Need and Rationale of Training

Training is important, not only from the point of view of the organization, but also for the
employees. It gives them greater job security and an opportunity for career advancement. A
skill acquired through training is an asset for the organization and the employee. The benefits
of training stay for a very long time. Training can become obsolete only when there is a
complete elimination of the desired for that skill and knowledge, which may happen because
of the technological changes. In general terms, the need for training can arise because of the
following reasons:

(i) Changing Technology. Technology is changing at a fast pace. Be it any industry,

technological changes are changing the way in which operations were done. Newer machines
are being used for automation of the processes. Computers have made the controls very easy.
Advances in information technology have enabled greater degree of coordination between
various business units, spread far across the globe. In order to keep themselves abreast with
the changes, the employees must learn new techniques to make use of advances in the
technology. Training needs to be treated as a continuous process to update the employees in
new methods and procedures.

(ii) Demanding Customers. As the free markets become stronger, customers are becoming
more and more demanding. They are much more informed about the products. They have
many sources of information. Intensified competition forces the organizations to provide
better and better products and services to them. Added to the customer conscious, their
requirements keep on changing. In order to satisfy the customers and to provide best of the
quality of products and services, the skills of those producing them need to be continuously
improved through training. (iii) Thrust on Productivity. In the competitive times,
organizations cannot afford the extravaganza of lethargy. They have to be productive in order
to survive and grow. Continuous improvement of the employees’ skills is an essential
requirement for maintaining high standards of productivity. Productivity in the present times
stems from knowledge, which has to be relearned continuously.

(iv) Improved motivation. Training is a source of motivation for the employees as well.
They find themselves more updated while facing the challenging situations at job. Such skill
development contributes to their career development as well. Motivated employees have
lesser turnover, providing an organization with a stable work force, which has several
advantages in the long run.

(v) Accuracy of output Trained workers handle their job better. They run their machines
safely. They achieve greater accuracy is whatever job they do. This reduces accidents in the
organizations. Adherence to accuracy infuses high standards of quality in the products and
services, thus giving them a competitive edge in the difficult times. Quality reduces wastages
and ensures better customer satisfaction.

(vi) Better Management. Training can be used as an effective tool of planning and control. It
develops skills of the workers for future and also prepares them for promotion. It helps them
in reducing the costs of supervision, wastages and industrial accidents. It also helps increase
productivity and quality.

Definition of Training

Training is often looked upon as an organized activity for increasing the knowledge and skills
of people for a definite purpose. It involves systematic procedures for transferring technical
know-how to the employees so as to increase their knowledge and skills for doing specific
jobs with proficiency. In other words, the trainees acquire technical knowledge, skills and
problem solving ability by undergoing the training programme. There are several textbook
definitions of training, but the one by Edwin B Flippo is generally well accepted. According
to Flippo, “Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for
doing a particular job”. Training involves the development of skills that are usually
necessary to perform a specific job. Its purpose is to achieve a change in the behaviour of
those trained and to enable them to do their jobs better. Training makes newly appointed
employees fully productive in lesser time. Training is equally necessary for the old
employees whenever new machines and equipment are introduced and/or there is a change in
the techniques of doing the things. Training is a continuous process and does not stop
anywhere. The top management should ensure that any training programme should attempt to
bring about positive changes in the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the employees.

What Does Training Include?

Udai Pareek has observed that there are three elements of training – purpose, place and time.
Training without a purpose is useless because nothing would be achieved out of it. The
purpose must be identified carefully and now there are a large number of techniques, to be
discussed in subsequent lessons, available for establishing training needs. After having
identified the purpose of a training programme, its place must be decided i.e. whether it has
to be on the job or off the job. If off the job, where a training programme should be. Place
would decide the choice of training method and also influence its effectiveness. The next
element is the time. Training must be provided at the right time. A late training would
provide outdated knowledge, which would be useless for the employees. The timing has also
to be specified in physical terms, i.e. which month/week of the year and at what time of the
day. This can have a lot of ramifications in terms of the cost of training and its ultimate
efficacy in achieving the desired results. The purpose of training is to bring about
improvement in the performance of the human resources. It includes the learning of such
techniques as are required for the intelligence performance of definite tasks. It also
comprehends the ability to think clearly about problems arising out of the job and its
responsibilities and to exercise sound judgement in making decisions affecting the work.
Lastly, it includes those mental attitudes and habits, which are covered under the general term
‘morale’.

Objectives of Training

The objectives of training can vary, depending upon a large number of factors. The objectives
depend on the nature of the organization where training has to be provided, the skills desired
and the current skill levels. It is difficult to draw generalizations of the objectives of training;
still they can be stated as under:

1. To increase the knowledge of workers in doing specific jobs. 2. To systematically impart

new skills to the human resources so that they learn quickly. 3. To bring about change in the
attitudes of the workers towards fellow workers, supervisor and the organization. 4. To
improve the overall performance of the organization. 5. To make the employees handle
materials, machines and equipment efficiently and thus to check wastage of time and
resources. 6. To reduce the number of accidents by providing safety training to employees.
7. To prepare employees for higher jobs by developing advanced skills in them.

