IRRIGATION

It is an art to supply water artificially to the land to fulfil its water requirements to grow crops.

In addition irrigation helps in:

i. Maintaining soil temperature required by plant roots

ii. Leaching excessive salts from root zones
iii. Reducing permeability by setting fines
iv. Completes water needs of plants

OR
Irrigation is the watering of land to make it ready for agriculture. If you want to start a strawberry farm
in the desert, irrigation will be necessary. Irrigation comes from the Latin for "moist" or "wet," but it
means the purposeful wetting of something. Irrigation systems are often complex combinations of
canals, channels, and hoses.

IRRIGATION SYSTEM
STORAGE [Dams, Reservoirs]

CONVEYANCE SYSTEM [Canals]

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM [Modules and outlets]

EFFICIENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM [Vertical and Horizontal (Concealed and Open)]

[Total water estimated= 1360 mKm3 , out of which 97.5% is saline and 2.5% is fresh(2.19% from rain and
0.31% from ground extraction)]

MICRO-IRRIGATION
 Pakistan is basically an agricultural country. More than 70% of its population lives in rural areas
and is dependent on irrigation/agriculture.
 Agriculture is considered as a backbone of the country, it helps in employment and foreign
exchange earnings.
 Indus plain is the main agriculture producing region, which receives less than 250 mm rainfall
and evaporation is more than 1250 mm.
 Food and fiber is the basic need of human
 Increased population puts extra burden on import of food grains.
 Water resources in Pakistan are depleting day by day due to improper management.

TYPES OF IRRIGATION
1. SURFACE IRRIGATION
a. FLOW IRRIGATION
 i. PERENIAL (throughout the year flow)
ii. NON-PERENIAL (for one season)
iii. INNUNDATION
b. LIFT IRRIGATION
i. TUBE WELL or LIFT IRRIGATION
2. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION
a. NATURAL SUB-IRRIGATION
b. ARTIFICIAL SUB-IRRIGATION

BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION
 The reasons for irrigation are wide and varied and differ for each situation. For example
irrigation;
 Provides greater certainty with production than is possible with dryland farming.
 Provides options for diversification or intensification.
 Allows farmers to grow more pasture and increase 
livestock production.
 Allows farmers to maintain pasture quality over a critical 
dry period.
 Ensures crops are not affected by moisture stress at critical growing times.
 Provides greater opportunity to gain a pasture / crop response to fertilizer application.
 Although irrigation has many benefits, whether to irrigate or not is generally an economic
decision. For irrigation to be sustainable, the benefits must increase income sufficiently to cover
the costs of development and provide an acceptable return on investment.

IMPACTS OF IRRIGATION
The environmental impacts of irrigation relate to the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as
a result of irrigation and the effects on natural and social conditions in river basins and downstream of
an irrigation scheme. The impacts stem from the altered hydrological conditions caused by the
installation and operation of the irrigation scheme.

Direct effects
An irrigation scheme draws water from groundwater, rivers, lakes or overland flow, and distributes it
over an area. Hydrological, or direct, effects of doing this include reduction in downstream river flow,
increased evaporation in the irrigated area, increased level in the water table as groundwater
recharge in the area is increased and flow increased in the irrigated area. Likewise, irrigation has
immediate effects on the provision of moisture to the atmosphere, inducing atmospheric instabilities
and increasing downwind rainfall, or in other cases modifies the atmospheric circulation, delivering rain
to different downwind areas. Increases or decreases in irrigation are a key area of concern in
precipitation shed studies that examine how significant modifications to the delivery of evaporation to
the atmosphere can alter downwind rainfall.

Indirect Effects
Indirect effects are those that have consequences that take longer to develop and may also be longer-
lasting. The indirect effects of irrigation include the following:

 Waterlogging
 Soil salination
 Ecological damage
 Socioeconomic impacts

The indirect effects of waterlogging and soil salination occur directly on the land being irrigated.
The ecological and socioeconomic consequences take longer to happen but can be more far-reaching.

