Week 02 - Stress Distribution in Rocks PDF
Week 02 - Stress Distribution in Rocks PDF
ROCK MECHANICS
Week 2. Stress distribution in rocks
Definition of traction and stress
In the study of the mechanics of particles, the fundamental kinematical variable that is used is the position
of the body, and its two‐time derivatives, the velocity and the acceleration. The interaction of a given
body with other bodies is quantified in terms of the forces that these other bodies exert on the first body.
The effect that these forces have on the body is governed by Newton’s law of motion, which states that
the sum of the forces acting on a body is equal to the mass of the body times its acceleration. The condition
for a body to be in equilibrium is that the sum of the external forces and moments acting on it must vanish.
These basic mechanical concepts such as position and force, as well as Newton’s law of motion, also apply
to extended, deformable bodies such as rock masses. However, these concepts must be altered
somewhat, for various reasons.
First, the fact that the force applied to a rock will, in general, vary from point to point, and will be
distributed over the body must be taken into account. The idealization that forces act at localized points,
which is typically used in the mechanics of particles, is not sufficiently general to apply to all problems
encountered in rock mechanics. Hence, it is necessary to introduce the concept of traction, which is a
force per unit area. As the traction generally varies with the orientation of the surface on which it acts, it
is most conveniently represented with the aid of an entity known as the stress tensor. Another
fundamental difference between the mechanics of particles and deformable bodies such as rocks is that
different parts of the rock may undergo different amounts of displacement. In general, it is the relative
displacement of neighbouring particles, rather than the absolute displacement of a particular particle,
that can be equating in some way to the applied tractions. This can be seen from the fact that a rock
sample can be moved as a rigid body from one location to another, after which the external forces acting
on the rock can remain unaltered. Clearly, therefore, the displacement itself cannot be directly related to
the applied loads. This relative displacement of nearby elements of the rock is quantified by an entity
known as the strain. The stress tensor is a symmetric second‐order tensor, and many important properties
of stress follow directly from those of second‐order tensors. In the event that the relative displacements
of all parts of the rock are small, the strain can also be represented by a second‐order tensor called the
infinitesimal strain tensor.
The traction is a vector, which may vary from point to point, and is therefore a function of the location of
the point in question. However, at any given point, the traction will also, in general, be different on
different planes that pass through that point. In other words, the traction will also be a function of n, the
outward unit normal vector. It is necessary to introduce a sign convention that is inconsistent with the
one used in most areas of mechanics, but which is nearly universal in the study of rocks and soils. The
Cartesian component of the traction T in any given direction r is considered to be a positive number if the
inner product (dot product) of T and a unit vector in the r direction is negative. One way to interpret this
convention is that the traction is based on −F, rather than F.
2 ‐ Geotechnical Conventions
It is appropriate to consider the conventions of stress representation adopted in geotechnics:
First a coordinate system is established. In 3D this must be a proper right‐hand coordinate
system, two examples of which are (1) northing (x), easting (y), depth (z) or (2) easting (x),
northing (y), elevation (z). A right‐hand coordinate system is important because it is linked to
the sign conventions for positive shear stresses and rotation angles.
A unit element is drawn with unit dimensions along each face (3D) or edge (2D).
Hint/recommendation: get in a habit of drawing these unit elements or free body diagrams as
they help define the problem being solved.
Compressive normal stresses are positive and tensile normal stresses are negative. Note this
definition differs from that used in structural and mechanical engineering.
Shear stress acts tangentially along the edge or face.
Positive shear stress acts in the positive direction of the co‐ordinate axis when looking at the
negative face of a unit element. Another way of saying this is the sense of positive shear stress
on a plane is inward relative to the co‐ordinate origin, if the inward normal to the plane acts
inwards relative to the co‐ordinate origin.
Figure 1
Figure 2
In 2D, the sign convention for positive stresses remain the same.