Training and Development

No longer do the organizations talk of training in isolation. It is usually addressed along with
development. While referring to the conjugation of the two processes, Dale Yoder has
observed “The use of the terms training and development in today’s employment setting is far
more appropriate than ‘training’ alone since human resources can exert their full potential
only when the learning process goes far beyond simple routine”.

Although the terms training and development are used together, they are often confused.
Training means learning the basic skills and knowledge necessary for a particular job or a
group of jobs. In other words, training is the act of increasing the knowledge for doing a
particular job. But development refers to the growth of an individual in all respects. An
organization works for the development of its executives or potential executives in order to
enable them to be more effective in performing the various functions of management. An
executive development programme aims at increasing the capacities of the individuals to
achieve the desired objectives. Executive capacities imply his personal abilities and
potentials. Desired objectives imply consideration for tile goals of the organization and
individuals. Increasing the capacities implies that change must, occur in the executive and
through him in his subordinates. The distinction between training and development is shown
in Table 1.1.

Exhibit 1.1 Training vs. Development

Training Development

1. Training means learning skills and knowledge for doing a particular job and increases
skills required for a job. Whereas, Development refers to the growth of an employee in all
respects. It is more concerned with shaping the attitudes.

2. Training generally imparts specific skills to the employees. Whereas, Development is more
general in nature and aims at overall growth of the executives.
 3. Training is concerned with maintaining and improving current job performance. Thus, it
has a short-term perspective. Whereas, Development builds up competences for future
performance and has has a long-term perspective

4. Training is job centered in nature. Whereas, Development is careercentered in nature.

5. The role of trainer or supervisor is very important in training. Whereas, All development
is ‘selfdevelopment’ and the executive has to be internally motivated for the same.

Significance of Training

Fostered by technological advances, training is essential for any human resource

development exercise in organizations in the rapidly changing times of today. It is an
essential, useful and productive activity for all human resources working in an organization,
irrespective of the job positions that they hold. It benefits both employers and the employees,
as will be discussed later. The basic purpose of training is to develop skills and efficiency.
Every organization has to introduce systematic training programmes for its employees. This
is because trained personnel are like valuable assets of an organization, who are responsible
for its progress and stability. Training is important as it constitutes a vital part of managerial
control.

Most progressive organizations view expenditure on training as a profitable investment.

Large organizations hire a large number of persons every year, who might not know how to
perform their jobs. There are also certain types of jobs where no one can afford an untrained
person. For instance, nobody would dream of allowing an untrained individual to work as a
pilot or operate a lathe. Such raw hand persons must be trained properly so that they may
contribute to the growth and well being of the organization. The responsibility for imparting
training to the employees rests with the employer. If there is no formal training programme in
an organization, the workers will try to train themselves by trial and error or by observing
others. But this process will take a lot of time, lead to many losses by way of errors and will
ultimately result in higher costs of training. The workers may not be able to learn the best
operative methods on their own. The following discussion highlights some of the potential
benefits of training to the employees and the employers.

Benefits of Training to Employers

The employers invest in training because they reap several benefits out of the exercise, which
can be summed up as under:

(i) Faster learning of new skills

Training helps the employers to reduce the learning time of their employees and achieve
higher standards of performance. The employees need not waste time in learning by
observing others. If a formal training programme exists in the organization, the qualified
instructors will help the new employees to acquire the skills and knowledge to do particular
jobs quickly.

(ii) Increased productivity

Training increases the skill of the new employee in while performing a particular job. An
increased skill level usually helps in increasing both quantity and quality of output. Training
can be of great help even to the existing employees. It helps them to increase their level of
performance on their present job assignments and prepares them for future assignments.

(iii) Standardization of procedures

Training can help the standardization of operating procedures, which can be learnt by the
employees. Standardization of work procedures makes high levels of performance rule rather
than exception. Employees work intelligently and make fewer mistakes when they possess
the required know-how and skills.

(iv) Lesser need for supervision.

As a generalization, it can be stated safely that trained employees need lesser supervision.
Training does not eliminate the need for supervision, but it reduces the need for detailed and
constant supervision. A well-trained employee can be self-reliant in his/her work because
s/he knows what to do and how to do. Under such situations, close supervision might not be
required.

(v) Economy of operations.

Trained personnel will be able to make better and economical use of the materials and the
equipment and reduce wastage. Also, the trained employees reduce the rate of accidents and
damage to machinery and equipment. Such reductions can contribute to increased cost
savings and overall economy of operations. (vi) Higher morale. The morale of employees is
increased if they are given proper training. A good training programme moulds employees’
attitudes towards organizational activities and generates better cooperation and greater
loyalty. With the help of training, dissatisfactions, complaints, absenteeism and turnover can
also be reduced among the employees. Thus, training helps in building an efficient and co-
operative work force. (vii) Managerial Development

The top management can identify the talent, who can be groomed for handling positions of
responsibility in the organizations. Newer talent increases the productivity of the
organizations. By providing opportunity for self-development, employees put in their best
effort to contribute to the growth of the organization.

