, and also by his
conversational and sometimes lighthearted approach -- his use, for example, of
the pronoun you, of questions to the reader and, occasionally, of small jokes
(as when he refers to 28,732 techniques for teaching language) or anecdotes.

THE PRINCIPLE OF ACCESSIBILITY: The book is written and formatted in

such a way that the content is easy to follow and retain, and additional
information appears close to hand. This is accomplished in part by the usual
conventions of headings, subheadings, and bold typeface, but also by Brown's
frequent use of numbering systems, categories, and lists. It is especially useful
to have the annotated suggestions "For Your Further Reading" at the end of
each chapter (rather than collected at the end of the book), and also it is useful
to have supplementary illustrations or materials appended to the chapter itself
(for example, charts of English vowels and consonants attached to the chapter
on teaching oral communication skills). Brown includes, where appropriate
and in the appropriate place, sample excerpts from ESL textbooks for practice
tasks or for questions and thinking. Another factor which contributes to this
"sense of accessibility" is that Brown makes specific references throughout the
book to particular sections of his Principles of Language Learning and
Teaching (1994) so that a reader who wishes an expanded or theoretical
explanation of a point can easily find it.

THE PRINCIPLE OF OPEN-ENDEDNESS: Brown often leaves things open in

a way that invites the reader's participation in and thought about what is being
discussed. For example, when talking about the place of writing instruction in
a communicative and interactive classroom, Brown notes connections with the
twelve principles of language learning and teaching. He himself shows the
connections with automaticity and meaningful learning, but then suggests to
the reader that "perhaps you can continue down the list yourself" (p. 343). Or
when trying to think of the types of institutions of higher education in which
English language teaching programs exist, Brown notes several and then tells
the reader that "you may even be able to think of a category that has been
omitted" (p. 127).

THE PRINCIPLE OF "GLOBAL" APPLICATION: While no text is equally

applicable to every situation, some seem more broadly applicable than others.
Brown avoids a narrow parochialism by recognizing and respecting the wide
spectrum of situations, conditions, needs, and abilities that operate for students
and teachers around the world. He understands that a teacher who is a non-
native speaker of English may, for example, lack the confidence to "let the
students go" in small group work: he understands that this teacher might feel
more comfortable and secure with a more predictable or controlled activity.
Further, he also recognizes and respects the role of internationalized varieties
of English, telling his reader s that if they are "not teaching in a country whose
people use a widely accepted variety of English," then the standards of
grammaticalness and of pronunciation "may well need to be viewed in terms of
the practice of natives who are educated, proficient English speakers" (p. 122).
This could well include, of course, the very person who is reading the book.

THE PRINCIPLE OF BASIS IN RESEARCH: The principles promised in the

book's title form "a train of thought throughout this book" (p. 343). Underlying
these principles are references to research studies and findings, a kind of
"second train, " but only in the most relevant and informative of ways. He may
refer, for example, to research which indicates that group work significantly
increases students' practice time over teacher-oriented approaches (p. 173);
that motivation is a much more complex construct than the earlier integrative-
instrumental dichotomy led many teachers to believe (p. 34); that for
correction of speech errors, positive and negative feedback must be balanced
for best results in the individual learner (p. 262). The extent of such references
is manifested, at the end of the book, in a fifteen page bibliography, but at no
point does the amount of research detail overwhelm the reader or "take on a
life of its own." Instead, Brown himself reminds the reader that "at this stage in
your professional career when you are learning to teach, rather than getting
immersed in oceans of research data, it is perhaps more important to lay some
basic foundations for the development of an effective teaching approach" (p.
286), which Brown then proceeds to do.

THE PRINCIPLE OF THE INTEGRATED WHOLE: Implicit in much of

Brown's discussion of the interactive approach is the integrated nature of
language itself and of the language learning classroom. Reading does not exist
separately from writing, or listening from speaking; the students do not exist
separately from their social or educational contexts, from their teachers,
families, friends, classmates. He talks further about the various aspects of
lesson planning and the importance of each aspect to the overall whole.
Likewise, the book itself can be viewed overall as an integrated whole. The
principles do not exist separately from the pedagogy or the practices; the ideas
for classroom activities do not exist separately from what lies outside the
classroom door; the theories do not exist separately from the practical realities
of whether or not there is an overhead projector available to the teacher or a
supply of chalk for the blackboard (or markers for the whiteboard!) The book
itself proceeds from its foundations -- what the principles are and how they
were derived over long years of experiences by language teachers -- through
the contexts in which we teach language to the designing and implementing of
classroom techniques and the practicalities of the language classroom. Brown
does all this without losing either his "train of thought" or his facility with
words. And he concludes with a reminder that for all of us, continuing our
teacher education is a matter of lifelong learning.

Looking back over these twelve principles of recommendation, it becomes

apparent that experienced teachers too can benefit from reading this book. It
would serve them well as a review and as an opportunity: a review of their own
beliefs about effective language teaching and an opportunity to reflect on their
own practices in the classroom. It serves too, perhaps, as an articulate and
coherent reminder: that we are, in Brown's words, "not merely" language
teachers but "much more than that. " We are agents for change "in a world in
desperate need of change: change from competition to cooperation, from
powerlessness to empowerment, from conflict to resolution, from prejudice to
understanding" (p. 442). And while that in itself may seem overwhelming to
many of us, we can take reassurance from Brown's notion of classroom energy:

By understanding what some of the variables are in classroom management,

you can take some important steps to sharpening your skills as a language
teacher. And then, as you improve some of those identifiable, overtly
observable skills, you open the door to the intangible, to art, to poetics, to the
invisible sparks of energy that kindle the flames of learning. (p. 411)
And perhaps that is something all of us language teachers can do, whether we
are teachers in training or teachers with many years of classroom experience.
We can be "energetic" in the classroom; we can sharpen our skills; we can
improve on identifiable, overtly observable things; we can open the door to the
intangible.

And one of the ways we can do this is by reading Brown's book.

Professor Gail Schaefer Fu teaches in the English Language Teaching Unit at

The Chinese University of Hong Kong and is involved in language counseling
at their Independent Learning Centre. Her recent articles have focused on the
teaching of writing in Hong Kong; language improvement strategies and
autonomy in the classroom; and reflections on collaboration. Recent
conference presentations have addressed the topics of identity in the language
classroom and guidelines for productive language counseling.

Chapter 4: Classifying Approaches to Classroom

Management (from Transformative Classroom Management, by John Shindler)
There are many ways to classify orientations to classroom management. In chapter 3 we
examined how cognitive style and world-view contribute to how we approach teaching.
In this chapter we will examine how classroom management practices differ based on
one’s orientation to discipline itself. To help accomplish this, we will incorporate a 4-
quadrant matrix for characterizing management style orientation that has grown out a
series of research studies into teacher practices (Shindler, Jones, Taylor, Cadenas,
2003, 2004, 2005). This Management Orientation Matrix, depicted in Figure 4.1 below,
has proven useful in helping distinguish one category or practice from another, and will
provide one of the fundamental frameworks for the ideas in the coming chapters of this
book. The vertical axis of the matrix represents the level of effectiveness of the
management practices, and the horizontal axis represents a continuum of theoretical
orientation, from more student-centered on the left, to more teacher-centered on the
right.

Figure 4.1: Four-quadrant Matrix of Management Style Orientation and Practice:

Horizontal axis – teacher vs. student centered

The horizontal axis of the matrix represents the range of practices related to the locus of
power, ownership, and fundamental goals for any class. This axis ranges from a very
teacher-centered to a very student-centered orientation. While this dichotomy represents
a bit of an oversimplification, it offers a very basic contrast in teaching philosophy, as we
will see when we examine each of the sub-factors – ownership, goals and assumptions,
in more depth.

Ownership and Power

In the teacher-centered class, the power rests primarily with the teacher, as does the
ownership for decision-making. In a teacher-centered class, the students need only
follow instructions. In a student-centered class, the teacher takes on the role of guiding
the students’ efforts. Ownership for decisions, large and small, is given to the students,
whenever possible. This leaves the students with a higher burden for solving problems
and making consequential choices. The question that best defines the contrast in this
continuum is, “who has their hands on the steering wheel of the class?”

Goals and Purpose

The underlying goal of a teacher-centered class is order. The underlying goal of a
student-centered class is student self-reliance. In the teacher-centered class, success is
defined by how well the students execute their responsibilities and the level of efficiency
that exists in the learning environment. The rationale behind this thinking is that in an
orderly and obedient classroom, there is less wasted time, and more on-task behavior,
which benefits everyone. So the view in a teacher directed class is that the ends -
students who are more productive more of the time, justify the means – teacher
direction. In the student-centered class, success is defined by the amount of personal
and collective growth that the students experience over the course of the term. The
rationale behind this thinking is that when students are put in positions in which they
must take ownership for their own learning and are expected to be self-responsible, they
learn lessons that are as valuable as anything that they can learn from the curriculum.

Basic Assumptions and Motivation

At the heart of a teacher-centered approach is the assumption that students need to be
managed or they will misbehave by nature. Basic to a student-centered approach is that
students have an inherent desire to learn and improve. Therefore, in the teacher-
centered thinking, it is desirable to take a teacher-directed approach because the
students need it. Whereas, the student-centered thinking would suppose that the reason
that students might appear to need a teacher-directed class is that they have become
dependent on them, and are just lacking the opportunities to develop their own self-
responsible nature.

As a result of these basic assumptions a teacher-centered approach is very comfortable

with the use of extrinsic rewards. This approach finds rewards and punishments a very
effective way to change behavior. Since the result is often more desirable behavior more
of the time, the ends support the use of the means. A student-centered classroom
resists the use of extrinsic rewards and punishments, and views them as vehicles that
rob a student of their intrinsic motivation. This approach sets out to create a learning
environment that is inherently motivating, and relies more heavily on tapping into student
interests and meeting students’ basic needs.

Chapter Reflection 4#: Where would you place your management orientation along the
horizontal continuum? Are you more inclined toward a more student-centered or a more
teacher-centered approach to classroom management?

Vertical axis – Effectiveness and Intentionality

The vertical axis of the matrix is related to the effectiveness of the management practice.
At the top of the axis are the most effective forms of practice defined by high function,
sound relationships, high levels of motivation, and high productivity. At the base of the
axis are the least effective forms of practice defined by low function, relationship
dysfunction, low motivation and a lack of productivity.

In our research into classroom practice (Shindler, Jones, Taylor, Cadenas 2004) we
have seen that the degree of effectiveness is related most strongly to first, the
intentionality of the system of management and second, the degree to which the locus of
control of the teacher is internal rather than external. Therefore, the peak of this axis
represents practices that are less accidental and reactive and more systematic,
deliberate and reflect an increasing level of teacher ownership for student outcomes. Let
us examine both of these sub-factors in more depth.

Intentional and Conscious

Put simply, more effective teacher practices are demonstrated by those who know what
they are trying to accomplish and how then intend to accomplish it. That is, they are
“intentional” in their practice. This approach is contrasted to those that are short-sighted,
reactive and unconscious, which could be described as “accidental.” Intentional practice
is characterized by efforts undertaken within a larger scheme within which each specific
teaching act fits. An accidental set of practices has no such coherence, and therefore
collectively amount to little if anything beyond a series of disconnected strategies. This
lack of vision creates a lack of confidence and a feeling of discontinuity in the students,
in other words, a sense that they are part of a class that lacks leadership.

Internality and Responsibility

If you talk to a teacher who does an effective job of classroom management and helping
their students succeed, you will hear in their words the underlying convictions – “I
believe it is about what I do”, and “I am responsible for helping my students succeed.”
The frame of mind that is expressed in this attitude is both internal – “success will be
dependent on the investment I make in my variable in the equation” and responsible –
“My job is to help every student succeed.” Contrast this to the mindset of a teacher who,
after a sufficient amount of training and practice, still demonstrates ineffectiveness and
experiences a high level of student failure. In most cases, the attitudes that these
teachers express are both external – “there is nothing that I can do with these kids,” and
irresponsible – “it is not my fault.” While there are hundreds of choices to be made in
one’s career related to which classroom management practices are most desirable and
worthy to adopt, our underlying attitude in this area will be the single most determining
factor in our success. Simply put, success is impossible apart from the mind-set that one
is responsible for their student’s learning and behavioral outcomes.

Chapter Reflection 4#: Recall a teacher that you judge to be excellent. When they
speak about their students and their profession, how would you characterize their
language? Does it reflect a more internal or external locus of control?

The Resulting Matrix: 4 Differing Approaches to Management

When we position one axis across the other, we are left with 4 quadrants that
characterize 4 very different approaches to classroom management and teaching in
general. Throughout the book, each particular management approach/style will be
referred by its style number, 1-4, to represent each of the 4 quadrants of the matrix.
Those at the top have been assigned 1-style and 2-style, while those at the bottom were
assigned 3-style and 4-style. Numbers are only used to distinguish quadrants, not to
assign value. The orientation that is most your style and best for you will be left to you to
decide – the 4-style or Dominator, 3-style of Enabler, 2-style of Conductor or the 1-style
or Facilitator. However, you will be persuaded very early in the book (if you need
persuading or have not been persuaded by now) that either a 1 or 2 orientation will
produce profoundly greater degrees of success for both the teacher and the students.

As far as which orientation, 2-style or 1-style, is more effective, the reader is asked to
judge for him or herself the approach that best fits their own personal teaching style and
goals. A sound, healthy classroom with a fully functioning social contract (see ch.9) can
be achieved with either a 2-style or a 1-style management approach. But as the reader
will discover throughout the book there are advantages and disadvantages of each
orientation (see table 4.x).

A Brief Description of each of the 4 Classroom Management Approaches

4-Style or Dominator Management Approach

The essence of the 4-style orientation is the teacher as “boss.” The 4-style teacher feels
the need to dominate by both overt and covert means. Students in the class see quickly
that they have only two choices, to be obedient or rebel. While there appears to be a
high degree of intentionality to the 4-style management practice due to the authoritarian
display of power, a closer examination reveals much less in reality. Because the teacher
acts so frequently out of a reactive mode, students are seldom fully sure what to expect.
The mood of the teacher has a great deal to do with the climate of the class on any
particular day. Moreover, the 4-style manager is typically a fan of extrinsic rewards, “sit
and get” teaching methods, and the use of grading for the purpose of coercion.

As we will discuss in more detail in chapter 20 (Moving up from 4-style to 2-style

management), at the heart of the 4-style management approach is a “pain-based logic.”
To attain their desired outcomes the teacher resorts to the delivery of pain to students in
the form of punishments, threats, anger, public humiliation, victimizing humor, putting
names on the board, and shaming. As a result, the 4-style classroom takes on a
combative and hostile climate. As the pain is exchanged between the teacher and the
student, over time an increasing number of negative side effects occur, including a
decrease in motivation, a lack of trust, an emotionally unsafe climate, and various acts of
displaced aggression.

3-Style or Enabler Management Approach

The defining characteristic of the 3-style manager is passivity. They experience
perpetual disappointment that the students are letting them down. The 3-style teacher
operates under the faulty assumption that if they make enough reasonable verbal
appeals to students (rather than taking deliberate action and/or delivering meaningful
consequences), at some point, the students will respond with functional behavior. In
most cases, the 3-style teacher is acting out of the rejection of what they see as the
unhealthy, authoritarian, 4-style manager. Yet, what they produce is often just as
accidental and chaotic as what they are trying to avoid. And commonly, when the 3-style
manager become too frustrated with the students’ dysfunction and lack of respect, they
react with episodes of hostility, which brings them even more inner conflict.

The fundamental problem is that the 3-style teacher preaches self-direction and internal
motivation, yet do little to promote them. They confuse the need for a structure with
being controlling, which they see as objectionable. The 3-style is typically well
intentioned, but inherent in this approach is a lack of courage to lead. Their commitment
to promoting student interests is noble, but over time students learn that they are able to
act as they please. As a result, a high degree of “Social Darwinism” becomes the
defining quality for the peer relations. Without intending to, the 3-style teacher has
helped promote a rather unsafe emotional climate, thus their label the “enabler.”
Cooperative learning and engaging hands on activities that are the preference of the 3-
style teacher increasingly descend into playtime and a chance for students to “mess
around,” as a result of a lack of clear direction and purpose.

Chapter Reflection 4#: Recall teachers A and B from exercise 2.1. How would you
classify their management styles on the matrix in Figure 4.1 above?

2-Style or Conductor Management Approach

The most popular classroom management training in the past few years has been
defined by the 2-style orientation. Those such as the Canters, Wong, Jones, and others
would best be described as teacher-centered approach proponents. The Canters
provide the useful term “assertive discipline” which provides a contrast to the passive (3-
style) or hostile (4-style) approaches that they recognized as so ineffective. The 2-style
“Conductor” builds their approach on logical consequences, rather than personal attacks
and negativity.

The Conductor takes a very intentional approach to management. A successful 2-style

begins early in the year with a period of training and education in rules, procedures, and
consequences. As if under the command of an orchestra conductor, the class is trained
to respond to directions in a very efficient manner. The structure in the 2-classroom is
evident. It is built on consistency and clarity. Out of this structure, the goals of a
productive learning environment, respect, accountability and positive relationships are
constructed. The 2-classroom includes a heavy reliance on encouragement and
rewards. The pedagogy in the 2-style approach tends to lean toward direct instruction,
but includes multiple methods that have been demonstrated to obtain results.

1-Style or Facilitator Management Approach

Relatively few teachers choose to take the path of the “facilitator” or 1-style manager.
The ultimate goal of the 1-style manager is to create a class that is self-directed and
manages itself. These teachers understand that to do this it will take time, but are willing
to live with what might feel like a little less predictability so as to achieve their long-term
goals. One-style management goals are defined by an intentional promotion of the
students’ intrinsic motivation and sense of personal responsibility. Students in the 1-
classroom grow in their ability to answer both the “what are we doing?” as well as the
“why are we doing it?” kinds of questions. An implicit understanding of the community
expectations is cultivated. To achieve this end, the 1-style teacher makes a devoted
attempt to help student recognize the value of functional and responsible behavior.

The 1-style approach places the emphasis on the process of learning over end products,
and personal growth rather than the attainment of rewards or the students’ relative
success in comparison to other students. The 1-style orientation values long-term
student empowerment over what might be considered methods that appear to be
“working” in the short-term. The goal is not to merely have the student appear on task,
but to know that the learning is building toward a positive orientation toward learning
itself. The pedagogical approaches that define the 1-style orientation are typically
constructivist, collaborative and problem-based.