Figure 3
Although there are an infinite number of different traction vectors at a point, corresponding to the infinity
of possible planes passing through that point, all possible traction vectors can be found from knowledge
of the traction vector on two mutually orthogonal planes (or three mutually orthogonal planes in three
dimensions).
3 ‐ Stresses on any plane 2D
Referring to figure 4, the objective is to find the normal and shear stresses acting on the inclined plane
given known stresses acting on the unit element. Think of this figure as a 2D vertical slice with the z‐axis
being depth and the y‐axis being easting. Therefore you are viewing the slice while looking due north or
in the positive x‐axis direction. Check, is this a right‐hand coordinate system? – yes. If moments are taken
about a point such as M in Figure 4, static equilibrium of the element JKLM can be maintained if the
conjugate shear stresses zy and Ƭyz and Ƭyz are equal in magnitude, i.e.
Ƭyz = Ƭyz
This is known as the principle of complementary shear.
Figure 4
The stresses on a plane inclined at angle θ seen in figure 4 can be obtained by considering the equilibrium
of the triangular portion LMP of element JKLM shown. Note that Ƭzy and Ƭyz
are stresses with a negative sense of shear but negative values are not used in the equations because the
sense of shear takes care of the sign. The unit element has dimensions l, hence the distance from L to M
is l. The forces acting on edges LM and MP can be determined from the force diagrams:
σ
Resolving forces in the direction of θ
which becomes, on substitution of the force diagram values:
4 ‐ Stress transformations equations
The 2D stress transformation equations are simply an extension of the equations developed in the
previous section. First, we define a sign convention for θ rotation: the angle is positive when rotated
clockwise when viewed looking in a positive axis direction. First a coordinate system is established as
shown in Figure 5. Here, just to be different from the previously used coordinate system, in the left figure,
the x‐axis can be considered as easting and the z‐axis as elevation, hence the vertical 2D plane is viewed
looking in the positive y‐axis direction, or north, which is what we typically want. Or in the right figure,
the x‐axis can be considered as easting and the y‐axis as northing, hence the horizontal 2D plane is viewed
looking in the negative z‐axis direction, or down, which is also a common convention. Note that when
the typical x‐y coordinate system is used we are looking in a negative axis direction which causes some
confusion and errors found in textbooks dealing with stress transformation.
Figure 5
The general 2D stress transformation equations using the more commonly used x‐y coordinated system
shown in Figure 5 with positive angle being counter‐clockwise are:
The general 2D (and 3D) stress transformation equations are very useful and should be
referred to whenever there is doubt about something you are doing when determining
stresses. They are always correct under all circumstances – but you must use the correct
sign convention for stresses and for rotation of coordinate axes!
5 ‐ Principal stresses and maximum shear stress
The maximum and minimum values correspond to σ1 and σ3 respectively, when δσ/δθ = 0.
There are always two values of 2θ, which are 180o apart, and hence two values for θ. One value will
correspond to the maximum, and the other the minimum principal stress. If you take these θ values and
substitute them into the general stress transformation equation, then Ƭ = 0. When Ƭ= 0, then the principal
planes and principal stresses are found.
6 ‐ Mohr stress circle
A graphical means of representing the foregoing stress relationships was discovered by Culmann (1866)
and developed in detail by Mohr (1882), after whom the graphical method is now named. Figure 6 shows
a plot of the Mohr stress circle. The scales of both axes must always be equal. The complete state of two‐
dimensional stress is represented by points on this circle. The principal stresses are given by the points
where the circle crosses the Ƭ = 0 axis.
Figure 6
The Mohr stress circle represents completely the two‐dimensional stresses acting within the element,
Fand σ1, σ2 are the major and minor principal stresses respectively.
To plot the Mohr stress circle, start with σx and Ƭxy. A positive Ƭxy plots below the σ axis.
Note, a positive Ƭyx plots above the axis and this is a quirk of the Mohr stress circle and is essentially yet
another sign convention that must be remembered for the purpose of plotting the circle (and only for the
Mohr circle!). Note that a shear stress plotting below the σ axis has a clockwise sense and those above
have a counter‐clockwise sense.