Some irrigation schemes use water wells for irrigation. As a result, the overall water level decreases. This
may cause water mining, land/soil subsidence, and, along the coast, saltwater intrusion.

Irrigated land area worldwide occupies about 16% of the total agricultural area and the crop yield of
irrigated land is roughly 40% of the total yield. In other words, irrigated land produces 2.5 times more
product than non-irrigated land. This article will discuss some of the environmental and socioeconomic
impacts of irrigation.

Laser Land Levelling or Precise Land Levelling

What Is Laser Land Levelling?
Less rainfall, degrading soil health and declining water table and therefore growing dryness of
the ground are the major concerns for keeping the growth in a sustainable agriculture. Thus
proper emphasis is being given on the management of irrigation water usage for adequate
growth of agriculture. Generally, most of the farmers working in paddy and corn believe that
their field were well levelled and do not need further levelling. But when showing closer the
finding will be that the fields are not adequately levelled. They need to be reworked.
The enhancement of water use efficiency and farm productivity at field level is one of the best
options to redress the problem of declining water level in the state. The planner and policy
maker are properly informed and motivated to develop strategies and programs for efficient
utilization of available water resources. Laser Land levelling is one such important technology
for using water efficiently as it reduces irrigation time and enhances productivity not only of
water but also of other non-water farm inputs. Results in technologically advanced countries
have indicated that saves water to the tune of 25-30% and time by 30% and also improves the
productivity by 10-15%. It has also been observed that with Laser Land Levelling 2-3% effective
cropped area in case of flat fields and even more in ridge sown fields become available for
cultivation of crops, as the number of bunds and irrigation channels get reduced considerably.
Further Benefits of Land Levelling
Effective land levelling reduces the work in crop establishment & crop management, and
increases the yield and quality. Level land improves water coverage that improves crop
establishment, reduces weed problems, improves uniformity of crop maturity, decreases the
time to complete tasks and reduces the amount of water required for land preparation.
Laser levelling is a user guided precision levelling technique used for achieving very fine
levelling with desired grade on the agricultural field. Laser levelling uses a laser transmitter unit
that constantly emits 360º rotating beam parallel to the required field plane. This beam is
received by a laser receiver fitted on a mast on the scraper. The signal received is converted
into cut and fill level adjustments and the corresponding changes in scrapper level are carried
out automatically by a two way hydraulic control valve.
Laser levelling maintains the grade by automatically performing the cutting and levelling
operations. Both level grade and slope grade (one way or two ways) can be achieved with the
help of this precise system. The field is cultivated and planked before using the Land Leveller. A
grid survey is performed using grade rod to identify highs and lows in the field and mean grade
is found. A grid spacing of 10m x 10m is maintained for accurate land survey; however this
spacing can be varied depending upon the size of the field.
For practical purposes and with experience, grid survey can be done by pacing off the distances
rather than measuring. A map is then drawn to indicate which areas are high; require soil to be
cut and the lows which require soil to be added.

 Why precise Land Levelling is using Laser Based Levelling Systems?

Unevenness of the soil surface has a major impact on the germination, stand and yield of crops
through nutrient water interaction and salt and soil moisture distribution pattern. Land levelling is
a precursor to good agronomic, soil and crop management practices. Resource conserving
technologies perform better on well levelled and laid-out fields. Farmers recognize this and
therefore devote considerable attention and resources in levelling their fields properly. However,
traditional methods of levelling land are not only more cumbersome and time consuming but
more expensive as well. Very often most rice farmers level their fields under ponded water
conditions. The others dry level their fields and check level by ponding water. Thus in the
process of having good levelling in fields, a considerable amount of water is wasted.
It is a common knowledge that most of the farmers apply irrigation water until all the parcels are
fully wetted and covered with a thin sheet of water. Studies have indicated that a significant (20-
25%) amount of irrigation water is lost during its application at the farm due to poor farm
designing and unevenness of the fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of rice
fields. Unevenness of fields leads to inefficient use of irrigation water and also delays tillage and
crop establishment options. Fields that are not levelled have uneven crop stands, increased
weed burdens and uneven maturing of crops.
All these factors tend to contribute to reduced yield and grain quality which reduce the potential
farm gate income. Effective land levelling is meant to optimize water-use efficiency, improve
crop establishment, reduce the irrigation time and effort required to manage crop.