Chapter Reflection: Recall the last teacher that you have observed. Which style would
best characterize his/her management approach?

Table 4.x Key Characteristics of Each of the 4 Management Orientations

STUDENT-CENTERED TEACHER-CENTERED
 Effective/Intentional 1-Style Teacher 2-Style Teacher

• Facilitator • Conductor
• Relationship-driven • Structure-driven
• Goal = self-directed • Goal = on task behavior
students • Motivation = external/
• Motivation = internal/ build positive reinforcement
sense of self-efficacy • Clear consequences
• Clear boundaries • Build students’ collective
• Build students’ collective efficiency
responsibility • Answers “what is expected”
• Answers “why we are dong
this” • Short-term goals (the
• Long-term goals (the management should be in
management may be good shape by the second
messy at first, but auto- week)
pilot by end) • My Class
• Our class

Ineffective/Accidenta 3-Style Teacher 4-Style Teacher

l
• Enabler • Dominator
• Reaction-driven • Obedience-driven
• Goal = keep students • Goal = let students know
happy who is boss
• Motivation = to avoid
• Motivation = student punishment
interests • Arbitrary punishments
• Unclear boundaries • Students – increasingly
• Students - increasingly immune to coercion
self-centered • Negative energy
• Chaotic energy • Goals is to break students
• Goals are vague will (students respond out of
(management problems fear, but slowly increase
happen early and are still hostility and rebellion)
happening by end of the • Those students
term)
• The students

Comparing the advantages of 2-style vs. 1-style management approach

As you reflect on your own personal values and what you envision wanting to
accomplish in your classroom, you may find yourself being drawn more to either the 2-
style or 1-style approaches to management. Each approach is developed over the next
several chapters, often side by side. Table 4.x outlines a brief list of advantages of each
orientation.

Table 4.x Advantages of Each of the Intentional Management Approaches

Advantages of the 2-style approach Advantages of the 1-style approach
Can get functioning system in place relatively Working toward a self-regulating system
quickly eventually
Clearly understood teacher and student roles Increasingly empowered students over time
likely
Relatively simple to repeat each year and Promotes a lot of learning and insight into the
export to other teacher’s classrooms skills necessary to participate in a democratic
system.
The overt structure of the system is readily The implicit structure becomes evident (and
appearant to administrators, parents and other impressive) to others who are able to spend
teachers time in the class and appreciate the intention.
Low stress on the part of teacher and students Leads to high levels of teacher and student
related to low ambiguity and chaos (needs) satisfaction

Chapter Reflection 4#: What would you anticipate to be the forms of resistance to using
a 1-style approach in a school characterized by a 4-style environment? The experience
of Erin Gruwell depicted in the movie “Freedom Writers” may be useful to consider as
you reflect.

Can I Incorporate Practices from all 4 Approaches?

Technically, one can use practices that would fit into any number of orientations,
however, there is a cost. First, incorporating practices from the 3 or 4 orientation will
have a destructive effect on your 2-style or 1-style based classroom plan. Often without
knowing it, a very sound 2-style or 1-style teacher will use 4-style orientation practices
such as punishments, unhealthy praise, or public shaming (especially in the form of
putting names on the board), and without knowing it they are handicapping their ability to
be more fully successful with their students.

Students cannot articulate, in most cases, that the use of particular practices feel
contradictory and operate to send mixed messages, but they certainly experience it. And
very often when a teacher is relatively likable and successful with their intentional forms
of practice, it is difficult to measure the damage 3-style and 4-style practices inflict on
their classes. As you continue reading you may notice that much of the content of the
book is devoted to illumination why 3-style and 4-style practices are destructive, and
often deceptively so.

“I cannot decide between a 2-style or 1-style approach, can I use some of each?” This is
a common question. Incorporating a little from one and a little from the other is certainly
workable. And, we should remember that the main consideration in the process is to
move our practice upward on the vertical axis. Yet, if you mix approaches, you may be
sending mixed messages. A common example of a mixed-orientation message would be
when we in some cases allow students to be self-directed, and in other similar situations
we simply give orders. This can send the message that, “sometimes I trust you and
sometimes I don’t.” On first glance, this is probably how we genuinely feel towards our
students. So what is the problem? Take a moment to reflect from the perspective of the
student. What do you hear in that message? Is it trust? Who has their hands on the
steering wheel of the class? The students need to be clear as to your answer, or they
will show their frustration. As you progress through the book, it is likely that you will
encounter ideas that will facilitate your decision to move one direction or the other.
 Moving from a 3 to a 1-Style Orientation
If you have a strong commitment to a student-centered approach, but realize that your
efforts have led you to what you would characterize as a 3-style, there is hope. And of all
those that choose to pick up this book, you may be the one with the most to gain. It is
likely that you have felt a temptation to adopt 2-style approach, yet the encouragement
of others who are finding success with a more teacher-centered approach does not
leave you entirely convinced, or comfortable abandoning your student-centered
principles. You have likely had to endure a great deal of disparagement. No one gets
criticized like the 3-teacher. Because of what appears to be a very active (albeit hostile)
approach by 4-style teachers, people usually leave them alone. But for you they
somehow feel free to give advice.

Improvement of your situation begins with an examination of the essence of the vertical
axis – Intentionality and internality. Don’t confuse taking action for being controlling. As
you explore the coming chapters, you will discover how much planning and deliberate
effort must go into helping students become self-directed. The methodological pathway
is spelled out in detail. Chapters 8, related to promoting a success psychology, and then
9, outlining how to create a social contract should provide a solid framework and
practical steps for one’s efforts toward succeeding at creating a 1-style classroom.

What to Expect in the Rest of the Book

Look for references to the management style orientation matrix in the coming chapters.
When you see this symbol, it will identify a reference being made to the matrix.

Chapter 20 offers an examination of the 4-teacher, and a set of steps to move from a 4-
style to a 2-style approach. It includes an in-depth analysis of why 4-style management
is so prevalent despite its apparent drawbacks. Many chapters incorporate the lens of
the contrasting approaches of the 2-style and 1-style orientation to their topic areas.
Chapter 17 is devoted entirely to how to move from a 2-style to a 1-style approach for
those readers who feel that they would ultimately like to attempt to develop a 1-style
classroom

Journal Reflections:
Error Quotes
Error Definition
1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9

A few observation and much reasoning lead to error; many observations

and a little reasoning to truth.
Alexis Carrel
A hallucination is a fact, not an error; what is erroneous is a judgment
based upon it.
Bertrand Russell

A philosopher is, no doubt, entitled to examine even those distinctions

that are to be found in the structure of all languages... in that case,
such a distinction may be imputed to a vulgar error, which ought to be
corrected in philosophy.
Thomas Reid

A small error in the former will produce an enormous error in the latter.
Henri Poincare

A subtle thought that is in error may yet give rise to fruitful inquiry that
can establish truths of great value.
Isaac Asimov

Acting is like a high wire act. Your margin for error is very slim.
Christine Baranski

Action and reaction, ebb and flow, trial and error, change - this is the
rhythm of living. Out of our over-confidence, fear; out of our fear,
clearer vision, fresh hope. And out of hope, progress.
Bruce Barton

Admitting Error clears the Score, And proves you Wiser than before.
Arthur Guiterman

All men are liable to error; and most men are, in many points, by
passion or interest, under temptation to it.
John Locke

An error does not become truth by reason of multiplied propagation, nor

does truth become error because nobody sees it.
Mohandas Gandhi

An error doesn't become a mistake until you refuse to correct it.

Orlando A. Battista

An error is the more dangerous in proportion to the degree of truth

which it contains.
Henri Frederic Amiel

Any man can make mistakes, but only an idiot persists in his error.
Marcus Tullius Cicero

Any man is liable to err, only a fool persists in error.

Marcus Tullius Cicero

Any man worth his salt will stick up for what he believes right, but it
takes a slightly better man to acknowledge instantly and without
reservation that he is in error.
Andrew Jackson

Anyone nit-picking enough to write a letter of correction to an editor

doubtless deserves the error that provoked it.
Alvin Toffler

Art has a double face, of expression and illusion, just like science has a
double face: the reality of error and the phantom of truth.
Publilius Syrus

Be bold. If you're going to make an error, make a doozy, and don't be

afraid to hit the ball.
Billie Jean King

Be calm in arguing; for fierceness makes error a fault, and truth

discourtesy.
George Herbert

Be precise. A lack of precision is dangerous when the margin of error is

small.
Donald Rumsfeld

We should have a great fewer disputes in the world if words were taken for what
they are, the signs of our ideas only, and not for things themselves. ~John Locke

Language forces us to perceive the world as man presents it to us. ~Julia

Penelope

The quantity of consonants in the English language is constant. If omitted in one

place, they turn up in another. When a Bostonian "pahks" his "cah," the lost r's
migrate southwest, causing a Texan to "warsh" his car and invest in "erl wells."
~Author Unknown

English is a funny language; that explains why we park our car on the driveway
and drive our car on the parkway. ~Author Unknown

The reaction to any word may be, in an individual, either a mob-reaction or an

individual reaction. It is up to the individual to ask himself: Is my reaction
individual, or am I merely reacting from my mob-self? When it comes to the so-
called obscene words, I should say that hardly one person in a million escapes
mob-reaction. ~D.H. Lawrence
Lymph, v.: to walk with a lisp. ~From a Washington Post reader submission
word contest

No one means all he says, and yet very few say all they mean, for words are
slippery and thought is viscous. ~Henry Brooks Adams, The Education of Henry
Adams, 1907

One man's frankness is another man's vulgarity. ~Kevin Smith

I personally believe we developed language because of our deep inner need to

complain. ~Jane Wagner

Euphemisms are unpleasant truths wearing diplomatic cologne. ~Quentin Crisp

Slang is a language that rolls up its sleeves, spits on its hands and goes to work.
~Carl Sandburg, New York Times, 13 February 1959

It's a strange world of language in which skating on thin ice can get you into hot
water. ~Franklin P. Jones

In certain trying circumstances, urgent circumstances, desperate circumstances,

profanity furnishes a relief denied even to prayer. ~Mark Twain

At no time is freedom of speech more precious than when a man hits his thumb
with a hammer. ~Marshall Lumsden

What words say does not last. The words last. Because words are always the
same, and what they say is never the same. ~Antonio Porchia, Voces, 1943,
translated from Spanish by W.S. Merwin

Language is the blood of the soul into which thoughts run and out of which they
grow. ~Oliver Wendell Holmes

We have too many high sounding words and too few actions that correspond with
them. ~Abigail Adams
Man is a creature who lives not upon bread alone, but primarily by catchwords.
~Robert Louis Stevenson

A good catchword can obscure analysis for fifty years. ~Wendell L. Willkie

Our major obligation is not to mistake slogans for solutions. ~Edward R.

Murrow

If you can speak three languages you're trilingual. If you can speak two languages
you're bilingual. If you can speak only one language you're an American.
~Author Unknown

Sometimes it's just a short swim from the shipwreck of your life to the island
paradise of your dreams - assuming you don't drown in the metaphor. ~Robert
Brault, www.robertbrault.com

I like the word "indolence." It makes my laziness seem classy. ~Bern Williams

Dictionaries are like watches; the worst is better than none, and the best cannot
be expected to go quite true. ~Samuel Johnson

Words signify man's refusal to accept the world as it is. ~Walter Kaufmann

The English language is nobody's special property. It is the property of the

imagination: it is the property of the language itself. ~Derek Walcott

Language is the dress of thought. ~Samuel Johnson

Thanks to words, we have been able to rise above the brutes; and thanks to
words, we have often sunk to the level of the demons. ~Aldous Huxley

The great thing about human language is that it prevents us from sticking to the
matter at hand. ~Lewis Thomas
Language is the most imperfect and expensive means yet discovered for
communicating thought. ~William James

Be not the slave of Words. ~Thomas Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, Book I, chapter 8

The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between
one's real and one's declared aims, one turns as if it were instinctively to long
words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish squirting out ink. ~George Orwell

Language is the means of getting an idea from my brain into yours without
surgery. ~Mark Amidon

Any man who does not make himself proficient in at least two languages other
than his own is a fool. ~Martin H. Fischer

It is a safe rule to apply that, when a mathematical or philosophical author writes

with a misty profundity, he is talking nonsense. ~Alfred North Whitehead

He who does not know foreign languages does not know anything about his own.
~Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Kunst and Alterthum

A definition is the enclosing a wilderness of idea within a wall of words. ~Samuel

Butler (1835-1902), Note-Books

I would never use a long word where a short one would answer the purpose. I
know there are professors in this country who 'ligate' arteries. Other surgeons
only tie them, and it stops the bleeding just as well. ~Oliver Wendell Holmes

Our language is funny - a fat chance and slim chance are the same thing. ~J.
Gustav White

Words want to be free! ~Author Unknown

Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the Devil; for which reason I
have, long since, as good as renounced it. ~Thomas Carlyle, Sartor Resartus,
Book II, chapter 4
Oaths are but words, and words but wind. ~Samuel Butler (1612-1680),
Hudribas

There is a certain age at which a child looks at you in all earnestness and delivers
a long, pleased speech in all the true inflections of spoken English, but with not
one recognizable syllable. There is no way you can tell the child that if language
had been a melody, he had mastered it and done well, but that since it was in fact
a sense, he had botched it utterly. ~Annie Dillard, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek

Whenever ideas fail, men invent words. ~Martin H. Fischer

Words, like Nature, half reveal

And half conceal the Soul within.
~Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "Im memoriam A.H.H.," 1850

Learning preserves the errors of the past, as well as its wisdom. For this reason,
dictionaries are public dangers, although they are necessities. ~Alfred North
Whitehead

Every American child should grow up knowing a second language, preferably

English. ~Mignon McLaughlin, The Neurotic's Notebook, 1960

Swearing was invented as a compromise between running away and fighting.

~Peter Finley Dunne, Mr. Dooley's Opinions, 1900

W (double U) has, of all the letters in our alphabet, the only cumbrous name, the
names of the others being monosyllabic. This advantage of the Roman alphabet
over the Grecian is the more valued after audibly spelling out some simple Greek
word, like "epixoriambikos." Still, it is now thought by the learned that other
agencies than the difference of the two alphabets may have been concerned in the
decline of "the glory that was Greece" and the rise of "the grandeur that was
Rome." There can be no doubt, however, that by simplifying the name of W
(calling it "wow," for example) our civilization could be, if not promoted, at least
better endured. ~Ambrose Bierce

The existing phrasebooks are inadequate. They are well enough as far as they go,
but when you fall down and skin your leg they don't tell you what to say. ~Mark
Twain

Language is by its very nature a communal thing; that is, it expresses never the
exact thing but a compromise - that which is common to you, me, and everybody.
~Thomas Earnest Hulme, Speculations, 1923

Let's not become so worried about not offending anybody that we lose the ability
to distinguish between respect and paranoia. ~Larry King, about political
correctness, How to Talk to Anyone, Anytime, Anywhere: The Secrets of Good
Communication

The PC [political correctness] movement exists not in order to improve the well-
being of those whose oppression it purports to combat. Rather, its purpose is to
wrap its proponents in a kind of verbal comfort-blanket. ~Erik Kowal, as posted
on wordwizard.com

The Ancient Mariner would not have taken so well if it had been called The Old
Sailor. ~Samuel Butler

A different language is a different vision of life. ~Federico Fellini

If a language is corruptible, then a constitution written in that language is

corruptible. ~Robert Brault, www.robertbrault.com

"Children, don't speak so coarsely," said Mr. Webster, who had a vague notion
that some supervision should be exercised over his daughters' speech, and that a
line should be drawn, but never knew quite when to draw it. He had allowed his
daughters to use his library without restraint, and nothing is more fatal to
maidenly delicacy of speech than the run of a good library. ~Robertson Davies,
Tempest Tost

Conversation is the slowest form of human communication. ~Author Unknown

Learn a new language and get a new soul. ~Czech Proverb

But if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought. ~George
Orwell
The word "good" has many meanings. For example, if a man were to shoot his
grandmother at a range of five hundred yards, I should call him a good shot, but
not necessarily a good man. ~G.K. Chesterton

I like a teacher who gives you something to take home to think about besides
homework. ~Lily Tomlin as "Edith Ann"

The dream begins with a teacher who believes in you, who tugs and pushes and
leads you to the next plateau, sometimes poking you with a sharp stick called
"truth." ~Dan Rather

In teaching you cannot see the fruit of a day's work. It is invisible and remains so,
maybe for twenty years. ~Jacques Barzun

Teaching is the profession that teaches all the other professions. ~Author
Unknown

If a doctor, lawyer, or dentist had 40 people in his office at one time, all of whom
had different needs, and some of whom didn't want to be there and were causing
trouble, and the doctor, lawyer, or dentist, without assistance, had to treat them
all with professional excellence for nine months, then he might have some
conception of the classroom teacher's job. ~Donald D. Quinn

Modern cynics and skeptics... see no harm in paying those to whom they entrust
the minds of their children a smaller wage than is paid to those to whom they
entrust the care of their plumbing. ~John F. Kennedy

A teacher is one who makes himself progressively unnecessary. ~Thomas

Carruthers

Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theater. ~Gail

Godwin

A teacher who is attempting to teach without inspiring the pupil with a desire to
learn is hammering on cold iron. ~Horace Mann
Most teachers have little control over school policy or curriculum or choice of
texts or special placement of students, but most have a great deal of autonomy
inside the classroom. To a degree shared by only a few other occupations, such as
police work, public education rests precariously on the skill and virtue of the
people at the bottom of the institutional pyramid. ~Tracy Kidder

A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops. ~Henry
Brooks Adams

A good teacher is like a candle - it consumes itself to light the way for others.
~Author Unknown

The true teacher defends his pupils against his own personal influence. He
inspires self-distrust. He guides their eyes from himself to the spirit that
quickens him. He will have no disciple. ~Amos Bronson Alcott

A good teacher is a master of simplification and an enemy of simplism. ~Louis A.