The stresses σθ, Ƭθ acting on a plane at an angle θ clockwise to the plane on which σx acts can be found
by travelling clockwise around the circle from stress point σx, Ƭxy, a distance subtending an angle 2θ at
the centre of the circle. As seen in Figure 6, the major principal stress σ1 acts on a plane inclined at a
clockwise angle θ to the plane on which σx acts.
a. Examples
Always first drawing your known stress information on a wedge diagram or a Free Body Diagram (FBD)
with an associated coordinate system. Now determine the angle to rotate and draw the rotated
coordinate system that will correspond to a plane of interest. You can proceed with the general stress
transformation equations at this stage or use a Mohr stress circle. Remember, angles on the Mohr stress
circle are 2x those in the ‘real world’ or on the FBD. Ensure sign conventions for stresses (especially shear
stresses) and angles are followed.
MOHR: Draw Mohr stress circle of the state of stress. Draw the point(s) that represents known stresses
acting on plane(s) with known orientations. At each point, sketch the orientation of the plane that the
stresses are acting on. This is your reference. Now rotate from the reference point twice the angle
measured from the FBD. Rotate in the same direction. You now have a new point and the normal and
shear stress acting on the plane of interest.
Linking MOHR to FBD: If Ƭ from the Mohr stress circle plots on the upper half of the plot, the sense of
shear is counter‐clockwise on the matching plane on the FBD or wedge diagram. Conversely, if the stress
plots in the lower half of the plot it has a clockwise sense. Use the stress sign convention to determine if
this is a positive or negative shear stress in the ‘real world’.
Example 1: Given a state of stress at a point having components given below, find the components of this state of
stress relative to coordinate axes that are rotated 30 clockwise (assuming conventional x‐y axes).
First draw FBD and add known stresses with shear stress acting in the correct directions. Then draw
another FBD that has planes parallel to the desired new coordinate system.
Use stress transformation equations to determine the stress components in the rotated coordinate system.
First determine the sign for the rotation angle Θ. Will a positive or negative value be used in the stress
transformation equations?
Answer. Since you are looking in a negative axis direction and the rotation is clockwise, ‐30º is used. Plug
numbers into the stress transformation equations and you get:
What does this problem look like on a Mohr stress plot?
What happens if you rotate the other direction, using +30º?
In this case the stresses are as follows and the sense of shear as drawn on the FBD switches.
Example 2‐ Given the biaxial loading shown, with
Determine the magnitudes and orientations of the principal stresses. Next, determine the normal and
shear stresses acting on the inclined plane and draw a wedge diagram.
Using the stress transformation equation for shear stress and setting shear stress equal to zero, one can
solve for the rotation angle to the principal stresses or principal planes. This yields an angle Θ = ‐31.7o
Plugging this angle into the 2‐stress transformation equation for normal stresses gives:
Using the sign conventions, we can draw the orientations of these stresses.
To find stresses acting on the inclined plane, establish a new coordinate system with one axis parallel to
the inclined plane. Then use stress transformation equations.
But only want the stresses acting on the plane of interest, which are σ = 20.9 and σ = 7.5 MPa.
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that may be incurred or suffered as a result of the use of this publication including products, building
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contributor of Ingeoexpert. It is always advisable to seek specific information on the use of products in
any application or detail from manufacturers or suppliers of the products and consultants with
appropriate qualifications and experience. The recommendations presented herein may not be suitable
for every project or building site; therefore, every site must be considered on an individual basis. These
best practice guidelines were judged to be current at the time of publishing this document; however, best
practice guidelines in geotechnical engineering are ever‐evolving and may not be considered best practice
in the future. Inclusion of a qualified Professional Geotechnical Engineer on the project team who is
current with regard to professional development and industry standards could be expected to lend to a
project’s success