 Benefits of the Land Levelling System:

  Easy land preparation  Assist top soil management
 Time efficiency in completion of task  Saves fuel/electricity used in
 Optimization of water use efficiency irrigation
 Less water requirement for land  More uniform moisture environment
preparation for crops
 Less time and water required in  Good germination and growth of
irrigation crop
 Less weed problems  Improved field traffic ability for the
 Reduced consumption of seeds, subsequent field operations
fertilizers, chemicals and fuel  Uniformity in crop maturity
 Increase in farming area  Better crop establishment
 Less effort in crop management

Micro irrigation methods

It can be defined as the application of water at low volume and frequent interval under low
pressure to plant root zone.

Concept of Micro Irrigation:

Besides the land, water also an important factor in the progress of Agriculture. In vast country
like India with a geographical area of 328 million hectares less than 45% area is cultivated of
this cultivated area only 35% i.e. 65 million ha gets irrigation.

Since water is the limiting factor today, we must utilize it properly and maximum benefit can take
as possible as India is second largest country in world according to population, 1202 million.

The expansion of area under irrigation is essential for obtaining increased agriculture production
required to feed India’s growing population.

The expansion could be done only by additional development conservation and efficient
management of the available water resources i.e. use of micro-irrigation means application of
optimum water according to plant requirement. This could be achieved by introducing advanced
and sophisticated methods of irrigation.

TYPES OF MICRO IRRIGATION

1. Check flooding:

 Similar to Ordinary flooding

 Water is controlled by surrounding the check area with low and flat levees

 The check is filled with water at a fairly high rate and allowed to stand until the
water infiltrates
 The confined plot area varies from 0.2 to 0.8 hectares.
 

Adaptability:
 It is suitable for low as well as high intake soils and for rice or other crops which can
withstand temporary flooding.
Advantages:
 Effective leaching.
 Maximum use of seasonal rainfall
 High application efficiencies.
Limitations:
 Soil crusting
 Unsuitable for crops that cannot accommodate inundation.
Basin Flooding
 Special type of check flooding
 Adopted specially for “Orchard trees”
 One or more trees are generally placed in the basin
 Surface is flooded as in check method by ditch water.

2. FURROW IRRIGATION

When the crops are grown and planted in rows this method is best suited. Most of the crops

are grown and planted in rows and thus this is the most commonly used method. In this

method, unlike flooding, wetting is done of only a part of the field.

The area wetted varies from 1/2 to 1/5 of total area over which crops are grown. Thus the

losses due to evaporation, deep percolation, etc., are reduced. In this method water just

flows through the furrows or small ditches and during that time the water enters the soil and

the plant roots derive their proper share from the soil. The longitudinal slope of a furrow may

be from 2 to 10 m/1000 m. Steeper slopes may also be adopted, but then it is necessary to
 see that the water is not overflowing the banks of furrows. Length of furrows may be up to

800 m for field crops, about 30 m or less for gardens. However, no rigid limit can be fixed in

any case.

The spacing of furrows varies according to the nature of the crop. For row crops, corn,

onions, potatoes, etc., the spacing is determined by the spacing of the plant rows. Thus one

irrigation furrow being provided for each row. Spacing of furrows may be from 1 to 2 meters

apart in case of orchard irrigation.

When furrows are 8 to 12 cm deep they are called corrugations or shallow furrows. Depth of

deep furrows may vary from 20 to 30 cm. The advantage of deep furrow is that in initial

stages the roots are not damaged. Deep furrow irrigation system is generally used for sugar

cane, orchards, and some field crops also. Deep furrows are best suited in soils with low

permeability.