Berman

We expect teachers to handle teenage pregnancy, substance abuse, and the

failings of the family. Then we expect them to educate our children. ~John
Sculley

Good teachers are costly, but bad teachers cost more. ~Bob Talbert

The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher
demonstrates. The great teacher inspires. ~William Arthur Ward

The best teacher is the one who suggests rather than dogmatizes, and inspires his
listener with the wish to teach himself. ~Edward Bulwer-Lytton

A teacher's purpose is not to create students in his own image, but to develop
students who can create their own image. ~Author Unknown

What the teacher is, is more important than what he teaches. ~Karl Menninger
Teaching should be full of ideas instead of stuffed with facts. ~Author Unknown

A cross-eyed teacher can keep twice the number of children in order than any
other, because the pupils do not know who she's looking at. ~Four Hundred
Laughs: Or, Fun Without Vulgarity, compiled and edited by John R. Kemble,
1902

Teaching is leaving a vestige of one self in the development of another. And

surely the student is a bank where you can deposit your most precious treasures.
~Eugene P. Bertin

A teacher is a compass that activates the magnets of curiosity,

knowledge, and wisdom in the pupils. ~Terri Guillemets

Teachers who inspire know that teaching is like cultivating a garden, and those
who would have nothing to do with thorns must never attempt to gather flowers.
~Author Unknown

Teachers who inspire realize there will always be rocks in the road ahead of us.
They will be stumbling blocks or stepping stones; it all depends on how we use
them. ~Author Unknown

Teaching is not a lost art, but the regard for it is a lost tradition. ~Jacques
Barzun

One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with gratitude to
those who touched our human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary raw
material, but warmth is the vital element for the growing plant and for the soul of
the child. ~Carl Jung

The teacher who is indeed wise does not bid you to enter the house of his wisdom
but rather leads you to the threshold of your mind. ~Kahlil Gibran

The task of the excellent teacher is to stimulate "apparently ordinary" people to

unusual effort. The tough problem is not in identifying winners: it is in making
winners out of ordinary people. ~K. Patricia Cross
When you teach your son, you teach your son's son. ~The Talmud

The best teachers teach from the heart, not from the book. ~Author Unknown

The average teacher explains complexity; the gifted teacher reveals simplicity.
~Robert Brault, www.robertbrault.com

Often, when I am reading a good book, I stop and thank my teacher. That is, I
used to, until she got an unlisted number. ~Author Unknown

Who dares to teach must never cease to learn. ~John Cotton Dana

There are three good reasons to be a teacher - June, July, and August. ~Author
Unknown

A teacher should have maximal authority, and minimal power. ~Thomas Szaz

To teach is to learn twice. ~Joseph Joubert, Pensées, 1842

The secret of teaching is to appear to have known all your life what you just
learned this morning. ~Author Unknown

Don't try to fix the students, fix ourselves first. The good teacher makes the poor
student good and the good student superior. When our students fail, we, as
teachers, too, have failed. ~Marva Collins

The object of teaching a child is to enable him to get along without his teacher.
~Elbert Hubbard

Teaching is the only major occupation of man for which we have not yet
developed tools that make an average person capable of competence and
performance. In teaching we rely on the "naturals," the ones who somehow know
how to teach. ~Peter Drucker

Teachers are expected to reach unattainable goals with inadequate tools. The
miracle is that at times they accomplish this impossible task. ~Haim G. Ginott

The art of teaching is the art of assisting discovery. ~Mark Van Doren

Quotations From Teachers:

The only reason I always try to meet and know the parents better is because it
helps me to forgive their children. ~Louis Johannot

If you promise not to believe everything your child says happens at school, I'll
promise not to believe everything he says happens at home. ~Anonymous
Teacher

Error Analysis
INTRODUCTION

The knowledge we have of the physical world is obtained by doing experiments and
making measurements. It is important to understand how to express such data and how to
analyze and draw meaningful conclusions from it.

In doing this it is crucial to understand that all measurements of physical quantities are
subject to uncertainties. It is never possible to measure anything exactly. It is good, of
course, to make the error as small as possible but it is always there. And in order to draw
valid conclusions the error must be indicated and dealt with properly.

Take the measurement of a person's height as an example. Assuming that her height has
been determined to be 5' 8", how accurate is our result?

Well, the height of a person depends on how straight she stands, whether she just got up
(most people are slightly taller when getting up from a long rest in horizontal position),
whether she has her shoes on, and how long her hair is and how it is made up. These
inaccuracies could all be called errors of definition. A quantity such as height is not
exactly defined without specifying many other circumstances.

Even if you could precisely specify the "circumstances," your result would still have an
error associated with it. The scale you are using is of limited accuracy; when you read the
scale, you may have to estimate a fraction between the marks on the scale, etc.

If the result of a measurement is to have meaning it cannot consist of the measured value
alone. An indication of how accurate the result is must be included also. Indeed, typically
more effort is required to determine the error or uncertainty in a measurement than to
perform the measurement itself. Thus, the result of any physical measurement has two
essential components: (1) A numerical value (in a specified system of units) giving the
best estimate possible of the quantity measured, and (2) the degree of uncertainty
associated with this estimated value. For example, a measurement of the width of a table
would yield a result such as 95.3 +/- 0.1 cm.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The significant figures of a (measured or calculated) quantity are the meaningful digits
in it. There are conventions which you should learn and follow for how to express
numbers so as to properly indicate their significant figures.

• Any digit that is not zero is significant. Thus 549 has three significant figures and
1.892 has four significant figures.
• Zeros between non zero digits are significant. Thus 4023 has four significant
figures.
• Zeros to the left of the first non zero digit are not significant. Thus 0.000034 has
only two significant figures. This is more easily seen if it is written as 3.4x10-5.
• For numbers with decimal points, zeros to the right of a non zero digit are
significant. Thus 2.00 has three significant figures and 0.050 has two significant
figures. For this reason it is important to keep the trailing zeros to indicate the
actual number of significant figures.
• For numbers without decimal points, trailing zeros may or may not be significant.
Thus, 400 indicates only one significant figure. To indicate that the trailing zeros
are significant a decimal point must be added. For example, 400. has three
significant figures, and has one significant figure.
• Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant digits. For example, if there
are two oranges on a table, then the number of oranges is 2.000... . Defined
numbers are also like this. For example, the number of centimeters per inch (2.54)
has an infinite number of significant digits, as does the speed of light (299792458
m/s).

There are also specific rules for how to consistently express the uncertainty associated
with a number. In general, the last significant figure in any result should be of the same
order of magnitude (i.e.. in the same decimal position) as the uncertainty. Also, the
uncertainty should be rounded to one or two significant figures. Always work out the
uncertainty after finding the number of significant figures for the actual measurement.

For example,

9.82 +/- 0.02

10.0 +/- 1.5
4 +/- 1

The following numbers are all incorrect.

9.82 +/- 0.02385 is wrong but 9.82 +/- 0.02 is fine

10.0 +/- 2 is wrong but 10.0 +/- 2.0 is fine
4 +/- 0.5 is wrong but 4.0 +/- 0.5 is fine
In practice, when doing mathematical calculations, it is a good idea to keep one more
digit than is significant to reduce rounding errors. But in the end, the answer must be
expressed with only the proper number of significant figures. After addition or
subtraction, the result is significant only to the place determined by the largest last
significant place in the original numbers. For example,

89.332 + 1.1 = 90.432

should be rounded to get 90.4 (the tenths place is the last significant place in 1.1). After
multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is determined by
the original number with the smallest number of significant figures. For example,

(2.80) (4.5039) = 12.61092

should be rounded off to 12.6 (three significant figures like 2.80).

Refer to any good introductory chemistry textbook for an explanation of the methodology
for working out significant figures.

THE IDEA OF ERROR

The concept of error needs to be well understood. What is and what is not meant by
"error"?

A measurement may be made of a quantity which has an accepted value which can be
looked up in a handbook (e.g.. the density of brass). The difference between the
measurement and the accepted value is not what is meant by error. Such accepted values
are not "right" answers. They are just measurements made by other people which have
errors associated with them as well.

Nor does error mean "blunder." Reading a scale backwards, misunderstanding what you
are doing or elbowing your lab partner's measuring apparatus are blunders which can be
caught and should simply be disregarded.

Obviously, it cannot be determined exactly how far off a measurement is; if this could be
done, it would be possible to just give a more accurate, corrected value.

Error, then, has to do with uncertainty in measurements that nothing can be done about. If
a measurement is repeated, the values obtained will differ and none of the results can be
preferred over the others. Although it is not possible to do anything about such error, it
can be characterized. For instance, the repeated measurements may cluster tightly
together or they may spread widely. This pattern can be analyzed systematically.

CLASSIFICATION OF ERROR

Generally, errors can be divided into two broad and rough but useful classes: systematic
and random.
Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a systematic way so
their mean value is displaced. This may be due to such things as incorrect calibration of
equipment, consistently improper use of equipment or failure to properly account for
some effect. In a sense, a systematic error is rather like a blunder and large systematic
errors can and must be eliminated in a good experiment. But small systematic errors will
always be present. For instance, no instrument can ever be calibrated perfectly.

Other sources of systematic errors are external effects which can change the results of the
experiment, but for which the corrections are not well known. In science, the reasons why
several independent confirmations of experimental results are often required (especially
using different techniques) is because different apparatus at different places may be
affected by different systematic effects. Aside from making mistakes (such as thinking
one is using the x10 scale, and actually using the x100 scale), the reason why
experiments sometimes yield results which may be far outside the quoted errors is
because of systematic effects which were not accounted for.

Random errors are errors which fluctuate from one measurement to the next. They yield
results distributed about some mean value. They can occur for a variety of reasons.

• They may occur due to lack of sensitivity. For a sufficiently a small change an
instrument may not be able to respond to it or to indicate it or the observer may
not be able to discern it.
• They may occur due to noise. There may be extraneous disturbances which
cannot be taken into account.
• They may be due to imprecise definition.
• They may also occur due to statistical processes such as the roll of dice.

Random errors displace measurements in an arbitrary direction whereas systematic errors

displace measurements in a single direction. Some systematic error can be substantially
eliminated (or properly taken into account). Random errors are unavoidable and must be
lived with.

Many times you will find results quoted with two errors. The first error quoted is usually
the random error, and the second is called the systematic error. If only one error is
quoted, then the errors from all sources are added together. (In quadrature as described in
the section on propagation of errors.)

A good example of "random error" is the statistical error associated with sampling or
counting. For example, consider radioactive decay which occurs randomly at a some
(average) rate. If a sample has, on average, 1000 radioactive decays per second then the
expected number of decays in 5 seconds would be 5000. A particular measurement in a 5
second interval will, of course, vary from this average but it will generally yield a value
within 5000 +/- . Behavior like this, where the error,

, (1)
is called a Poisson statistical process. Typically if one does not know it is assumed
that,

in order to estimate this error.

A. Mean Value
Suppose an experiment were repeated many, say N, times to get,

N measurements of the same quantity, x. If the errors were random then the errors in
these results would differ in sign and magnitude. So if the average or mean value of our
measurements were calculated,

, (2)

some of the random variations could be expected to cancel out with others in the sum.
This is the best that can be done to deal with random errors: repeat the measurement
many times, varying as many "irrelevant" parameters as possible and use the average as
the best estimate of the true value of x. (It should be pointed out that this estimate for a
given N will differ from the limit as the true mean value; though, of course, for
larger N it will be closer to the limit.) In the case of the previous example: measure the
height at different times of day, using different scales, different helpers to read the scale,
etc.

Doing this should give a result with less error than any of the individual measurements.
But it is obviously expensive, time consuming and tedious. So, eventually one must
compromise and decide that the job is done. Nevertheless, repeating the experiment is the
only way to gain confidence in and knowledge of its accuracy. In the process an estimate
of the deviation of the measurements from the mean value can be obtained.

B. Measuring Error
There are several different ways the distribution of the measured values of a repeated
experiment such as discussed above can be specified.

Maximum Error

The maximum and minimum values of the data set, and , could be
specified. In these terms, the quantity,

, (3)
 is the maximum error. And virtually no measurements should ever fall outside
.

Probable Error

The probable error, , specifies the range which contains 50% of the
measured values.

Average Deviation

The average deviation is the average of the deviations from the mean,

. (4)

For a Gaussian distribution of the data, about 58% will lie within .

Standard Deviation

For the data to have a Gaussian distribution means that the probability of
obtaining the result x is,

, (5)

where is most probable value and , which is called the standard deviation,
determines the width of the distribution. Because of the law of large numbers this
assumption will tend to be valid for random errors. And so it is common practice
to quote error in terms of the standard deviation of a Gaussian distribution fit to
the observed data distribution. This is the way you should quote error in your
reports.

It is just as wrong to indicate an error which is too large as one which is too small. In the
measurement of the height of a person, we would reasonably expect the error to be +/-
1/4" if a careful job was done, and maybe +/-3/4" if we did a hurried sample
measurement. Certainly saying that a person's height is 5' 8.250"+/-0.002" is ridiculous (a
single jump will compress your spine more than this) but saying that a person's height is
5' 8"+/- 6" implies that we have, at best, made a very rough estimate!
C. Standard Deviation
The mean is the most probable value of a Gaussian distribution. In terms of the mean, the
standard deviation of any distribution is,

. (6)
The quantity , the square of the standard deviation, is called the variance. The best
estimate of the true standard deviation is,

. (7)

The reason why we divide by N to get the best estimate of the mean and only by N-1 for
the best estimate of the standard deviation needs to be explained. The true mean value of
x is not being used to calculate the variance, but only the average of the measurements as
the best estimate of it. Thus, as calculated is always a little bit smaller than
, the quantity really wanted. In the theory of probability (that is, using the
assumption that the data has a Gaussian distribution), it can be shown that this
underestimate is corrected by using N-1 instead of N.

If one made one more measurement of x then (this is also a property of a Gaussian
distribution) it would have some 68% probability of lying within . Note that this
means that about 30% of all experiments will disagree with the accepted value by more
than one standard deviation!

However, we are also interested in the error of the mean, which is smaller than sx if
there were several measurements. An exact calculation yields,

, (8)

for the standard error of the mean. This means that, for example, if there were 20
measurements, the error on the mean itself would be = 4.47 times smaller then the error
of each measurement. The number to report for this series of N measurements of x is

where . The meaning of this is that if the N measurements of x were repeated

there would be a 68% probability the new mean value of would lie within (that is
between and ). Note that this also means that there is a 32% probability that it
will fall outside of this range. This means that out of 100 experiments of this type, on the
average, 32 experiments will obtain a value which is outside the standard errors.

For a Gaussian distribution there is a 5% probability that the true value is outside of the
range , i.e. twice the standard error, and only a 0.3% chance that it is outside the
range of .

EXAMPLES

Suppose the number of cosmic ray particles passing through some detecting device every
hour is measured nine times and the results are those in the following table.

Thus we have = 900/9 = 100 and = 1500/8 = 188 or = 14. Then the probability that
one more measurement of x will lie within 100 +/- 14 is 68%.
The value to be reported for this series of measurements is 100+/-(14/3) or 100 +/- 5. If
one were to make another series of nine measurements of x there would be a 68%
probability the new mean would lie within the range 100 +/- 5.

Random counting processes like this example obey a Poisson distribution for which
. So one would expect the value of to be 10. This is somewhat less than the
value of 14 obtained above; indicating either the process is not quite random or, what is
more likely, more measurements are needed.

i
------------------------------------------
1 80 400
2 95 25
3 100 0
4 110 100
5 90 100
6 115 225
7 85 225
8 120 400
9 105 25
S 900 1500
------------------------------------------

The same error analysis can be used for any set of repeated measurements whether they
arise from random processes or not. For example in the Atwood's machine experiment to
measure g you are asked to measure time five times for a given distance of fall s. The
mean value of the time is,

, (9)

and the standard error of the mean is,

, (10)

where n = 5.

For the distance measurement you will have to estimate [[Delta]]s, the precision with
which you can measure the drop distance (probably of the order of 2-3 mm).

PROPAGATION OF ERRORS

Frequently, the result of an experiment will not be measured directly. Rather, it will be
calculated from several measured physical quantities (each of which has a mean value
and an error). What is the resulting error in the final result of such an experiment?

For instance, what is the error in Z = A + B where A and B are two measured quantities
with errors and respectively?
A first thought might be that the error in Z would be just the sum of the errors in A and
B. After all,

(11)

and

. (12)

But this assumes that, when combined, the errors in A and B have the same sign and
maximum magnitude; that is that they always combine in the worst possible way. This
could only happen if the errors in the two variables were perfectly correlated, (i.e.. if the
two variables were not really independent).

If the variables are independent then sometimes the error in one variable will happen to
cancel out some of the error in the other and so, on the average, the error in Z will be less
than the sum of the errors in its parts. A reasonable way to try to take this into account is
to treat the perturbations in Z produced by perturbations in its parts as if they were
"perpendicular" and added according to the Pythagorean theorem,

. (13)

That is, if A = (100 +/- 3) and B = (6 +/- 4) then Z = (106 +/- 5) since .

This idea can be used to derive a general rule. Suppose there are two measurements, A
and B, and the final result is Z = F(A, B) for some function F. If A is perturbed by
then Z will be perturbed by

where (the partial derivative) [[partialdiff]]F/[[partialdiff]]A is the derivative of F with

respect to A with B held constant. Similarly the perturbation in Z due to a perturbation in
B is,

Combining these by the Pythagorean theorem yields

, (14)

In the example of Z = A + B considered above,

,
so this gives the same result as before. Similarly if Z = A - B then,

which also gives the same result. Errors combine in the same way for both addition and
subtraction. However, if Z = AB then,

so

, (15)

Thus

, (16)

or the fractional error in Z is the square root of the sum of the squares of the fractional
errors in its parts. (You should be able to verify that the result is the same for division as
it is for multiplication.) For example,

It should be noted that since the above applies only when the two measured quantities are
independent of each other it does not apply when, for example, one physical quantity is
measured and what is required is its square. If Z = A2 then the perturbation in Z due to a
perturbation in A is,

. (17)

Thus, in this case,

(18)

and not A2 (1 +/- /A) as would be obtained by misapplying the rule for independent
variables. For example,

(10 +/- 1)2 = 100 +/- 20 and not 100 +/- 14.

If a variable Z depends on (one or) two variables (A and B) which have independent
errors ( and ) then the rule for calculating the error in Z is tabulated in following
table for a variety of simple relationships. These rules may be compounded for more
complicated situations.
Relation between Z Relation between errors
and(A,B) and ( , )
----------------------------------------------------------------
1 Z = A + B
2 Z = A - B

3 Z = AB

4 Z = A/B

5 Z = An

6 Z = ln A

7 Z = eA
----------------------------------------------------------------

References
1. Taylor, John R. An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties if
Physical Measurements. University Science Books, 1982.