The water is distributed to the furrows from the field channel or main ditch. Figure 6.5 shows the

arrangement clearly. In the side of field or main ditch small openings are made, and through the

openings water flows into one or more furrows. Small adjustable gates may be provided to

control the supply of water from the field ditch to the furrows. Furrow irrigation has distinct

advantages over other methods.

They are:
(i) As the area wetted is just 1/2 to 1/5 of the cropped area of the field, puddling and crusting of

the soil is minimum.

(ii) Also, loss of water due to deep percolation and evaporation is restricted.

(iii) Furrows do not put hindrance in use of field machinery or other farming methods.

(iv) In this method plants in their early tender age are not damaged by flow of water.

(v) By laying the furrows along the contours, across the slope of land, soil erosion can be

minimized.

(vi)Furrow making is a simple and cheap method and working expenses are also nominal.

(vii) Land between the rows of plants is utilized to construct furrows therefore useful irrigable

land is not wasted.

3. DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation is a form of irrigation that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip
slowly to the roots of many different plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root
zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done through narrow tubes
that deliver water directly to the base of the plant.

Components used in drip irrigation (listed in order from water source) include:

 Pump or pressurized water source

 Water filter(s) or filtration systems: sand separator, Fertigation systems (Venturi injector) and
chemigation equipment (optional)
 Backwash controller (Backflow prevention device)
 Pressure Control Valve (pressure regulator)
 Main line (larger diameter pipe and pipe fittings)
 Hand-operated, electronic, or hydraulic control valves and safety valves
 Smaller diameter polytube (often referred to as "laterals")
 Poly fittings and accessories (to make connections)
 Emitting devices at plants (emitter or dripper, micro spray head, inline dripper or inline
driptube)

In drip irrigation systems, pump and valves may be manually or automatically operated by

a controller.
Most large drip irrigation systems employ some type of filter to prevent clogging of the small emitter
flow path by small waterborne particles. New technologies are now being offered that minimize
clogging. Some residential systems are installed without additional filters since potable water is
already filtered at the water treatment plant. Virtually all drip irrigation equipment manufacturers
recommend that filters be employed and generally will not honor warranties unless this is done. Last
line filters just before the final delivery pipe are strongly recommended in addition to any other
filtration system due to fine particle settlement and accidental insertion of particles in the
intermediate lines.

Drip and subsurface drip irrigation is used almost exclusively when using recycled municipal waste
water. Regulations typically do not permit spraying water through the air that has not been fully
treated to potable water standards.

Because of the way the water is applied in a drip system, traditional surface applications of timed-
release fertilizer are sometimes ineffective, so drip systems often mix liquid fertilizer with the
irrigation water. This is called fertigation; fertigation and chemigation (application of pesticides and
other chemicals to periodically clean out the system, such as chlorine or sulfuric acid) use chemical
injectors such as diaphragm pumps, piston pumps, or aspirators. The chemicals may be added
constantly whenever the system is irrigating or at intervals. Fertilizer savings of up to 95% are being
reported from recent university field tests using drip fertigation and slow water delivery as compared
to timed-release and irrigation by micro spray heads.

Properly designed, installed, and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water conservation by
reducing evaporation and deep drainage when compared to other types of irrigation such as flood or
overhead sprinklers since water can be more precisely applied to the plant roots. In addition, drip
can eliminate many diseases that are spread through water contact with the foliage. Finally, in
regions where water supplies are severely limited, there may be no actual water savings, but rather
simply an increase in production while using the same amount of water as before. In very arid
regions or on sandy soils, the preferred method is to apply the irrigation water as slowly as possible.

Pulsed irrigation is sometimes used to decrease the amount of water delivered to the plant at any
one time, thus reducing runoff or deep percolation. Pulsed systems are typically expensive and
require extensive maintenance. Therefore, the latest efforts by emitter manufacturers are focused
toward developing new technologies that deliver irrigation water at ultra-low flow rates, i.e. less than
1.0 liter per hour. Slow and even delivery further improves water use efficiency without incurring the
expense and complexity of pulsed delivery equipment.

An emitting pipe is a type of drip irrigation tubing with emitters pre-installed at the factory with
specific distance and flow per hour as per crop distance.
An emitter restricts water flow passage through it, thus creating head loss required (to the extent of
atmospheric pressure) in order to emit water in the form of droplets. This head loss is achieved by
friction / turbulence within the emitter.

Components of DRIP IRRIGATION

Components used in drip irrigation (listed in order from water source) include:

 Pump or pressurized water source

 Water filter(s) or filtration systems: sand separator, Fertigation systems (Venturi injector) and
chemigation equipment (optional)
 Backwash controller (Backflow prevention device)
 Pressure Control Valve (pressure regulator)
 Main line (larger diameter pipe and pipe fittings)
 Hand-operated, electronic, or hydraulic control valves and safety valves
 Smaller diameter polytube (often referred to as "laterals")
 Poly fittings and accessories (to make connections)
 Emitting devices at plants (emitter or dripper, micro spray head, inline dripper or inline
driptube)

In drip irrigation systems, pump and valves may be manually or automatically operated by

a controller.

Most large drip irrigation systems employ some type of filter to prevent clogging of the small emitter
flow path by small waterborne particles. New technologies are now being offered that minimize
clogging. Some residential systems are installed without additional filters since potable water is
already filtered at the water treatment plant. Virtually all drip irrigation equipment manufacturers
recommend that filters be employed and generally will not honor warranties unless this is done. Last
line filters just before the final delivery pipe are strongly recommended in addition to any other
filtration system due to fine particle settlement and accidental insertion of particles in the
intermediate lines.

Drip and subsurface drip irrigation is used almost exclusively when using recycled municipal waste
water. Regulations typically do not permit spraying water through the air that has not been fully
treated to potable water standards.

Because of the way the water is applied in a drip system, traditional surface applications of timed-
release fertilizer are sometimes ineffective, so drip systems often mix liquid fertilizer with the
irrigation water. This is called fertigation; fertigation and chemigation (application of pesticides and
other chemicals to periodically clean out the system, such as chlorine or sulfuric acid) use chemical
injectors such as diaphragm pumps, piston pumps, or aspirators. The chemicals may be added
constantly whenever the system is irrigating or at intervals. Fertilizer savings of up to 95% are being
reported from recent university field tests using drip fertigation and slow water delivery as compared
to timed-release and irrigation by micro spray heads.

Properly designed, installed, and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water conservation by
reducing evaporation and deep drainage when compared to other types of irrigation such as flood or
overhead sprinklers since water can be more precisely applied to the plant roots. In addition, drip
can eliminate many diseases that are spread through water contact with the foliage. Finally, in
regions where water supplies are severely limited, there may be no actual water savings, but rather
simply an increase in production while using the same amount of water as before. In very arid
regions or on sandy soils, the preferred method is to apply the irrigation water as slowly as possible.

Pulsed irrigation is sometimes used to decrease the amount of water delivered to the plant at any
one time, thus reducing runoff or deep percolation. Pulsed systems are typically expensive and
require extensive maintenance. Therefore, the latest efforts by emitter manufacturers are focused
toward developing new technologies that deliver irrigation water at ultra-low flow rates, i.e. less than
1.0 liter per hour. Slow and even delivery further improves water use efficiency without incurring the
expense and complexity of pulsed delivery equipment.

An emitting pipe is a type of drip irrigation tubing with emitters pre-installed at the factory with
specific distance and flow per hour as per crop distance.

An emitter restricts water flow passage through it, thus creating head loss required (to the extent of
atmospheric pressure) in order to emit water in the form of droplets. This head loss is achieved by
friction / turbulence within the emitter.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES

The advantages of drip irrigation are:

 Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application and reduced leaching.
 Water application efficiency is high if managed correctly
 Field levelling is not necessary.
 Fields with irregular shapes are easily accommodated.
 Recycled non-potable water can be safely used.
 Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field capacity.
 Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.
 Soil erosion is lessened.
 Weed growth is lessened.
 Water distribution is highly uniform, controlled by output of each nozzle.
 Labour cost is less than other irrigation methods.
 Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers.
 Fertigation can easily be included with minimal waste of fertilizers.
 Foliage remains dry, reducing the risk of disease.
 Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing
energy costs.