2. P.V. Bork, H. Grote, D. Notz, M. Regler. Data Analysis Techniques in High Energy
Physics Experiments. Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Send comments, questions and/or suggestions via email to [email protected].

Teaching English
Error Analysis

Whenever a language is learnt or acquired one is faced with the problem of errors. Errors are an
inevitable feature of learning. They are not problems to be overcome or evils to be eradicated.
They in fact are part of learning and reveal the strategies that learners use to learn a language.
They provide valuable insight into the language learning process.

They help the teachers infer how much the learners have learnt. They also give an indication as
to whether they are ready to learnwhat the teacher wants to teach them next. Thus a lack of fit
between the learner’s needs and the items taught could be avoided.

By analyzing the errors one could build up a picture of the features of language which cause
learning problems. Once the problems are understood in the right perspective remedial measures
could be planned. An important part of the teachers’ job is to undertake a systematic analysis of
learners’ errors.

Approaches to Errors

As Jean D’Souza (1977) points out. in the fifties and early sixties errors were looked upon as evils
which had to be eradicated. It was believed that if the teacher taught well and drilled the patterns
of the new language efficiently there was no reason for the learners to make any errors at all.

As more and more studies have been undertaken it has been proved that learners’ errors show
evidence of a system. The learners try to evolve a language system of their own on the basis of
the exposure they receive. They constantly try to bring their system in line with the system of the
language they are exposed to. In so doing they formulate and discard hypotheses. According to
Strevens (1969) if a regular pattern of errors could be observed and the learners were seen to
progress through this pattern it was a sign of achievement in learning. With this change in attitude
the emphasis of error analysis has also changed.

As errors began to be considered as specific indications of the learning process the emphasis of
error analysis changed from the ‘product’ to the ‘process’ behind it. That is, in the early sixties the
main concentration was on the errors themselves. Later the emphasis shifted to the process or
systems behind the errors.

It was realized that the learners evolve a system for themselves which is much simpler than the
system of language being learnt by them. They seemed to ignore certain redundancies revise
some rules if necessary and simplify their learning task. But they were also found to change this
system as per the increasing exposure to the language they were learning. Hence errors can be
looked upon as a developmental phenomena. providing evidence regarding the rules and
categories used by the learners at a particular time.

The process is given importance because it throws light on how the language is learnt. The study
of errors also helps us to infer what the nature of learners’ knowledge is at that point of time in
their learning career and what more has to be learnt. As Corder (1973) says, “By describing and
classifying his errors in linguistic terms we build up a picture of the features of language which are
causing him learning problems”.

This would in turn help us to produce materials which can help the learners when and where
needed. At the same time it would warnus not to interfere too much in their learning process. For
this a systematic analysis of the learners’ errors should be undertaken.

Stages of Error Analysis

Error Analysis is carried out in three successive stages as mentioned by Pit
Corder (1973) These are (1) Recognition (2)Description and (3) Explanation. There are a number
of problems which one has to face in each of these stages. A thorough understanding of these
problems along with possible measures toovercome them is necessary for a proper analysis of
the errors.

1. Recognition of Errors

To recognize an error one should first of all know what is meant by the term ‘error’. Pit Corder
uses the term “Erroneous” to mean those utterances which are either superficially deviant or
inappropriate in terms of the target language grammar. He distinguishes between mistakes,
lapses and errors. They correspond to what he calls Pre-systematic, Post-systematic and
Systematic errors.
i. Pre-systematic errors are those committed by the learners while he or she is trying to come to
grips with a new point

ii. Post-systematic errors occur when one temporarily forgets a

iii. point that has been previously understood

Systematic errors are those which occur when the learner has formed inaccurate hypothesis
about the target language (i.e. the language that he is learning).

Even native speakers utterances are full of slips of the tongue and lapses. These are supposed to
increase under conditions of stress, indecision and fatigue. If this is the case with native speakers
second language learners are sure to encounter these problems perhaps to a greater degree. In
such cases the teacher may not always be able to distinguish such lapses from errors.

As Pit Corder points out, “Recognition of error is thus crucially dependent upon correct
interpretation of the learners’ intentions”. He talks about two types of utterances:

The two types of utterances mentioned by Pit Corder are as follows:

(1) Overtly erroneous -Superficially deviant

(2) Covertly erroneous - Superficially well formed but not meaning what the learner intended to
mean

To arrive at a knowledge of what the learner intended to say one can ask the learner to explain in
his mother tongue what he wanted to say. An interpretation based on this is called ‘authoritative
interpretation’. Then the utterances are reconstructed keeping in mind what the native speaker
would have said to convey that message in that context. This is called an ‘authoritative
reconstruction’.

In cases where one does not have access to the learner what is called a ‘plausible interpretation’
and a ‘plausible reconstruction’ could be made. This is done by studying the surface structure of
the text-sentence in conjunction with the information derived from its context. Then the utterances
are reconstructed to convey what the learner could possibly have intended to mean. To identify
errors the original utterances are compared with their plausible or authoritative reconstructions.
Once the recognition has taken place description could begin.

2. Description of Errors

In this step one tries to show the learners how they have failed to realize the intended message.
There are problems which prevent proper description as the researcher needs an extremely good
insight into the learner’s mind. Mc. Donough (1981) remarks that it should not be supposed that
all learners take the same route to the same error “Nor should it be assumed that one learner
may not at different times produce the same error for different reasons”.

But Pit Corder feels this is irrelevant for “ our object in error analysis is to explain errors
linguistically and psychologically in order to help the learner to learn”. He suggests that we should
look for errors that occur repeatedly so that we can observe the rule that the learner may be using
and try to describe it.

This way only systematic errors are taken into consideration. This is a difficult task because
individual learners may be highly inconsistent in their errors. Corder agrees that inconsistency is
more characteristic of errors than systematicity. Once the errors are described properly
explanation of errors can begin.
3. Explanation of Errors

Explanation is still largely speculative because of our limited knowledge of the psychological and
neurological process involved in language learning. The same error could be looked at from
various points of view. For example. a learner’s mother tongue has only one way of referring to
future time while the target language has three ways of referring to the same. Here the learner
has problems and commits errors. In this case it is difficult to decide whether the error was
caused by mother tongue interference or because of the confusion of the rules of the target
language.

According to David Lott (1983) mother tongue does not actually interfere though it does not give
any guide to the learner. Nickel(1971) takes a wider view and considers the above example as an
interference error. But he says in such cases we should distinguish between direct and indirect
interference. Dulay and Burt (1974) define interference as the automatic transfer of the structure
of the target language due to habit.

Pit Corder (1973) refers to three types of errors. These are : (1)transfer errors. (2) analogical
errors and (3) teaching-induced errors. Selinker (1974) suggests five processes which are more
or less similar to that suggested by Pit Corder but in a ddition includes strategies of second
language learning and strategies of second

language communication to explain the nature of errors. Once we have decided to give an
explanation from a particular point of view we can start classifying the errors. But there are a
number of problems in classification too.

2.1.3 Classification of Errors

The main problem one faces in the area of classification is that one error can be classified in a
number of ways. The following example dealt with by A.K.Sinha (1977) makes clear some of the
problems one has to face while analyzing syntactic errors. The example is as under:

(a) The plane reached Detroit. There it stopped for half an hour.

(b) The plane reached Detroit and stopped there for half an hour.

(c) The plane reached Detroit. There stopped for half an hour.

In (C) according to the structuralist the sentence is erroneous because the subject is missing. The
proper use of it is made in (a). According to a transformationalist a ‘conjoined coreference subject
deletion rule’ is used in the wrong place in (c). It has been rightly used in (b). Application of a
Hindi-knowing speaker of English would say it is the ‘the coreference subject deletion rule’ in
Hindi which permits intersentential deletion of a coreferential subject.

A number of examples of this type have been cited by many to make the point that differences of
opinion exist with regard to classification of errors. But once the choice is made as to which type
of classification one wants to employ one can deal with it efficiently. Whatever the approach may
be one thing stands out clear. Learners employ certain strategies to simplify their learning task.
This is true whether they are learning their mother tongue or a second language. This fact is
clearly seen when one studies their syntactic errors. Hence the study of learners’ errors could
help us in two ways. Firstly we can understand the processes of language acquisition and
secondly we can prepare materials which are suited to the needs of the learner.

So far the discussion has focused on how Error Analysis helps us gain a better understanding of
the processes of language learning. Looking at it from a different point of view it can be seen how
various studies which have been carried out with a view to finding out how language is acquired
by children have changed our attitude and approach towards errors.

Language learning and habit formation

In the fifties language learning was considered to be a matter of habit
formation. The structural linguists thought that language could not be compared as every
language has to be described in terms of its own structure. This coupled with the viewpoint of
habit formation theory gave rise to what is known as ‘Contrastive analysis’. According to this
when a child first acquires a language its peculiar patterns are stamped in the mind of the child.
Hence when he starts to learn a second language those items which are the same as that of his
first language causes him no difficulty. Those which are more or less similar also do not pose
much of a problem. But the items which are completely different from his mother tongue give him
a lot of trouble.

So if we compare the phonology, lexis, syntax and semantics of his first language with parallel
items in his second language we would be able to predict the difficulties he might face with. As far
back as1945 C. C. Fries remarked that effective materials could be produced if they are based on
a scientific description of both the mother tongue and the target language of the learner. This was
later elaborated by Lado in 1957. But no doubts have been raised about the use of contrastive
linguistics to language teaching.

According to Pit Corder (1978) it is paradoxical to say that language cannot be compared but
such a comparison is necessary to produce effective materials. He gives three valid reasons why
itis not as useful as it claims to be.

The following are the three reasons:

(1) Not all difficulties and errors can be traced back to the influence of the mother tongue. (This is
supported by Richards(1981), Dulay and Burt (1973), Duskova (1969)).

(2) What contrastive analysis predicted as a difficulty did not always in practice turn out to be so
(This is supported by Nickel).

(3) Adequate comparison of two languages can only have doubtfulvalidity because of theoretical
problems (Hamp (1969). VanBuren (1974), Kreszowski (1974)).

Wardhau (1970) makes a clear distinction betw een the strong and weak hypothesis of
contrastive linguistics.

(1) The strong hypothesis states that the difficulties of the learner can be predicted by a
systematic contrastive analysis and teaching material can then be devised to meet those
difficulties.

(2) The weak hypothesis claims no more than an explanatory role where when difficulties are
evident from the errors made by the learner comparison between the mother tongue and the
target language of the learner may help to explain them.

Since 1968 there has been a gradual change and research projects in the area of contrastive
analysis have broadened their scope in two directions. These two directions are as follows:

(1) Towards more theoretical objectives in language typology and the search for universals.
(2) Towards psycholinguistic orientation concerned with the explanation of second language
acquisition.

This new development has been called ‘Contact analysis’ Nemser and Slama-cazacu (1970-71)
suggest that the task of contact analysis is to “explain and predict language learner behaviours
with the concrete aim of developing a more scientific approach to the process of foreign language
teaching.” Here it merges significantly with error analysis which is based on the theory of
language learning as a process of cognitive development.

Language learning and cognitive

development

According to the cognitive development theory, the human brain is programmed to learn a
language. It is programmed in such a way that it can learn any language to which it is exposed.
From the amount of exposure received children collect some data process it and try to build up a
grammar for themselves. They do not possess a set of dispositions to respond mechanically to
external stimuli. Instead they try to internalize certain rules and try to respond to the external
stimuli to the best of their ability.

As cognitive development came to be associated with language learning it was thought learners
need not unlearn their first language to learn a second language. Instead they are said to use
certain strategies to acquire a set of cognitive structures from the data they receive. These
strategies could be similar to the ones used by them when they acquired their first language. As it
is normally observed that errors it is considered natural for children acquiring a first language
commit a lot of second language learners also to commit a number of errors.

The errors of th e first language learners reveal the strategies they are using to learn the
language. Similarly the errors of the second language learners also give an indication as to what
strategies they are using to learn the language. These speculations led to the study of errors as
the most significant data on which a reconstruction of the learners’ knowledge of the target
language could be made.

Pit Corder (1967) says that the processes of first and second language acquisition are
fundamentally the same. If the utterances of the first and second language learners differed it
could be accounted for by differences in (1) maturational development (2) motivation for learning
and (3) the circumstances of learning. In spite of these differences both first and second language
learners build up their own grammar and gradually proceed towards the grammar of the language
they are learning.

This system which the learners build up for themselves has been given various names but the
most widely used terminology is that suggested by Selinker (1974). He calls this Interlanguage to
emphasize the structurally intermediate status of the learner’s language system between his
mother tongue and his target language. A detailed study of this Interlanguage could help us to
understand the learners’ problems better and try to provide timely help to our learners so that
they achieve competence in the language they are trying to learn.

If you have any questions, comments or suggestions post them on my blog and I will respond to
you: What to Pursue Blog
 Communicate in English
To teach students to communicate in a foreign on second language
takes time and patience on the part of both teachers and students.

This site lists some resources for classroom activities and technology based tasks for
teaching communicative English.

Read the following sections for more details:

Tasks Based on Authentic Materials: If the students reading program covers reading
of very simple things like notices and bottle labels, it will be useful to them in their
daily life, easy for them to achieve success and easy for the teacher to start at a
very simple level.

One resource site from basic to higher level activities is:

http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/SampleLessons.aspx

Grammar Based Tasks: Instead of teaching grammar through rules and regulations,
if classroom activities are contextualized and mimic real life communications,
students can benefit, even if they are at very basic levels.

Multilingual Activities: If students' first language or familiar languages are

innovatively used, both the languages can be reinforced in a natural manner. If this
is not done in a proper manner can lead to interlanguage errors. The teacher has to
ensure that language is used meaningfully.

In cases where the teacher does not know the first language of the students,
activities can be arranged in such a way that the group takes responsibility to check
the communication and the teacher plays a secondary role when the first language is
used.

Teaching Through Skits: Repetition of a particular sentence pattern need not be done
mechanically and boringly. Teaching through skits can provide an opportunity for
students to repeat words, phrases and sentences in context, in an enjoyable manner.

Teaching Through Technology: Teaching through technology is also a way of

breaking the ice, relaxing the students and making them more participative. There
are a number of ways in which technology can be used to bring about variety in
classrooms, bring the whole world into the class and extend the walls of the
classroom to merge it with the real world.

ESL Games: For each grammar item a game can be played. There are games
starting from 'one word sentences' to narrating an event.

<< Previous 1 2 3 [4] Next >>

Advantages of Using Authentic Materials

There are several advantages of using authentic material especially in classrooms where English is used as
Second Language.

Authentic materials,

expose learners to a wide range of natural language.

brings reality into the classroom and makes the interaction meaningful.
connects the classroom to the outside world and brings the real world into the artificiality of the classroom.
makes the teaching and assessment focus on skills rather than facts of language.
makes the teaching and learning of language move away from delivering a set of facts to be memorized for
examination purposes.
helps teachers access readily available, attractively packaged, inexpensive resources and
add variety to classroom activities
helps students practise the skills learnt in the classroom in the outside world when they come across similar
materials in real life.

A number of research studies have proved that the use of authentic material results in an overall increase in
motivation to learn, a more positive attitude towards learning, as well as increased involvement and interest
in the subject matter. Authentic materials are perceived by the learners as useful, lifelike, and interesting.

To sum up authentic materials,

have a positive effect on learner motivation.

provide authentic cultural information.
provide exposure to real language.
relate more closely to learners' needs.
support a more creative approach to teaching.

Problems of Using Authentic Materials

Some of the authentic materials may contain difficult language, unusual vocabulary items not used in day-
to-day life or not immediately useful for the learner, complex language structures. Richards (2001, p. 253)
points out these difficulties which cause a burden for the teacher in lower level classes.

Martinez (2002) mentions that authentic materials may be too culturally biased and too many structures are
mixed, causing lower levels have a hard time decoding the texts.

To overcome these problems the context in which teachers are working should be the kept in mind as the
primary criteria for selection of materials.

Simple materials like notices, bottle labets and reservation forms can be used at the lower levels and more
complex materials can be used for advanced levels. There are a lot of materials which are universal and do
not show any cultural bias. Such materials may be easy to use with students who are not exposed to
outside culture. Once they learn the basic language through the use of such neutral materials they can be
exposed to other culture specific materials gradually.

Sample Tasks Based on Authentic Materials

A variety of tasks can be planned from basic levels to advanced levels using authentic materials. At the
simplest level students may be asked to read a bottle label or a recipe on the wrapper of instant food and
gather information according to specific questions. They can be asked to work in groups and pairs to
exchange information based on the products. At the advanced level they can be exposed to complex
 structures and interaction patterns which involve language used for a variety of functions like requesting,
suggesting, persuading, etc.

Check out this site for some sample tasks: http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/SampleLessons.aspx

Each lesson is in pdf format which can be downloaded and printed. The tasks are based on:

• Signs
• Magazine Pictures
• Postcards and Greeting Cards
• Product Labels
• Recipes
• Menus
• Brochures
• Maps
• Transportation Schedules
• Print Media
• Comics and Political Cartoons
• Songs
• Weather Reports

Computer Assissted Language Learning

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CALL
Computer Assisted Language Learning [CALL] refers to the use of computers specifically for the
purposes of language learning. Computers have been used in many fields and for a variety of
purposes. But even today many teachers and learners associate the word computer with
programming, learning computer languages like Basic and Mathematical calculations. In many
schools in India there is a special syllabus used for computer course. But they teach programmes
like logo in these courses. The understanding that computers can help in learning languages is
necessary for language teachers and learners as well as the computer teachers. This can be
useful for finding pleasure in using computers for a relevant classroom purpose and for helping
the computer personnels to break away from the limited view of using this technology.

The following sections discuss the conditions necessary for learning a language and the aids
which are used to teach language. This leads to an analysis of how computers can harmonize the
advantages of different aids on one platform and leave an unforgettable impression in the minds
of the learners. Finally some of the ways of using computers are outlined.

Language Learning and CALL

To learn a language we need to listen to the language in natural contexts and have opportunities
for interacting with somebody who has used that language. This interaction should be genuine,
that is, real. It has also been proved through research that a tension free environment is
necessary for learning and immediate feedback and opportunities self correction speeds up the
process. Further, to leave a lasting impression, the experience of learning a language should be
enjoyable, meaningful, challenging, personally satisfying and should be useful for a real purpose
in life.