The disadvantages of drip irrigation are:

 Initial cost can be more than overhead systems.

 The sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.
 If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properly maintained, it can result in
clogging.
 For subsurface drip the irrigator cannot see the water that is applied. This may lead to the
farmer either applying too much water (low efficiency) or an insufficient amount of water, this is
particularly common for those with less experience with drip irrigation.
 Drip irrigation might be unsatisfactory if herbicides or top dressed fertilizers need sprinkler
irrigation for activation.
 Drip tape causes extra cleanup costs after harvest. Users need to plan for drip tape winding,
disposal, recycling or reuse.
 Waste of water, time and harvest, if not installed properly. These systems require careful
study of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic
conditions, and suitability of drip irrigation system and its components.
 In lighter soils subsurface drip may be unable to wet the soil surface for germination.
Requires careful consideration of the installation depth.
 The main purpose of drip irrigation is to reduce the water consumption by reducing
the leaching factor. However, when the available water is of high salinity or alkalinity, the field
soil becomes gradually unsuitable for cultivation due to high salinity or poor infiltration of the soil.
Thus drip irrigation converts fields in to fallow lands when natural leaching by rain water is not
adequate in semi arid and arid regions.
 most drip systems are designed for high efficiency, meaning little or no leaching fraction.
Without sufficient leaching, salts applied with the irrigation water may build up in the root zone,
usually at the edge of the wetting pattern. On the other hand, drip irrigation avoids the high
capillary potential of traditional surface-applied irrigation, which can draw salt deposits up from
deposits below.
 the PVC pipes often suffer from rodent damage, requiring replacement of the entire tube and
increasing expenses.
 Drip irrigation systems cannot be used for damage control by night frosts (like in the case of
sprinkler irrigation systems)
 USES

Drip irrigation is used in farms, commercial greenhouses, and residential gardeners. Drip

irrigation is adopted extensively in areas of acute water scarcity and especially for crops and
trees such as coconuts, containerized landscape
trees, grapes, bananas, pandey, eggplant,citrus, strawberries, sugarcane, cotton, maize,
and potatoes.

Drip irrigation for garden available in drip kits are increasingly popular for the homeowner
and consist of a timer, hose and emitter. Hoses that are 4 mm in diameter are used to irrigate
flower pots.

4. BASIN IRRIGATION

Level basin irrigation has historically been used in small areas having level surfaces that are
surrounded by earth banks. The water is applied rapidly to the entire basin and is allowed to
infiltrate. In traditional basins no water is permitted to drain from the field once it is irrigated.
Basin irrigation is favored in soils with relatively low infiltration rates(Walker and Skogerboe
1987). This is also a method of surface irrigation. Fields are typically set up to follow the natural
contours of the land but the introduction of laser levelling and land grading has permitted the
construction of large rectangular basins that are more appropriate for mechanized broad acre
cropping.

5. POROUS HOSE IRRIGATION

Soaker hoses offer an efficient way to water plants without waste. There’s no runoff, because the water
seeps out through tiny pores along the length of the hose at a rate no faster than the ground can absorb
it. And compared with a sprinkler that flings droplets into the air, less water is lost to evaporation.
Soaker hoses apply moisture directly to the root zone of plants.

Snake soaker hoses through garden beds of roses and perennials, among foundation shrubs, or in the
vegetable garden, where the hoses can be stretched parallel to rows of crops. Leave the soakers in place
through the growing season. When it’s time to water, connect them to the nearest faucet with a garden
hose.

6. PITCHER IRRIGATION; a water saving technique

Buried clay pot irrigation (pitcher irrigation) has been used to grow a wide range of annual and
perennial plants in China, Pakistan, India, Iran, Mexico, and Brazil. In fact, it is even recorded in
Chinese texts dating back more than 2000 years. 
In its simplest form, pitcher irrigation entails burying an unglazed, porous clay pot next to a
seedling. Water poured into pot seeps slowly into the soil, feeding the seedling's roots with a
steady supply of moisture. 