Computers can be used to get exposure to natural language and genuine interaction can be
established by means of sending emails and chatting with somebody on the computer. There are
a number of computer based games, and activities which provide natural exposure and promote
genuine interaction. The activities could be so absorbing that learners may go on working on
them for hours together without getting tired. There are lots of exercises and programmes to
choose from which might suit learners of different styles and varying interests. The best
advantage of computers is its ability to repeat stored information ‘n’ number times in the same
manner so that the learners can choose the pace at which they want to work, decide how many
times they would like to work on a particular task and be comfortable working at their own pace.
The immediate feedback that computer can provide makes it an invaluable tool.

Language Teaching and CALL

Computers can bring the whole world into the classroom. The classroom no longer remains
limited within the four walls but extends its horizons to the nook and corner of the world and
makes the teaching-learning process more meaningful. Through computers teachers can provide
learners with different kinds of experiences and thereby make their teaching style suitable to
verbal, visual and kinaesthetic learners.

Many teachers find it difficult to repeat some of the basic information year after year in the same
manner, especially for slow learners who need more repetitions. Computers can do this job for
the teachers because they can store information and repeat it tirelessly, in the same manner as
many times as required by a particular learner.

Another problem of teachers, especially in India, where the classes are becoming larger and
larger, is to provide individual feedback to the learners as and when they need them. To begin
with they find it difficult to motivate them to begin learning and then they have to do a lot more to
sustain their motivation and offer them need based help. Computers can do wonders in all these
areas and can be used by the teacher as a competent assistant to do some of the unpleasant
chores as well as to add variety and novelty to work. The assistant teacher in the form of
computer can offer guidance to the learners as they type out their reports by correcting their
spelling and grammar errors. It can keep the learners hooked by making the learning programme
appeal to the senses and by engaging them emotionally and intellectually.
http://agoralang.com/rivers/10Principles_0.html
Saturday, January 13, 2001

PRINCIPLES OF
INTERACTIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
WILGA M. RIVERS
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
As fashions in language teaching come and go, the teacher in the classroom needs
reassurance that there is some bedrock beneath the shifting sands. Once solidly founded
on the bedrock, like the sea anemone the teacher can sway to the rhythms of any tides or
currents, without the trauma of being swept away purposelessly. It is fun to sway to new
rhythms, but as we ourselves choose, not under the pressure of outsiders who do not
understand the complexities of our situation. Teachers need the stimulation of new
thinking and new techniques to keep a fresh and lively approach to their teaching, but
without losing their grip on enduring truths of learning and teaching that have proved to
be basic to effective language experiences.

I have tried to distill this central core, as I see it, in the form of Ten Principles of
Interactive Language Learning and Teaching, which attempt to capture in simple
language what teachers in different approaches have found to be the essential facilitators
of learning. These basic principles provide teachers with a yardstick against which to
evaluate new proposals as they appear _ to help them delve beneath the surface features
of exciting new theories, techniques, and learning aids, to separate chaff, exciting as it
may be to play with, from the germinative grain, and to decide how much of their
established practice can be sacrificed to the new without loss of learning efficacy. With
this firm foundation, teachers are liberated from group pressures to yield unthinkingly to
whichever winds of change are sweeping through their professional field at a particular
time, and are empowered to develop and strengthen their own ways of proceeding in
relation to the needs and individual strengths of their students in a particular context.
They may find new trends fully consistent with their basic philosophy and
enthusiastically endorse them, or, not being fully convinced, they may prefer to pick and
choose from what is proposed, selecting what is compatible with their own approach and
rejecting what they do not see as conducive to effective language learning in their present
situation. In this way the teacher is in control, making his or her own decisions, which
will vary with changing circumstances, experimenting judiciously and observing in
practice what is effective and what is not for his or her own students.

An explication of the Ten Principles will help the teacher distinguish between what is
fundamental and what is expendable. These principles are elaborated as principles of
teaching and learning because the two activities are viewed as two aspects of one
reciprocal process: the teacher's work is to foster an environment in which effective
language learning may develop. In so doing the teacher experiences what Seneca
observed, namely, that "while we teach we learn." [1] The teacher is a learner and the
learner is a teacher. In the words of an old proverb the person "who is too old to learn is
too old to teach." This reciprocal relationship is vividly demonstrated by the use in a
number of languages of a single verb form to express the concepts of both teaching and
learning. In French, for instance, we can say: Elle apprend le poème; je lui apprends le
poème (She learns the poem; I teach her the poem), and the same usage is found in some
dialects of English. The relationship between teaching and learning is well represented by
De Saussure's metaphor of the piece of paper: if you cut into one side, you cut into the
other. It is this interactive approach to teaching and learning that is basic to the Ten
Principles.

For faster loading, this article has been divided into the following sections:

Principle 1: The student is the language learner

Principle 2: Language learning and teaching are shaped by student needs and
objectives in particular circumstances
Principle 3: Language learning and teaching are based on normal uses of
language, with communication of meanings (in oral or written form ) basic to
all strategies and techniques
Principle 4: Classroom relations reflect mutual liking and respect, allowing for
both teacher personality and student personality in a non-threatening
atmosphere of cooperative learning
Principle 5: Basic to use of language are language knowledge and language
control
Principle 6: Development of language control proceeds through creativity,
which is nurtured by interactive, participatory activities.
Principle 7: Every possible medium and modality is used to aid learning
Principle 8: Testing is an aid to learning
Principle 9: Language Learning is penetrating another culture; students learn
to operate harmoniously within it or in contact with it
Principle 10: The real world extends beyond the classroom walls; language
learning takes place in and out of the classroom
Notes: When you click a footnote number, a new window will open with that
footnote scrolled to the top of the page.
Summary of Principles in Language Teaching
Provided by Dr. Bill Flick, Director of ESL at Auburn
Grammar- Audio-Lingual
Direct Method Silent Way Suggestopedia
Translation Method
1. Goals Read literature Communication. Communication. Self- Everyday
in L2. Develop Think in L2. Automaticity by expression of Comm. Tap Ss
mind. Learn Direct Ss; mental powers
grammar, association in learning new independence by desuggesting
vocabulary, and L2 without habits. from T. barriers to
culture. translation. learning.
2. Role of the Traditional. T T-centered. T-centered. T T as S must trust and
teacher/studen is the authority. T directs. provides model facilitator, respect T as
t Ss learn from of L2 for resource, authority. Ss
the T. imitation. provides what adopt childlike
Ss need. roles once they
feel secure.
3. Teaching/ Translation. Associate L2 New grammar Ss guided to Relaxing
Learning Deductive and meaning and vocabulary discover the atmosphere,
Process? study of directly in real through structure of music, activate
grammar. context. dialogues. L2. Initial whole brain +
Memorize Use L2 only. Drills. focus on peripheral
vocabulary. Inductive Inductive accurate learning.
grammar. grammar. pronunciation Reception then
Syllabus based Learning is . activation phase.
on topics/ habit formation.
situations.
4. Nature of T to S. Both initiate T-directed. T active, but T/S and S/S
student/teache interaction. S/S in drills. mostly silent. interaction from
r interaction Some S/S S/S beginning.
interaction. interaction
encouraged.
5. How are N.A. N.A. N.A. Positive Focus on
students’ feelings confidence and
feelings encouraged, sense of security
dealt with? also S/S via suggestions.
cooperation.
6. View of Literary Spoken Language as Language Communication
language/ language over language over system of expresses the as a 2-phase
culture? spoken written. patterns/units. spirit of a process:
language. Simple to culture. language +
complex. extra- linguistic
factors.
7. What Vocabulary/ Vocabulary over Structure Pronunciation Vocabulary.
language grammar. grammar. important. & intonation. Explicit but
skills are Reading/writin Focus on Listen-speak- Structure. minimal
emphasized? g. communication. read- Oral before grammar.
write. written. Language use
over linguistic
form.
8. Role of the L1 in Not used. L1 habits Used to form L1 used in
native classroom. interfere sounds in L2 translation of
language? Two-way with L2. Avoid and for dialogues. As
translation. L1. feedback. course proceeds,
Otherwise not L1 reduced.
used.
9. How does Written Use of language Discrete point Continuous In-class
evaluation translations. (interview). testing for observation. performance.
occur? Apply grammar accuracy. Ss develop
rules. their own
criteria.
10. Treatment T supplies Self-correction. Avoid errors by Self- No overt
of errors? correct answer. overlearning. correction; correction
peer Modelled
correction. correctly.
11. Associated Moses Francois Gouin, Charles Fries Caleb Georgi Lozanov
with whom? Charles Berlitz Gattegno
Community Total Physical Communic
Natural Approach
Language Learning Response Language Te
1. Goals Communication. Communication. Communicative Communicatio
Promote Learning L1= competence. Facilitate social context.
nondefensive learning L2. acquisition by Appropriacy.
learning. providing Functional
comprehensible input competence.
(i+1).
2. Role of the Counselor/client. As Director. T provides T as facilitator. Primary Facilitator. Ma
teacher/student? S assumes more model of L2 for responsibility is with S. learning activi
responsibility, imitation. Later role Promotes
becomes independent reversal. communication
of T. Ss.
3. Teaching/ Security, aggression, Comprehension Comprehension before Ss learn to
Learning attention, reflection, before production. production. Developing communicate b
Process retention, Modelling by T model approximates L2 negotiating me
discrimination. Ss followed by (L1, . . . L2). Gradual real context.
initiate speech in L1, performance. emergence of speech. Activities inclu
T supplies L2. Task oriented. information ga
choice, feedba
4. Nature of Changes over time. T speaks, Ss S-centered. Both T arranges task
student/teacher Importance placed on respond initiate interaction. S/S communication
interaction? cooperative nonverbally. Later, interaction in pair and interaction.
relationship between Ss verbalize. small group activities.
T/S and S/S.
5. How are S viewed as whole Ss have fun in a Affective factors over Ss are motivate
students’ person, no separation nonstressful cognitive factors. learn thru usef
feelings dealt of intellect and situation. Optimal learner has low of language fu
with? feelings. T affective filter.
"understands” Ss.
6. View of Language for Spoken over Language as a tool for Language in so
language/ developing critical written. communication. context, for
culture? thinking. Culture Language function over communication
integrated with linguistic form.
language.
 7. What skills Ss determine syllabus Grammar and Vocabulary over Function over
are emphasized? by what they what to vocabulary (initially grammar. Function over Discourse and
say. via imperatives). form. Comprehension–e sociolinguistic
Comprehension earlyproduction–s competence +
precedes speech emergence. skills.
production.
8. Role of L1? Used in the Not used. L1 can be used in Generally not u
beginning, less in preproduction
later stages. (comprehension)
activities.
9. How does Integrative tests. By observation. Communicative Communicativ
evaluation Self-evaluation. effectiveness. Fluency Fluency and ac
occur? over accuracy. Task
oriented.
10. Treatment of Nonthreatening. Unobtrusive No error correction No error correc
errors? Correction by correction. unless errors interfere unless errors in
modelling. with communication. with communi
11. Associated Charles Curran James Asher Tracy Terrell, Stephen Various.
with whom? Krashen

Based on
Diane Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986),
Alice Omaggio Hadley, Teaching Language in Context (1993),
H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy
(1994).

Principles of Language Teaching and Learning

1. Consider the whole person: You should take into consideration who the student is.
Know different aspects of the individual.(Student’s psychology, social background, etc.)
Consult with the guiding and class teachers (Check with the other teachers his progress).
Don’t grade only by looking at his learning English.
2. Language learning is both forming habit and also utilizing the the student’s innate
capacity for language as a rule governed creative activity.(By Noam Chomsky) Cognitive
school of psychology: using the student’s innate capacity for the language. The student
uses his creative mental power.
3. Keep the students involved. Try to have a student centered class as far as possible.
Keep the appropriate ratio of teacher talk and student talk. The minimal requirement:
Teacher talking time 50%, student talking time 50%. (Traditional class is a teacher
centered class, modern class is a student centered class.)
4. Language learners learn to do by doing. Items of language should be practiced.
Practice is extremely important in foreign language learning. Practice, especially drilling,
helps with habit formation.
5. Teach all 4 language skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing. Listening and
reading are receptive, speaking and writing are productive skills. All four language skills
should go hand-in-hand. They should be integrated. All people understand far more than
they can produce. The child has the more following order in acquiring the four skills.
Listening-Speaking-Reading-Writing.
6. Grade the learning tasks. Items should be presented according to the order of ease. It
shouldn’t be too rigid grading. There should be Structural and Vocabulary grading
Functional-Notional Approach. (A matter of presenting syllabus. They introduce all of
them at the same time. Language material should be presented in the order of function
and notion.
Formal: Informal:
Open the door please. Can/could you open the door?
Will you open the door please? Would you mind opening the door please?
Would you oopen the door please? Would you be so kind enough to open the
door?
7. All learning should be functional and have meaning for the students in terms of their
needs and life values. Start with their experiences.
8. Go from the known to the unknown. Build on what the students know either in their
native language or in English. Compare and Contrast where possible.Similar points in L1
and L2 are easy to learn. As a principle, try to have as meaningul language material as
possible. Present Perfect is difficult to teach, because there is no equivalent, no counter
part in Turkish.
9. Go from the concrete to the more abstract.
10. Teach only one thing at a time. Don’t teach vocabulary and structure at the same
time. Teach a new grammatical pattern with the known vocabulary items. While teaching
new vocabulary items, use known grammatical patterns in your illustrated sentences.
11. It is easier to learn a thing correctly the first time than to have to relearn it. Here it is
important to emphasize that the teacher should have a good command of the language
material which he presents and practices in class. To have to relearn something that is
learned incorrectly before is much more difficult than to learn it correctly the first time.
Turkish should be used in rule explanation. Do not pour upon your student all your
Grammar knowledge. In Grammar teaching both Inductive-Rule Teaching and
Deductive-Rule Teaching approaches should be used students can also discover the rules
themselves.
12. Rules are essential in language learning. But knowing the rules just as an intellectual
activity is not enough. All the native speakers of a language know the language rules
subconsciously. What is needed is the use of language by the students for communicative
purpose both in spoken and written form of language. The degree of emphasis attached to
rules in language learning will be different depending on the age of the students. Adults
are more rule-oriented and they need to study them.
13. Teach first those language patterns which will be the most useful in manipulating
other language items.
14. Teach beginning (elementary) students only the forms most frequently used in normal
speech. Help them realize that there may be more than one way of expressing the same
ideas. But in the beginning, teach then only one form. e.g. The most commonly used
request pattern is: Please open the door, Open the door please.
15. Errors will naturally occur in language learning. It is not necessary to correct every
error. Be selective in error correction. Be gentle in error correction. Errors are a natural,
necessary, and inevitable part of learning. Never interrupt your student while he is talking
or reading for a correction. Wait until he finishes his part of talking or reading. Gentle
correction should be a principle. Correct only common mistakes. Mistake is the wrong
use of language, although you know the correct form. Error is a wrong use but the correct
form is not known. Be selective in error correction. Common errors ocur because of the
difference between L1 and L2. best way to correct the errors is to give a mini-
presentation. In communicative situations what they speak is important than how they
speak.
16. Provide Review since language learning is spiral. Do not teach ib isolated blocks. But
teach in spiral fashion. For example different functions of the present continuous form of
the verb should be taught at different levels by reviewing the known functions. Review
will make it possible to tight a new item to the thing already learned.
I am leaving İzmir now. (at the moment of speaking)
I am leaving İzmir tomorrow.(It is going to take place tomorrow)
(The same form but different meanings and functions).
17. Recognize individual differences. All students learn at differnt roles. In every class
there will naturally be slow, average, and bright students. Give opportunity to all the
students to participate in class activities. Do not let the bright students monopolize. You
can give bright students difficult tasks to keep their interest alive. To form mixed ability
groups we should do anything possible not to foster the feeling of impriority.
18. Items that are similar to language items in the student’s own language will be easy to
learn in the case of differences between the native language and the target language
learning will be more difficult. Consequently more time and practice will be needed.
There is a transfer theory (Audio Lingual Approach). Foreign students transfer. He uses
his L1 habits in learning and using L2. ıf two points are similar in L1 and L2 they are
easy to learn. If two points are different such things are difficult to learn. They constitute
problems. Two kinds of mother tongue interference:
• positive interference
• negative interference.
Before the teacher present the new item he will anticipate the problems by the
contrastive analysis. Audio-Linguistics beleive that great majority of problems occur
because of the differences between Turkish and English.
19. Keep the pace alive. Provide a variety of activities. Class activities should not go at a
monotonous rate. There will be boredom and little or no learning. The activities should
go dynamically not monotonously. If the students are not interested with the activity, stop
that activity. Any game which fixed into your present project can be used.
20. Teach with examples. Examples speak louder than language explanation. Examples
can help the students learn much better than complicated explanations.
21. Make legitimate use of mother tongue. Use it at the right time and in the right dose.
You must avoid overuse of mother tongue clarifying abstract vocabulary items. In
teaching grammatical items while giving the instructions if they are difficult we can use
Turkish.
22. Relate form to meaning and contextualize. All class activities should be meaningful.
Meaning should always be in the foreground. Whatever activity the students are involved
in, the students should be able to understand the meaning of what they hear, say, read, or
write. Teach new vocabulary items or a grammatical pattern or pronunciation in context.
In teaching vocabulary give the meaning and pronunciation. Smallest context is a
sentence meaning arises out of the situation. We can use dialogues, anectodes in the
spoken form as context.
23. Assign tasks in class. Involve the students as much as possible. A variety of tasks can
be assigned in class.
24. Give students a feeling of confidence and success and encourage them. Education
should be geared on success. When the grading time comes at the first cemester, if there
is a student on borderline, pass him.
25. Assign as homework what the students can do by themselves.
26. Use Audio-visual aid as much as possible.
27. Teach well before you test. Students often fail because of poor teaching, poor testing,
poor evaluationof the exams.

Communicative language teaching

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Main article: Methods of teaching foreign languages

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and

foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of
learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of
foreign languages” or simply the “communicative approach”.
CONTENTS

[hide]

• 1 Relationship with other methods and approaches

o 1.1 The audio-lingual method
o 1.2 The notional-functional syllabus
o 1.3 Learning by teaching (LdL)
• 2 Classroom activities used in CLT
• 3 Critiques of CLT
• 4 See also

• 5 References
[EDIT] RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER METHODS AND APPROACHES

Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as
an extension or development of the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language
learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.

[edit] The audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language
proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely
tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central
elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a
corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to
the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.

In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented
through short dialogues. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of
conversations (for example, in the language lab) and focused on accurately mimicking
the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.

Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did
not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam
Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour
characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in
accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to
present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus,
and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages.
However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text books and teaching
materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods point to their success in
improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most notably pronunciation.

[edit] The notional-functional syllabus

Main article: Notional-functional syllabus

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning

curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus,
instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with
the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a
particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose
for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping
requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a
product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions
like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the
notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the
ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of
real-life contexts.

[edit] Learning by teaching (LdL)

Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The
students take the teacher's role and teach their peers.

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching

method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined
as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is
David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:
 1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target
language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also
on the Learning Management process.
4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside
the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very
interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the
language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this
broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their
communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and
beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair
and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based
activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which
students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar
and pronunciation focused activities.

In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the
Dogme language teaching movement, who proposed that published materials can stifle
the communicative approach. As such the aim of the Dogme approach to language
teaching is to focus on real conversations about real subjects so that communication is the
engine of learning. This communication may lead to explanation, but that this in turn will
lead to further communication.[1]
[EDIT] CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES USED IN CLT

Example Activities

Role Play

Interviews

Information Gap

Games

Language Exchanges

Surveys

Pair Work

Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach will restrict
their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional
grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.
[EDIT] CRITIQUES OF CLT

One of the most famous attacks on communicative language teaching was offered by
Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal in 1985[2]. Henry Widdowson
responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158-161). More
recently other writers (e.g. Bax[3]) have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to
the context in which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been
defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[4]).

Often, the communicative approach is deemed a success if the teacher understands the
student. But, if the teacher is from the same region as the student, the teacher will
understand errors resulting from an influence from their first language. Native speakers
of the target language may still have difficulty understanding them. This observation may
call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted
communicative approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand
only what any regular speaker of the target language would and reacts accordingly
(Hattum 2006[5]).
[EDIT] SEE ALSO
 COMMON TEACHING METHODS
From "Getting the Most out of Your AIDS/HIV Trainings"
East Bay AIDS Education Training Center
Revised from 1989 addition by Pat McCarthy, RN, MSN, 1992
 Lecture

STRENGTHS:
- presents factual material in direct, logical manner
- contains experience which inspires
- stimulates thinking to open discussion
- useful for large groups
LIMITATIONS:
- experts are not always good teachers
- audience is passive
- learning is difficult to gauge
- communication in one way
PREPARATION:
- needs clear introduction and summary
- needs time and content limit to be effective
- should include examples, anecdotes
Lecture With Discussion

STRENGTHS:
- involves audience at least after the lecture
- audience can question, clarify & challenge
LIMITATIONS:
- time may limit discussion period
- quality is limited to quality of questions and discussion
PREPARATION:
- requires that questions be prepared prior to discussion
Panel of Experts

STRENGTHS:
- allows experts to present different opinions
- can provoke better discussion than a one person discussion
- frequent change of speaker keeps attention from lagging
LIMITATIONS:
- experts may not be good speakers
- personalities may overshadow content
- subject may not be in logical order
PREPARATION:
- facilitator coordinates focus of panel, introduces and summarizes
- briefs panel
Brainstorming

STRENGTHS:
- listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas
 - encourages full participation because all ideas equally recorded
- draws on group's knowledge and experience
- spirit of congeniality is created
- one idea can spark off other other ideas
LIMITATIONS:
- can be unfocused
- needs to be limited to 5 - 7 minutes
- people may have difficulty getting away from known reality
- if not facilitated well, criticism and evaluation may occur
PREPARATION:
- facilitator selects issue
- must have some ideas if group needs to be stimulated
Videotapes

STRENGTHS:
- entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues
- keep group's attention
- looks professional
- stimulates discussion
LIMITATIONS:
- can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion
- discussion may not have full participation
- only as effective as following discussion
PREPARATION:
- need to set up equipment
- effective only if facilitator prepares questions to discuss after the show
Class Discussion

STRENGTHS:
- pools ideas and experiences from group
- effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be analyzed
- allows everyone to participate in an active process
LIMITATIONS:
- not practical with more that 20 people
- few people can dominate
- others may not participate
- is time consuming
- can get off the track
PREPARATION:
- requires careful planning by facilitator to guide discussion
- requires question outline
Small Group Discussion
STRENGTHS:
- allows participation of everyone
- people often more comfortable in small groups
- can reach group consensus
LIMITATIONS:
- needs careful thought as to purpose of group
- groups may get side tracked
PREPARATION:
- needs to prepare specific tasks or questions for group to answer
Case Studies

STRENGTHS:
- develops analytic and problem solving skills
- allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues
- allows student to apply new knowledge and skills
LIMITATIONS:
- people may not see relevance to own situation
- insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results
PREPARATION:
- case must be clearly defined in some cases
- case study must be prepared
Role Playing

STRENGTHS:
- introduces problem situation dramatically
- provides opportunity for people to assume roles of others and thus
appreciate another point of view
- allows for exploration of solutions
- provides opportunity to practice skills
LIMITATIONS:
- people may be too self-conscious
- not appropriate for large groups
- people may feel threatened
PREPARATION:
- trainer has to define problem situation and roles clearly
- trainer must give very clear instructions
Report-Back Sessions

STRENGTHS:
- allows for large group discussion of role plays, case studies, and small group
exercise
- gives people a chance to reflect on experience
- each group takes responsibility for its operation
LIMITATIONS:
- can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing
PREPARATION:
- trainer has to prepare questions for groups to discuss
Worksheets/Surveys

STRENGTHS:
- allows people to thing for themselves without being influences by others
- individual thoughts can then be shared in large group
LIMITATIONS:
- can be used only for short period of time
PREPARATION:
- facilitator has to prepare handouts
Index Card Exercise

STRENGTHS:
- opportunity to explore difficult and complex issues
LIMITATIONS:
- people may not do exercise
PREPARATION:
- facilitator must prepare questions
Guest Speaker

STRENGTHS:
- personalizes topic
- breaks down audience's stereotypes
LIMITATIONS:
- may not be a good speaker
PREPARATION:
- contact speakers and coordinate
- introduce speaker appropriately
Values Clarification Exercise

STRENGTHS:
- opportunity to explore values and beliefs
- allows people to discuss values in a safe environment
- gives structure to discussion
LIMITATION:
- people may not be honest
- people may be too self-conscious
PREPARATION:
- facilitator must carefully prepare exercise
 - must give clear instructions
- facilitator must prepare discussion questions

Quick Guide to the Teaching Methodologies

used in EuTEACH

This part of the curriculum provides some basic instructions and recommendations in
teaching methodology. Users of the curriculum are strongly encouraged to go through
this section before using the modules. Those teachers who are not totally familiar with
adolescent medicine should also refer to the short description of the key concepts used
throughout this curriculum.

This present document should be considered as a series of quick ‘tips’ to help you
improve your teaching techniques. It is not designed as an exhaustive textbook as these
will be found under ‘further reading’ at the end.

The experience gained by the working group suggests that a few basic ingredients are the
key to the success of any EuTEACH course.

• 50% of interaction such as role play, video, interviews of young people, group
discussion
• a clear presentation of training objectives at the beginning of each session
• an evaluation of the course by the trainees
• a bottom up participative teaching style (using the participant's resources and
building on their experience)
• a ratio trainers/trainees of at least 1:10
• a minimum of three hours for each module

Background

• There is clear evidence from teaching practice that ‘knowledge’ alone, in those
being taught, is not enough to bring about the better delivery of adolescent health
care.

• Although ‘learners’ often like formal lectures, the unidirectional transfer of

knowledge using formal lectures is not, by itself, effective in increasing
competence in the delivery of adolescent health care by those doing the
‘learning’.

• The contemporary teaching methodologies which emphasize ‘interactivity’

(outlined below) have been shown to be a more effective basis for increasing
competence in those providing adolescent health care.
 • EuTEACH conceptualises teaching as providing the ‘learner’ with ‘knowledge’,
‘attitudes’ and ‘skills’ in order to practice medicine more competently. It is
considered important for teachers of adolescent medicine to emphasize the
acquisition of ‘skills and attitudes’ as an indispensable ‘add on’ to the basic
medical knowledge which the practitioner may/should already have.

• The teaching methodologies that a teacher finally chooses to use should be in

accordance with the teaching ‘objectives’ (see below).

Key concepts used in medical pedagogy

• Knowledge refers to the ‘cognitive domain’.

To know = pure theoretical knowledge.
Know how = the application of knowledge

• Attitudes refer to the affective domain that includes ‘learner’s’ values, beliefs,
biases, emotions, and role expectations that may influence the management of
patients.

• Skills are the actual abilities to put specific knowledge into practice (performance
or clinical competence).
Show how = demonstrate the ability to use specific knowledge or adopt specific
attitudes
Do = demonstrate in his/her everyday work that he/she has integrated the
objectives of the course.

Main steps in planning a course

Once you have decided in broad terms what you want to teach, to whom, and why you
want to teach it, you need to:

• Set your teaching objectives (Because these objectives are for the learners, it is
strongly recommended to discuss/develop these with the learners.)
• Choose your teaching methodologies for meeting your teaching objectives
• Decide how you will evaluate your teaching outcomes to see if you have met your
objectives.

1) Setting your teaching ‘objectives’

Your teaching ‘objectives’ should be based on three different sets of information:

 1. The general knowledge, attitude and skills needed in the specific field of
adolescent health and medicine that you have chosen from the EuTEACH
program outline. Each EuTEACH module sets out the desirable goals and
objectives for that module.
2. Your own knowledge of local population and geographical adolescent
health/medical problems/needs in the subject area you have selected for teaching
3. The needs of the specific group of the ‘learners’ that you are teaching, in terms of
their current knowledge, attitudes and skills. An initial 'needs assessment' can be
carried out by giving a questionnaire in advance of the teaching course and/or, at
the beginning of the session, by utilizing the relevant module’s Entry Scenario (a
composite scenario exemplifying the variety of problems in a given area) to
stimulate a discussion of what participants feel they need. Individual, as well as
group goals and objectives, should be encouraged. Information helpful to the
teacher to facilitate this process include a) learners’ desired topics b) the learner’s
previous training c) available resources.

Note:

• It is useful to note the training objectives in writing, and to check that each is
consistent with the larger goals of your course. Objectives should be clear and
measurable so as to permit a meaningful evaluation of the teaching/learners’
accomplishments. For example, "The learner, at the end of the course should be
able to assess all the ‘Tanner’ stages of puberty".

2) Using the curriculum, planning the course

The curriculum is arranged in modules which are organised in two parts: general
modules covering issues unique to adolescence, which are considered necessary in order
to build the basis for working with youth, and modules on specific themes. Each module
can be used on its own, however it is recommended that you cover at least a part of the
general modules before tackling specific modules. Modules are organised in the
following way :

• At the beginning of each module an entry scenario is provided. It can be used

throughout the session to illustrate specific issues and aspects of the theme.
• Reference modules are given for specific topics, in order to show where to refer to
for further details
• Each module is preceded by a statement of 2-3 major overall goals, which define
the desired outcome on completion of the module
• Learning objectives are always expressed from the point of view of the
learner and relate to the different dimensions of learning : cognitive (knowledge),
affective (attitudes) or of technical competence (skills)
• Modules are organised in a table with columns including:
o characterisation of the learning objective (Knowledge/Skill/Attitude),
 o training objectives
o suggested references and references modules, slides when available
o educational methodology
o activities, issues, questions
o suggested references

The modules have been designed to allow for flexible use. In principle, each module can
be covered in its shortest version in three to four hours (half a day). If one wants to cover
an area in half a day, you should select the objectives of the modules which fits both the
participant’s level of knowledge & skills as well as their reported needs. Most module
can be covered more extensively within a 2-3 days session. For instance, with an
audience of gynaecologists, it may be appropriate to spend half day sessions on some of
the general topics and spend three to four days on the issues specifically related to the
sexual & reproductive health.

When participants meet for the first time, it is strongly suggested that they should first
spend at least half a day and preferably one day - in covering the first module (A1) and
another basic module, before tackling more specific areas. This allow the participants to
get to know each other and to exchange common concepts, definition and approaches.
This is especially important for audience involving professionals from various
backgrounds and cultures.

3) Recruiting and preparing the teachers

Most of the time, especially if you want to keep the course interactive (i.e. in small group
sessions) EuTEACH sessions involve several teachers. All the potential teachers should
ideally be aware of the general philosophy of the curriculum and training methodologies
used in the EuTEACH program. They should in principle meet before the course is given
in order to discuss the organisation of the session and their own role.

4) Choosing your teaching methodologies for meeting your teaching objectives

The following are suitable for teaching ‘knowledge’:

1. Formal lecture (unidirectional monologue)

2. Mini lecture
3. Interactive lecture with student active breaks (bilateral exchange)
4. Reading
5. Audio visual materials (CD ROM, video tapes, etc)
6. Case studies
7. Individual research (internet, Cochrane review, local data sets, literature review,
etc)
8. Group discussion
9. Field work (observations, discussions with adolescents, etc)
The following are suitable for learning about ‘attitudes’:

1. Group discussion
2. Exploration of personal attitudes
3. Focus groups
4. Exposure to views and values using real or ‘simulated’ patients, novels,
biographies, videos, websites (DIPEx = date base of individual patients
experiences), role models in adolescent medicine.
5. Promotion of attitudes such as ‘openness’ and ‘introspection’
6. Field work (observations, discussions with adolescents, etc)

The following are suitable for teaching skills:

1. Simulations (artificial models, standardised patients, role plays)

2. Supervised clinical practice
3. Video taping clinical situations
4. Guidelines for good practice (including check lists and handouts)
5. Group discussion
6. Field work (observations, discussions with adolescents, etc)

A description of some of the suggested methodologies

• The formal lecture (unidirectional monologue) and mini-lecture: The

advantages of the formal lecture are they can be structured, use low technology,
and offer the ability to teach many learners in a short period of time. The principal
disadvantage is that the learners are the passive recipients of information. Formal
lectures are often considered to be optimal if speaking time is limited to 20-30
minutes followed by a ‘discussion period’ of a roughly equal length. A short form
of the formal lecture, the mini-lecture of 5 to 15 minutes may be used to introduce
a topic and structure; or animate a further activity which directly engages the
learners, such as a ‘group session’.

• The interactive lecture with active breaks involving the students: A formal
lecture may be notably enhanced by strategies which involve the learners. With a
little creativeness, a teacher may include several different methods such as
‘problem solving exercises’ and ‘case studies’ which deliberately engage the
learners in a more active process. You can also use ‘active breaks involving
students’ during which the learners discuss specific issues concerning the
presented topic with one another.

• Reading: The efficiency of the learners’ reading is greatly increased if they are
given a specific list of references to draw on, and a number of explicit questions
to answer from their reading. A review of the medical literature including journal
articles and textbooks is an efficient method for gathering available information.
Clinical practice guidelines can also be reviewed.
• Field work (observations, discussions with adolescents etc): Learners are
invited to go out into various settings such as schools, local shops, fast food
restaurants, and discos to observe adolescents’ behaviours and engage them in
relevant discussions. The field work can provide a unique opportunity for many
learners to gain first hand experience of the contemporary world of adolescents.

• Audio visual materials (CD-ROM, tapes etc): These methodologies tend to be

expensive because of the equipment needed. In the field of adolescent medicine,
audio visual materials are at the present time, not readily available in some
countries, nor in many languages, other than English. Some Internet sites can be
used as audio visual material (e.g. www.healthteenagefreak.org). A search of the
Internet around the subject of ‘teenage health’ can be useful to find this material

• Case studies: Case studies are ‘real life’ cases that can be used in class to
illustrate major problems and solutions encountered in clinical practice. Case
studies may be presented for general class discussion; for use in small work
groups; or as an impetus for role playing. They allow the learners to practice
applying recently acquired knowledge, and to obtain views from various other
disciplines . The ‘cases’ chosen for any particular topic should be complex
enough to ‘bring up’ the major points for discussion. Many short cases are
provided within each EuTEACH module so as to allow the teacher to add on
specific details. Such details can be elaborated in line with the needs of the class.
Another efficient and useful source of ‘case studies’ is the learners themselves,
who can present cases from their own clinical practice and experience. Case
studies can also be obtained from Internet websites such as www.dipex.org

• Individual research (the Internet, the Cochrane reviews, local data sets,
literature review etc): Like general reading assignments, individual research is
best guided by the teacher. It is the teacher’s role is to steer the learner to relevant
resources in such a way that they understand how, in the future, they can use these
resources by themselves. The advantages is that this approach promotes ‘self
directed’ learning. The disadvantages is that it is time consuming and depends on
the motivation of the learner.

• Group discussion: Discussion can be used in many different teaching situations

and helps to promote an understanding about the different views and opinions that
may arise from clinical situations. While the interaction it induces amongst peers
is valuable it needs, where possible, to be structured and directed by the teacher in
order to obtain maximum benefit. The teacher’s skills in questioning, keeping the
discussion focused, and summarizing is vitally important.

• Simulations (artificial models, standardised/simulated patients, role play): Of

these ‘role play’, whereby learners assume the roles of the different people
involved in a complex problematic situation and try, through spontaneous acting,
to find solutions, is the easiest to implement and does not normally need many
resources. It allows learners to try new techniques, experience different roles,
actively test their ideas and reactions, make mistakes and repeat their performance
 until a skill is achieved. The performances can be videotaped for feedback or used
as audio visual resources in other situations1.

• Supervised clinical practice: The classical approach to this is ‘see one; do one;
teach one’. A ‘learner’ watches a demonstration by an experienced clinician, then
practices the skills demonstrated under supervision with feedback on their
performance, and finally teaches a fellow ‘learner’ in order to consolidate and
condense the key elements of the experience. The development and use of
checklists can enhance this approach.

• Video taping clinical situations: Clinical situations can be videotaped for use as
a teaching tool, and is especially good for stimulating dialogue about good and
bad practices.