Pitcher irrigation uses water more efficiently than other systems since it delivers water directly to
plant root zones, instead of to broader areas of the field. 

When a pot, filled with water and covered by a lid (wooden or clay), is buried in the soil, the
water oozes out of the clay pot due to hydraulic head difference (moisture content difference)
between the pot surface and the surrounding soil until it is in equilibrium with the surrounding
area. 

The rate of seepage of water from pitcher will depend on the type of plant and soil and climatic
conditions around the pot. The movement of water is as a result of the uptake by the crops and
it continues as long as the plants take it up and it evaporates. 

When the surrounding area become saturated with water and the pot is emptied, water will tend
to move back to fill up the pot. The system is therefore self-regulating. 

The surrounding soil is almost always at field capacity (approximately 80 per cent of soil pores
filled with water) as long as the pot is not allowed to dry up completely due to evapo-
transpiration. 

With this irrigation, deep percolation losses are negligible since water is released from smaller
areas, and the rate of water loss can be controlled site to site by the amount of water put in
each pitcher. 

Water requirements in a pitcher irrigated field can be even less than those of a drip irrigated
system (of the same scale) due to the very low permeability of the pitchers, as well as reduced
evaporation losses. 

The number of pitchers needed per hectare varies with the type of crop. A creeping crop such
as bitter gourd requires 2,000-2500 pitchers per hectare. Upright crops, or crops producing a
canopy around the pot require more pots, up to 4,000-5000 pots per hectare. Pitchers used for
this purpose should have good seepage ability (minimum 15 per cent in 24 hours) in an open
air. It was found that six to twelve liter pots are sufficient to grow most vegetable crops. 

Ideal for sandy to loamy soil with good porosity (40-60 per cent) and for small farmers, its cost is
not more than Rs4500 per acre, which is about 82 per cent cheaper than the 'drop' and the
'sprinkler' irrigation method. Pitcher irrigation is used for small-scale irrigation where: 

* water is either scarce or very expensive. 

* fields are difficult to level such as under uneven terrain. 

* in remote areas where vegetables are expensive and hard to come by. 

One of the advantages of using pitchers for irrigation is the result of their water saving capacity.
To compare pitcher irrigation to flood or sprinkler irrigation one must correct for the fact that the
scales are radically different. Pitcher irrigation is used for small-scale, while flood and sprinkler
systems are for more extensive irrigation. 
Taking this into account, pitcher irrigation is still
more efficient. The 'pitcher' system saves water
up to 98 per cent as compared to flood basin
irrigation system. 

A farmer can cultivate about 5 acres through

pitcher irrigation on hand-pump, pond, or any
simple source of water. This method is also
efficient in terms of crop production per unit
application of water. 

The corn grown in Mexico on pitcher irrigation

showed that the crop production was much
higher than that with conventional irrigation
methods. Pitcher irrigation is useful for
vegetables, gardening, landscaping, and growing
plants in containers - on patios or porches,
where the clay pot is buried in the planter box. It
is also excellent for rooting cuttings. 

At least four plants of most vegetable crops could be grown around one pot. Limiting water
delivery to the area where the crop is grown dramatically reduces weed growth - a major
constraint on production in many areas of the world. The pots also may be refilled every few
days instead of requiring constant attention.

SOIL WATER AND CROP RELATIONSHIP WATER DISTRIBUTION

Terms used
1. Capillary fringe
The soil area just
above the water table
where water can rise
up slightly through the
cohesive force of
capillary action. This
layer ranges in depth
from a couple of
inches, to a few feet,
and it depends on the
pore sizes of the
materials. The
capillary fringe is also
called the capillary
zone.
2. Hydroscopic water
Water absorbed from the atmosphere and held very tightly by the soil particles, so that it is
unavailable to plants in amounts sufficient for them to survive.
3. Zone of Rock Fracture