• Guidelines for good practice: Guidelines (often in terms of flow diagrams) are
available for the treatment and management of a number of health problems.
These are ideally linked with a review of the relevant medical literature, a can act
as a hallmark for practicing ‘evidence based medicine’.

• Exploration of Personal Attitudes: Methods to facilitate learner ‘attitude

openness’ and ‘introspection’ include individual exercises in self reflection, group
discussion, and focus groups. In order to elaborate a non-judgmental approach to
the practice of adolescent medicine, exercises are designed to expose the learners
to situations where they have to reflect on or confront their own beliefs, values
and attitudes which might influence the way in which they manage their
adolescent patients. For example, patients/videos/case histories of adolescents
heavily involved with drugs may be used to provoke group discussion wherein
individual learners are challenged to inspect their personal attitudes, and the roots
of their individual reactions to drug taking amongst young people. Because
discussions of personal attitude may be tinged with emotion, the teacher needs to
provide some structure and be alert to the possible need for guidance.

• Exposure to a variety of views and perspectives on adolescents and

adolescent behaviour: Trigger tools for this approach can include real or
‘simulated’ patients, novels, biographies, videos, websites (DIPEx = date base of
individual patients experiences), adolescent role models. These exercises allow
the learners to be exposed to a variety of different (and sometimes opposing)
views and values about adolescence and adolescents.

• Focus groups: Focus groups are made up of 8-12 learners and are normally set up
with the purpose an carrying out an ‘in depth’ exploration of a variety of views
around a particular topic/s. It represents a ‘brainstorming’ session in order to
obtain as wide a range of views as possible, rather than attempting to obtain a
consensus view. Focus groups may also include outside experts or other
representatives interested in the issues (see reference below).

If you need extra basic material to build your course we strongly recommend the use of
an educational site developed by Prof. Laurence Neinstein in Los Angeles
(www.usc.edu/adolhealth) . This site was developed for use by health care professionals
involved in either the teaching of adolescent health or clinical care of adolescents and
young adults. The material was developed to either stand alone or to be supplemental
material to the EuTEACH curriculum of adolescent health. It includes in each section text
background, cases, questions and answers, weblinks and a small reference section. The
reader can use the text alone, the cases alone or the questions and answers alone. This is
not meant to be an exhaustive curriculum in adolescent health but a supplement to other
teaching modalities
1
Role play can evoke strong emotions. Less experienced teachers may want to refer to
the guidelines available for running role play sessions (see ref 5 below).
Standardised/simulated patient is someone who has been trained to act the ‘part’ of a
patient

Further reading and other resources

1. Curriculum Development for Medical Education: a six-step approach. David Kern

et al. Publ by Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London. 1998.
2. Data Base of Individual Patient Experiences. www.dipex.org
3. Educational handbook for health professionals. Geneva. WHO 1987.WHO Offset
Publication. Vol 35.
4. Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses. Facilitators Guide to Modules.
WHO and UNICEF 1997. Section on ‘Guidelines for all modules’ I 1 to I 15.
(available on the WHO internet site).
5. Kim S, Stevens NG, Pinsky L. New ideas in medical education;
Casting anxiety in small group facilitation: faculty development via role play.
Medical Education 2003 37 : 489
6. Krueger R.A. Focus groups: a practical guide for applied research. 2nd Ed.
Thousand Oaks. Sage 1994.

Learner-Centered vs. Curriculum-Centered Teachers:

Which Type Are You?
Page 1 of 2

The difference between learner-centered and curriculum-centered classrooms is

philosophical. Philosophy drives behavior, so when it comes to your teaching style, it is
important to have a deep understanding of your own belief system. Your view of
learning, students' roles, and teachers' roles determine the method by which you teach.
Use this article to place yourself on the pedagogical continuum by considering:
 • The types of activities you create
• The layout of your classroom
• The way students learn with you
• How you prepare for class
• How to make the most of your style

Pedagogy

Teachers who adhere to learner-centered classrooms are influenced strongly by

constructivism. Constructivism holds that prior knowledge forms the foundation by
which new learning occurs (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). Because people and their
experiences are different, they arrive at school with varying levels of proficiency. A
student is challenged according to his or her individual zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky, 1986). The difference between a student's actual developmental level and his
or her potential is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Good instruction matches
each child's ZPD.

Teachers who adhere to curriculum-centered classrooms are influenced greatly by the

standards-based movement. All students are taught the same body of knowledge.
Regardless of variations in developmental levels, all children are exposed to the same
content in the same time period. The objective is to ensure that there will be no academic
gaps in what is taught.

Learner-centered classrooms

Learner-centered classrooms focus primarily on individual students' learning. The

teacher's role is to facilitate growth by utilizing the interests and unique needs of students
as a guide for meaningful instruction. Student-centered classrooms are by no means
characterized by a free-for-all.

These classrooms are goal-based. Students' learning is judged by whether they achieve
predetermined, developmentally-oriented objectives. In essence, everyone can earn an A
by mastering the material. Because people learn best when they hear, see, and manipulate
variables, the method by which learning occurs is oftentimes experiential.

Learn more about the structure of learner-centered classrooms.

Curriculum-centered classrooms

Curriculum-centered classrooms focus essentially on teaching the curriculum. The

teacher determines what ought to be taught, when, how, and in what time frame. The
curriculum that must be covered throughout the year takes precedence. These classes
often require strict discipline because children's interests are considered only after content
requirements are established.

In this framework students are compared with one another. Student success is judged in
comparison with how well others do. A fixed standard of achievement is not necessarily
in place. In these classrooms grades resemble the familiar bell curve.
Learn more about the structure of curriculum-centered classrooms.

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Learner-Centered vs. Curriculum-Centered Teachers:

Which Type Are You?
Page 2 of 2

Comparison of the two different classrooms

In order to visualize the two different types of classrooms, think about the structure of
each:

Learner-centered Curriculum-centered
Child-centered Teacher-centered
Constructivist-driven Standards-driven
Progressive Traditional
Information-age model Factory model
Criterion-based Norm (bell curve) based
Depth Breadth
Thematic integration Single subjects
Process- and product-oriented Product-oriented
Block scheduling Short time periods
Collaboration Isolated teaching and learning
Experiential knowledge Rote knowledge

Many teachers fall somewhere in the middle of this continuum. They are neither strictly
learner-centered nor only curriculum-centered. Teachers use what works for them based
on their fundamental belief structures.

How do you prepare?

The way in which teachers spend their time in and out of class can reveal much about
their teaching philosophies. A learner-centered teacher makes time to collaborate with
others and problem solve as challenges evolve. This teacher spends his or her day
researching new ideas and learning key concepts that students must acquire to gain
competence. Evaluation is ongoing and done mostly in the context of students' learning.
A curriculum-centered teacher works mostly by himself or herself when he or she is
teaching or developing lessons. When teachers do collaborate in team meetings, all
involved agree to teach the same lessons. These assignments usually result in a lot of
correcting at the end of the day.

How to work within the current system

If you are basically a curriculum-centered teacher, the system is already set up for you –
no worries! If you are essentially a learner-centered teacher, you need to enlist support
for your teaching style. Effective ways of gaining credibility include the following:

• Initiate collaboration with other educational professionals.

• Locate and share research that documents successful learner-centered classrooms
(see References below).
• Invite fellow teachers to attend conferences and workshops geared toward learner-
centered topics.
• Ask colleagues to discuss your philosophy of education (and theirs) so that you
both may gain a clearer understanding of your principles. At that point, it
becomes important to do what you say you do and make no excuses. Some people
talk about running a child-centered classroom but actually have not broken from
the model they were exposed to as students.
• Finally, it is imperative to gain the respect of your students' parents at Back-to-
School night, Open House, conferences, and through regular newsletters.

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esson Methodologies
Page 1 of 4

Jabberwocky

Methodology is the way(s) in which teachers share information with students. The
information itself is known as the content; how that content is shared in a classroom is
dependent on the teaching methods.

The following chart lists a wide variety of lesson methodologies appropriate for the
presentation of material, which I will discuss here. Notice how these teaching methods
move from Least Impact and Involvement (for students) to Greatest Impact and
Involvement.

As you look at the chart, you'll notice that lecture, for example, is a way of providing
students with basic knowledge. You'll also note that lecture has the least impact on
students as well as the lowest level of student involvement. As you move up the scale
(from left to right), you'll note how each successive method increases the level of impact
and involvement for students. At the top, reflective inquiry has the highest level of
student involvement. It also has the greatest impact of all the methods listed.

Jabberwocky

Knowledge is the basic information of a subject; the facts and data of a topic. Synthesis
is the combination of knowledge elements that form a new whole. Performance refers to
the ability to effectively use new information in a productive manner.

Across the bottom of the chart are three categories: knowledge, synthesis, and
performance. These refer to the impact of each method in terms of how well students will
utilize it. For example, lecture is simply designed to provide students with basic
knowledge about a topic. Reflective inquiry, on the other hand, offers opportunities for
students to use knowledge in a productive and meaningful way.

Now let's take a look at each of those three major categories and the methodologies that
are part of each one.
KNOWLEDGE

How do you present basic information to your students? It makes no difference whether
you're sharing consonant digraphs with your first-grade students or differential calculus
with your twelfth-grade students; you must teach them some basic information. You have
several options for sharing that information.

Lecture
Lecture is an arrangement in which teachers share information directly with students,
with roots going back to the ancient Greeks. Lecture is a familiar form of information-
sharing, but it is not without its drawbacks. It has been overused and abused, and it is
often the method used when teachers don't know or aren't familiar with other avenues of
presentation. Also, many lecturers might not have been the best teacher role models in
school.

Fire Alarm

Often, teachers assume that lecturing is nothing more than speaking to a group of
students. Wrong! Good lecturing also demonstrates a respect for the learner, a knowledge
of the content, and an awareness of the context in which the material is presented.

Good lectures must be built on three basic principles:

• Knowing and responding to the background knowledge of the learner is necessary

for an effective lecture.
• Having a clear understanding of the material is valuable in being able to explain it
to others.
 • The physical design of the room and the placement of students impact the
effectiveness of a lecture.

Lecture is often the method of choice when introducing and explaining new concepts. It
can also be used to add insight and expand on previously presented material. Teachers
recommend that the number of concepts (within a single lesson) be limited to one or two
at the elementary level and three to five at the secondary level.

It's important to keep in mind that lecture need not be a long and drawn-out affair. For
example, the 10-2 strategy is an easily used, amazingly effective tool for all grade levels.
In this strategy, no more than 10 minutes of lecture should occur before students are
allowed 2 minutes for processing. This is also supportive of how the brain learns (see
Effective Learning and How Students Learn). When 10-2 is used in both elementary and
secondary classrooms, the rate of both comprehension and retention of information
increases dramatically.

During the 2-minute break, you can ask students several open-ended questions, such as
the following:

• “What have you learned so far in this lesson?”

• “Why is this information important?”
• “How does this information relate to any information we have learned
previously?”
• “How do you feel about your progress so far?”
• “How does this data apply to other situations?”

These questions can be answered individually, in small group discussions, or as part of

whole class interactions.

The value of the 10-2 strategy is that it can be used with all types of content. Equally
important, it has a positive effect on brain growth.

Lectures are information-sharing tools for any classroom teacher. However, it's critically
important that you not use lecture as your one and only tool. You must supplement it with
other instructional methods to achieve the highest levels of comprehension and utility for
your students.

Reading Information
With this method, you assign material from the textbook for students to read
independently. You may also choose to have your students read other supplemental
materials in addition to the textbook. These may include, but are not limited to children's
or adolescent literature, brochures, flyers, pamphlets, and information read directly from
a selected website.
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Lesson Methodologies
Page 2 of 4

Audio-Visual Presentation
In this format, you rely exclusively on the use of slides, movies, filmstrips, PowerPoint
slides, photographs, illustrations, videos, or overhead transparencies. In contrast to a
lecture, most of the information is presented visually, rather than orally.

Demonstration
In this format, students witness a real or simulated activity in which you use materials
from the real world. These materials may include artifacts and objects used by individuals
in a specific line of work; for example, microscopes (biologists), barometer
(meteorologists), transit (surveyors), or word processing program (writers).

Observation
This format allows students to watch an event or occurrence take place firsthand. The
only drawback is that sometimes unexpected and unplanned events happen over which
you may have little control.

Field Trips
With field trips, you are able to take your students out of the classroom and into a new
learning environment. (See Special Projects, Special Events). This learning environment
usually lasts for several hours or an entire school day.

Round Robin
In this setting, each student has an opportunity to share some information or ideas in a
small group format. Everyone participates equally and taps into the collective wisdom of
the group.

Interviewing
This format may include the personal interview, in which one person talks with another
person. It may also involve the group interview, in which several people talk with a
single individual.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming can be a valuable instructional tool which you can incorporate into almost
any lesson. Simply defined, it is the generation of lots of ideas (without regard for
quality) about a single topic. This method is particularly appropriate at the start of a
lesson to tap into the background knowledge students may or may not have about a topic.

Effective brainstorming is governed by four basic rules:

• Generate as many ideas as possible—the more the better.

• There is no evaluation of any single idea or group of ideas. There is no criticism
about whether an idea is good or bad.
• Zany, wild, and crazy ideas are encouraged and solicited.
• Individuals are free to build upon the ideas of others.

Mental Imagery
Expert Opinion

Mental imagery is receiving considerable attention by classroom teachers at all levels and
in all subjects because of its proven ability to promote positive learning experiences.

Mental imagery is the creation of pictures in one's mind prior to reading printed material.
Mental imagery helps students construct “mind pictures” that aid in comprehension and
tie together their background knowledge and textual knowledge. After images are created
(and colored by a reader's experiences), they become a permanent part of long-term
memory.

Mental imagery works particularly well when the following guidelines are made part of
the entire process:

• Students need to understand that their images are personal and are affected by
their own backgrounds and experiences.
• There is no right or wrong image for any single student.
• Provide students with sufficient opportunity to create their images prior to any
discussion.
• Provide adequate time for students to discuss the images they develop.
• Assist students in image development through a series of open-ended questions
(“Tell us more about your image.” “Can you add some additional details?”).

SYNTHESIS

One of the objectives of any lesson is to provide opportunities for students to pull
together various bits of information to form a new whole or basic understanding of a
topic. This process underscores the need for students to actually do something with the
information they receive.
Small Group Discussions
Expert Opinion

Some teachers think small group discussions are nonproductive because no actual
teaching takes place. In actuality, though, small groups are highly productive. They allow
for the absorbsion of valuable material, a reflection on different points of view, and an
informal means of assessing students' comprehension of material.

Here, the class is divided into small groups of two to four students. Each group is
assigned a specific task to accomplish. The group works together, and members are
responsible for each other. (See What Is Cooperative Learning, and What Does It Do? for
additional information.)

Discussions are a useful strategy for stimulating thought as well as providing students
with opportunities to defend their position(s). Your role in these discussions is that of a
moderator. You can pose an initial question, supplemental questions when the discussion
falters, or review questions for a group to consider at the end of a discussion. It's
important that you not take an active role in the discussions, but rather serve as a
facilitator.

Experimenting
Through experimenting, ideas are proved or disproved, and predictions confirmed or
denied. Experimentation involves manipulating data and assessing the results to discover
some scientific principle or truth. Students need to understand that they conduct
experiments every day, from watching ice cream melt to deciding on what clothes to
wear outside based on the temperature. In the classroom, they need additional
opportunities to try out their newly learned knowledge in a wide variety of learning tasks.

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Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a pictorial representation of the relationships that exist between
ideas. It shows how ideas are connected and how ideas are related to each other. It is the
basis for all forms of comprehension. By definition, comprehension is an understanding
of how ideas or concepts are assembled into groups.

For example, if I asked you to assemble a list of vegetables (vegetables is the group) you
might list some of the following: broccoli, squash, beans, peas, corn, pumpkins, etc. Each
of these items is a member of the vegetable group. Thus, you comprehend vegetables
because you understand how all those individual vegetables are related to each other.
Graphic organizers assist students in categorizing information. Most important, they help
students understand the connections between their background knowledge and the
knowledge they're learning in class.

One widely used graphic organizer is semantic webbing. Semantic webbing is a visual
display of students' words, ideas, and images in concert with textual words, ideas, and
images. A semantic web helps students comprehend text by activating their background
knowledge, organizing new concepts, and discovering the relationships between the two.
A semantic web includes the following steps:

1. A word or phrase central to some material to be read is selected and written on the
chalkboard.
2. Students are encouraged to think of as many words as they can that relate to the
central word. These can be recorded on separate sheets of paper or on the
chalkboard.
3. Students are asked to identify categories that encompass one or more of the
recorded words.
4. Category titles are written on the board. Students then share words from their
individual lists or the master list appropriate for each category. Words are written
under each category title.
5. Students should be encouraged to discuss and defend their word placements.
Predictions about story content can also be made.
6. After the material has been read, new words or categories can be added to the
web. Other words or categories can be modified or changed, depending on the
information gleaned from the story.

Problem-Solving Activities
In this situation, the class, small groups, or individuals are given a problem or series of
problems and are directed to find an appropriate solution. It is important to include
problems for which the teacher does not have a preordained answer. (See Problem-
Solving for additional ideas.)

Buzz Sessions
In this instance, temporary groups are formed for the purpose of discussing a specific
topic. The emphasis is on either the background knowledge students bring to a learning
task or a summary discussion of important points in a lesson.

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PERFORMANCE
Having a lot of knowledge is one thing. Being able to pull together bits and pieces of
knowledge is another thing. But the crux of a good lesson is the opportunities for students
to use their knowledge in productive, hands-on learning tasks.

Independent Practice
This method is one in which each student has an opportunity to use previously learned
material on a specific academic task. For example, after learning about the short a sound,
first-grade students might each locate short a words in a book they can read on their own.
Or after learning about how to determine the square root of a number, students might
figure out the square roots of a column of numbers from their math textbook.

Debriefing
Usually conducted at the conclusion of a lesson, debriefing allows students to condense
and coalesce their knowledge and information as a group or whole class. It is an active
thinking process.

It's Elementary

Role-plays are typically short, lasting for a maximum of 15 minutes. The best ones are
those in which two or more students engage in a dialogue about a specific event or
circumstance. Keep the directions you provide to a minimum; this is a wonderful
opportunity for students to capitalize on their creativity.

Role-Playing
In this event, a student (or students) takes on the role of a specific individual (a historical
person, for example) and acts out the actions of that person as though he were actually
that person. The intent is to develop a feeling for and an appreciation of the thoughts and
actions of an individual.

Modeling
In this method, you model the behavior students are to duplicate within an activity and
encourage students to parallel your behavior in their own activity. Students may model
appropriate behavior for each other, too.

Simulations
Simulations are activities in which students are given real-life problem situations and
asked to work through those situations as though they were actually a part of them.

Every simulation has five basic characteristics:

• They are abstractions of real-life situations. They provide opportunities for you to
bring the outside world into the classroom.
 • The emphasis is on decision-making. Students have opportunities to make
decisions and follow through on those decisions.
• Students have roles that parallel those in real life (mother, father, child).
• The rules are simple, uncomplicated, and few in number.
• A simulation has two or more rounds—opportunities to make decisions more than
once.

If you've ever played the games Monopoly, Clue, or Life, you have been part of a
simulation. Potential classroom simulations may include some of the following:

• A sixth-grade “family” is sitting around a table deciding how they'll spend their
monthly income. How much will be spent on food, the mortgage, medical bills,
transportation, etc.? Unexpectedly, the car needs a new transmission. Will the
family be able to go to a movie this weekend?
• A third-grade class has been divided into various “neighborhoods.” What factors
will ensure that everyone's needs are satisfied? What kinds of stores or markets do
they need? Where will the schools be located? What are some of the essential
services? What are some of the critical transportation issues?

Projects
Students are allowed to create their own original designs, models, or structures to
illustrate an important point or content fact. These can take many forms and formats:

• mobiles
• dioramas
• shadow boxes
• posters
• newspapers
• brochures
• flyers
• letters to the editor
• collages
• three-dimensional models

Skill Practice
Here, you provide students with an opportunity to apply their newly learned skills in a
true-to-life experience. The emphasis is on the use of those skills.

Guided Practice
In this event, students are allowed to experience all the events of a learning situation.
Usually the work is done individually, although it can be done collectively, too. The
teacher is a facilitator and a cheerleader.
Reflective Inquiry
This method is student-initiated and student-controlled. Individual students are
encouraged to select a topic they want to investigate further. In so doing, they pose a
series of questions that they want to answer on their own. The questions are typically
higher-order questions (see Levels of Questions)and emphasize a variety of divergent
thinking skills.
VARY YOUR LESSONS

If you'd like to make every lesson successful, you must do one thing: include a variety of
teaching and learning methodologies in every lesson. If variety is the spice of life, then
fill your lessons with lots of spice as you incorporate multiple teaching strategies.

Here's a good rule of thumb: For every lesson, try to include at least one knowledge
method, one synthesis method, and one performance method. That way, your students are
getting the necessary information; they're pulling together that information into a
comprehensible whole; and they're afforded opportunities to use that information in a
creative and engaging way.

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Standards for Good Teaching

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You and I and a couple million other people have all been in schools for a number of
years, and we all have some pretty good ideas about the qualities we feel are important
for good teaching. Not surprising, several agencies and organizations have looked into
the characteristics of good teachers. One of those is the Interstate New Teacher
Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC).

The INTASC establishes guidelines for preparing, licensing, and certifying educators.
Among other things, they promote 10 standards that should be part of every teacher's
classroom practice or personality (after some principles I have listed articles that address
the specific topics):

• Principle 1. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning
experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.
• Principle 2. The teacher understands how children learn and develop and can
provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal
development (Effective Learning and How Students Learn).
 • Principle 3. The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to
learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners
(How Students Learn and Teaching Special Needs Students).
• Principle 4. The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies
to encourage students' development of critical thinking, problem-solving, and
performance skills (Lesson Methodologies and Problem Solving).
• Principle 5. The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group
motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive
social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation (What Is
Cooperative Learning, and What Does It Do? and Motivating Your Students).
• Principle 6. The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and
media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and
supportive interaction in the classroom (Lesson Methodologies and Levels of
Questions).
• Principal 7. The teacher plans instruction based on knowledge of subject matter,
students, the community, and curriculum goals (Lesson Plans: Using Objectives
and The Question of Homework).
• Principle 8. The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment
strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical
development of the learner (Categories of Evaluation).
• Principle 9. The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the
effects of his or her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other
professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities
to grow professionally.
• Principle 10. The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents,
and agencies in the larger community to support students' learning and well-being
(Special Projects, Special Events).

It's important to point out that your effectiveness as a teacher depends on much more than
your knowledge of one or more subjects. In fact, your success will be driven by
characteristics and dynamics that are as much a part of who you are as they are of your
classroom behavior.

Conversations with hundreds of teachers around the country indicate that good teachers
are effective because they assume five interrelated roles:

• You as a person
• Student orientation
• Task orientation
• Classroom management
• Lifelong learning

I invite you to consider these roles in terms of your own personality dynamics as well as
in terms of your reasons for becoming a teacher.
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YOU AS A PERSON

The reasons you are a teacher are undoubtedly many. Who you are as a person and how
you would like to share your personality with students are significant factors in why you
choose to be a teacher. So, too, will they be significant in terms of your success in the
classroom. My own experience with hundreds of teachers has taught me that the
personality of a teacher is a major and predominant factor in the success of students
within that teacher's influence.

Joy to the World

Good classroom teachers are joyful. They relish in the thrill of discovery and the natural
curiosity of students. They are excited about learning and often transmit that excitement
to their students. They are stimulated by the unknown and are amazed at what can be
learned, not just at what is learned.

Students consistently rate teachers high when humor is part of the classroom
environment. This humor does not come from telling lots of jokes, but rather from the
good-natured conversations and discussions carried on with students. Humor helps break
down conversational barriers, establishes good rapport, and builds strong classroom
communities.

Secondary Thoughts

Observations of successful secondary classrooms reveal that the teacher's knowledge of

the subject is of considerably less importance (to students' learning) than her or his
energy for teaching the subject.

You should be passionate. Good teachers are good because they not only have a love for
children, but they also have a passion for the subjects they teach. If you're passionate
about teaching, your students will know immediately. If you're less than excited about
what you're doing, students will be able to determine that very rapidly, too. Your passion
for teaching must be evident in everything you do.

I Wonder Why …
Effective teachers are inquisitive. They continuously ask questions, looking for new
explanations and myriad new answers. They serve as positive role models for students,
helping them ask their own questions for exploration. They are content with not finding
all the answers but rather with developing a classroom environment in which self-
initiated questioning (by both teacher and students) predominates.

Good teachers are also creative. They're willing to explore new dimensions and seek new
possibilities — never sure of what lies around the corner or down the next path. They're
willing to experiment and try new approaches to learning — not because they've been
done before but simply because they've never been tried at all.

Outstanding teachers seek help from others. They talk about new strategies with
colleagues, seek input from administrators and education experts, read lots of educational
magazines and periodicals, and access websites frequently. They don't try to go it alone.

Effective teachers are change-makers. They're not afraid of change and realize that
change can be a positive element in every classroom. If something isn't working, these
teachers are eager to strike out into new territories for exploration. They're never content
with status quo; their classrooms are always evolving, always in a state of transition.

Flexibility
I have interviewed scores of teachers all over the United States, from Maine to California
and from Oregon to Florida — and a lot of places in between. I wanted to get their
thoughts and impressions of good teaching and the characteristics they felt are essential
in a quality-based classroom program.

To a person, they all told me the same thing: the number-one characteristic of a good
teacher is flexibility or the ability to roll with the punches and not let the little things get
you down.

It might come as no surprise to you, but there's no such thing as an average or typical day
in teaching. Students come and go, clocks and other machines break, parents drop in
unexpectedly, administrators have reports to file, meetings are scheduled at the last
minute, you forget your lunch or your car gets a flat tire, the film you ordered didn't
arrive, and a hundred other things can — and often do — go wrong.

However, it's the flexible teacher — the one who doesn't let these inevitable “roadblocks”
get in her or his way — who survives and teaches best in the classroom. Yes, there will
be “surprises,” unanticipated and unplanned events, and glitches along the way. But if
you are willing to compromise, bend, and adjust, you will give yourself an incredible
opportunity to succeed.

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Authentic Assessment

In 1935, the distinguished educator Ralph Tyler proposed an "enlarged concept of student
evaluation," encompassing other approaches besides tests and quizzes. He urged teachers
to sample learning by collecting products of their efforts throughout the year. That
practice has evolved into what is today termed "authentic assessment," which
encompasses a range of approaches including portfolio assessment, journals and logs,
products, videotapes of performances, and projects.
Authentic assessments have many potential benefits. Diane Hart, in her excellent
introduction to Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators, suggested the
following benefits:

1. Students assume an active role in the assessment process. This shift in emphasis
may result in reduced test anxiety and enhanced self-esteem.
2. Authentic assessment can be successfully used with students of varying cultural
backgrounds, learning styles, and academic ability.
3. Tasks used in authentic assessment are more interesting and reflective of students'
daily lives.
4. Ultimately, a more positive attitude toward school and learning may evolve.
5. Authentic assessment promotes a more student-centered approach to teaching.
6. Teachers assume a larger role in the assessment process than through traditional
testing programs. This involvement is more likely to assure the evaluation process
reflects course goals and objectives.
7. Authentic assessment provides valuable information to the teacher on student
progress as well as the success of instruction.
8. Parents will more readily understand authentic assessments than the abstract
percentiles, grade equivalents, and other measures of standardized tests.

Authentic assessments are new to most students. They may be suspicious at first; years of
conditioning with paper-pencil tests, searching for the single right answer, are not easily
undone. Authentic assessments require a new way of perceiving learning and evaluation.
The role of the teacher also changes. Specific assignments or tasks to be evaluated and
the assessment criteria need to be clearly identified at the start. It may be best to begin on
a small scale. Introduce authentic assessments in one area (for example, on homework
assignments) and progress in small steps as students adapt.

Develop a record-keeping system that works for you. Try to keep it simple, allowing
students to do as much of the work as feasible.

Types of Authentic Assessment

Performance Assessment
Portfolio Assessment
Self-Assessment

Excerpted from Classroom Teacher's Survival Guide.

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Textbooks: Advantages and Disadvantages

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As you visit classrooms, you probably notice that most, if not all, of those classrooms use
a standard textbook series. The reasons for this are many, depending on the design and
focus of the curriculum, the mandates of the administration, and/or the level of expertise
on the part of classroom teachers.

Jabberwocky

A textbook is a collection of the knowledge, concepts, and principles of a selected topic

or course. It's usually written by one or more teachers, college professors, or education
experts who are authorities in a specific field. Most textbooks are accompanied by
teacher guides, which provide you with supplemental teaching materials, ideas, and
activities to use throughout the academic year.

Textbooks provide you with several advantages in the classroom:

• Textbooks are especially helpful for beginning teachers. The material to be

covered and the design of each lesson are carefully spelled out in detail.
• Textbooks provide organized units of work. A textbook gives you all the plans
and lessons you need to cover a topic in some detail.
• A textbook series provides you with a balanced, chronological presentation of
information.
• Textbooks are a detailed sequence of teaching procedures that tell you what to do
and when to do it. There are no surprises—everything is carefully spelled out.
• Textbooks provide administrators and teachers with a complete program. The
series is typically based on the latest research and teaching strategies.
• Good textbooks are excellent teaching aids. They're a resource for both teachers
and students.

Fire Alarm

Some textbooks may fail to arouse student interest. It is not unusual for students to reject
textbooks simply because of what they are—compendiums of large masses of data for
large masses of students. Students may find it difficult to understand the relevance of so
much data to their personal lives.

Use Textbooks Wisely

A textbook is only as good as the teacher who uses it. And it's important to remember
that a textbook is just one tool, perhaps a very important tool, in your teaching arsenal.
Sometimes, teachers over-rely on textbooks and don't consider other aids or other
materials for the classroom. Some teachers reject a textbook approach to learning because
the textbook is outdated or insufficiently covers a topic or subject area.

As a teacher, you'll need to make many decisions, and one of those is how you want to
use the textbook. As good as they may appear on the surface, textbooks do have some
limitations. The following table lists some of the most common weaknesses of textbooks,
along with ways of overcoming those difficulties.
Weakness Student Difficulty Ways of Overcoming Problem
Provide students with lots of
The textbook is designed Students only see one
information sources such as trade
as a the sole source of perspective on a concept or
books, CD-ROMS, websites,
information. issue.
encyclopedias, etc.
Information shared with
Textbook is old or Use textbook sparingly or
students is not current or
outdated. supplement with other materials.
relevant.
Students assume that
Textbook questions tend Ask higher-level questions and
learning is simply a
to be low level or fact- provide creative thinking and
collection of facts and
based. problem-solving activities.
figures.
Teacher does not tailor
Textbook doesn't take Discover what students know about
lessons to the specific
students' background a topic prior to teaching. Design the
attributes and interests of
knowledge into account. lesson based on that knowledge.
students.
Students cannot read or Use lots of supplemental materials
Reading level of the
understand important such as library books, Internet, CD-
textbook is too difficult.
concepts. ROMs, etc.
The textbook has all the Students tend to see Involve students in problem-solving
answer to all the learning as an accumulation activities, higher-level thinking
questions. of correct answers. questions, and extending activities.
Think of a Textbook as a Tool
I like to think of textbooks as tools—they are only as good as the person using them. A
hammer in the hands of a competent carpenter can be used to create a great cathedral or
an exquisite piece of furniture. In the hands of someone else, the result may be a rundown
shack or a rickety bench. How you decide to use textbooks will depend on many factors.

Expert Opinion

Remember, no textbook is perfect, and no textbook is complete. It is but one resource at

your disposal. Use it as a blueprint, a guidebook, or an outline.

I would like to add a personal note of caution here: do not make the mistake of basing
your entire classroom curriculum on a single textbook. The textbook needs to be used
judiciously. A carpenter, for example, doesn't use only a hammer to build a magnificent
oak chest. She may use a plane, chisel, saw, sander, or any number of tools to create the
masterpiece she wishes to build. A great classroom program, just like a great piece of
furniture, needs many tools in its construction.

When thinking about how you want to use textbooks, consider the following:

• Use the textbook as a resource for students, but not the only resource.
 • Use a textbook as a guide, not a mandate, for instruction.
• Be free to modify, change, eliminate, or add to the material in the textbook.
• Supplement the textbook with lots of outside readings.
• Supplement teacher information in the textbook with teacher resource books;
attendance at local, regional, or national conferences; articles in professional
periodicals; and conversations with experienced teachers.

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STANDARDS, SCHMANDARDS

One of the major movements in schools everywhere is standards-based education.

Generally speaking, a standard is a description of what students should know and be able
to do.

Expert Opinion

A mathematics standard for students in grades 6 though 8 is to “compare and order

fractions, decimals, and percents efficiently and find their approximate locations on a
number line.” An example of a writing standard for students in grade 11 is to “write a
persuasive piece that includes a clearly stated position or opinion along with convincing,
elaborated and properly cited evidence.”

By definition, educational standards let everyone—students, teachers, parents,

administrators—know what students are expected to learn.

Educational standards have been developed by a number of professional organizations in

addition to those created by state departments of education and local school districts.
Standards are designed to answer four questions:

• What do we want students to know and be able to do?

• How well do we want them to know/do those things?
• How will we know if students know and can do those things?
• How can we redesign schooling to ensure that we get the results we want?

Let's take a look at each of these questions in a little more detail.

Learn to Earn
Standards make clear to everyone, including students, the expectations for learning. They
are designed to help students be responsible for their own learning, become a good
thinker and problem-solver, and know what quality work looks like. They are based on
three primary concepts:
 • Content standards. These describe what students should know or be able to do in
10 content areas: language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, fine arts,
health, physical education, world languages, career and life skills, and educational
technology.
• Benchmarks. These make clear what students should know and be able to do at
grade levels K to 3, 4 to 5, 6 to 8, and 9 to 12.
• Performance standards. These answer the questions, “What does good
performance look like?” and “How good is good enough?”

Higher and Higher

Standards-based education engages students, not only in the learning process, but also in
knowing what is expected of them. Students know, before a lesson begins, what they
should do to achieve competence. They also know that you, as their teacher, will do
whatever it takes to help them achieve the standards of a lesson or unit.

Accountability Counts
In a standards-based school, everyone is accountable. Students are responsible for their
own learning, parents know what is expected of their children, teachers provide a positive
learning environment, administrators provide the necessary leadership, and community
members work to support the learning. Everybody has a role, and everybody is
responsible for learning to happen.

Teach Them, and They Will Come

Standards-based teaching is different from some of the more traditional forms of
teaching with which you may be familiar. It is a sequential and developmental process in
which academic standards become the focus, or pillars, around which all instruction
revolves. Here's how you would develop a standards-based lesson:

Jabberwocky

Standards-based teaching is when teachers use activities and lessons to ensure that
students master a predetermined set of requirements or standards.

1. Define the content standards and the accompanying benchmarks.

2. Write the learning objectives.
3. Develop the appropriate assessments.
4. Establish the performance standards or levels.
5. Design the lesson.
6. Plan the instructional strategies and/or activities.
7. Implement the instruction (teach).
8. Assess students.
9. Evaluate and refine the teaching/learning process.

And the Difference Is …?

There are two major differences between standards-based teaching and traditional forms
of teaching. In standards-based education …

• Teachers identify key knowledge and skills first and use them to focus all
instructional and assessment activities.
• Teachers determine performance standards and share these with students before
instruction begins.

It is important to note that standards-based reforms have met with both success and
controversy. Many school districts across the United States report that standards-based
efforts have resulted in higher overall achievement test results. Another benefit is that
community members are more engaged in the affairs of the school.

There are also some negative views on standards-based education. Teachers have
concerns because of the sheer number of standards in place within a single content area
or at a single grade level. Some teachers feel as though they have to “teach for the test”
so their students will have higher test scores. There are also concerns about the lack of
emphasis on problem-solving skills and critical-thinking abilities. Some communities are
concerned that their urban schools are not being treated fairly and that the higher
standards are causing higher failure rates.

Standards, whether those from professional organizations, your state, or your school
district, are another form of instructional resource for your classroom. They can guide
you in developing appropriate lessons and assist you in helping your students achieve
academically. However, just as with any other resource, they are teaching tools. Just as
you would select one set of tools to build a log cabin, so, too, would you select another
set of tools to build a condominium. The same is true of the teaching tools at your disposa

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