Benefits of Training to Employees The employees are the ultimate link in an any
organization, who carry out the operations. Training can help them in several ways, as
mentioned below: (i) Increasing Confidence. Training creates a feeling of confidence in the
minds of employees, who feel comfortable while handling newer challenges. It gives a
feeling of safety and security to them at the work place.
(ii) New Skills. Training develops skills, which serves as a valuable personal asset of a
worker. It remains permanently with the worker himself. (iii) Career advancement. The
managers can develop their skills to take up higher challenges and work in newer job
dimensions. Such an exercise leads to the career development of the employees, who can
move up the corporate hierarchy faster. (iv) Higher Earnings. Higher earnings are a
consequence of career development. A highly trained employee can command high salary in
the job market and feel more contended. (v) Resilience to change In the fast changing times
of today, training develops adaptability among workers. The employees feel motivated to
work under newer circumstances and they do not feel threatened or resist any change. Such
adaptability is essential for survival and growth of an organization in the present times. (vi)
Increased Safety. Trained workers handle the machines safely. They also know the use of
various safely devices in the factory, thus, they are less prone to accidents. It can be
concluded that in light of several benefits, training is an important activity, which should be
taken very seriously by the employees as well as the employers.

Changing Facets of Training The present time of rapid change has its influence on training
also. Lynton and Pareek have identified the following salient changes, that have occurred in
training in last thirty years:

1. Training has changed from training individuals to training teams of people, comprising of
members across the hierarchies. 2. Training has acquired an inter-group learning character. 3.
Training is finding itself linked with the organizational development process. It is a part of a
higher-end corporate relearning exercise. 4. Socio-technical systems are influencing the
training processes in organizations. 5. Target audience of audience is also undergoing a
compositional change. There are more number of females and people from diverse ethnic
groups and castes working in the organizations. This creates diversity in the training activity
as well. 6. Technologies, government and markets are undergoing a rapid change. (This issue
is not being addressed to in detail here as it requires a detailed discussion, which is usually
included in the paper on business environment). 7. Training extends beyond employees and
includes clients, suppliers, publics as well, making a learning organization into a learning
system.
The changes have to be learnt by the organizations to ensure effectiveness of training
exercise. The roles, responsibilities of the trainers are undergoing changes, and are discussed
hereunder.

Designing a Training Programme

Some of the typical steps in designing a training programme are:

(i) Identification of training needs. (• Organizational Analysis • Task Analysis • Human

Resource Analysis)

(ii) Setting training objectives.

(iii) Organizational set-up for training (• Trainee and Instructor • Period of Training •
Training Methods and Material)

(iv) Training operations.

(v) Evaluation of training.

Identification of Training Needs The present time is the age of change. In all the spheres of
organizational activity, there is a very rapid change. Technology has become the most
important harbinger of the change process. In order to remain competitive, people have to
learn newer skills and keep themselves updated. This calls for a constant training.

The process of change has influenced even the process of training itself. Earlier the people
were acquiring training through apprenticeship and vocational courses, which are not
sufficient in the modern era of industrialization. It is necessary to identify the training needs
because of the following reasons: (a) Adoption of new techniques in an organization and
introduction of modern working methods. For example, Computerization of the office as has
been done in banks, railways etc. The staff needs to be trained to handle the newer gadgets.
(b) Although it is often said that workforce is cheap in India, but they do not measure upto
the global standards in terms of productivity. Poor performance by the workers as reflected
by low output, lack of initiative, incompetence, and bad decisions. This requires their
systematic training. (c) Wide gaps exist between what workers should be doing and what they
are doing. (d) Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of an organization may pinpoint the
areas of weaknesses, which need to be handled seriously.

Training needs can be identified from an organization’s human resource plan. While
preparing plans, the current skills with expected needs for future should be kept in mind and
the deficiencies be highlighted. Some organizations prepare ‘skills-inventories’ classifying
employees according to their qualifications, technical knowledge, experience and various
skills. The gaps between the existing and required levels of knowledge, skills, performance
and attitudes should be specified. The problem areas that can be resolved through training
should also be identified. Training needs can be identified through the following types of
analysis: (i) Organizational analysis (a) Analysis of objectives (b) Resource utilization
analysis (c) Climate analysis (ii) Task analysis (iii) Manpower or Human Resource
Analysis:

(i) Organizational Analysis.

Organizational analysis is basically a systematic study of an organization’s objectives,

resources, resource allocation and utilization, growth potential and its environment. Its
purpose is to determine where training emphasis should be placed in the organization for
increasing organizational effectiveness. Organizational analysis involves the following
elements:

(a) Analysis of Objectives.

The long-term and short-term objectives and their relative priorities should be properly
analyzed. Specific goals for various departments should be stated which will serve as means
for achieving the overall organizational objectives. The management would have to examine
what are the specific training inputs that would contribute towards the achievements of these
objectives.

(b) Resource Utilization Analysis.

The allocation of human and physical resources and their efficient utilization in meeting the
operational targets should be analyzed. In order to examine the need for training, it should be
found out whether adequate number of personnel are available to ensure the fulfillment of the
goals or not. Also, it is important to know whether the personnel performance is upto the
required standards.

(c) Climate Analysis.

An organization’s climate reflects the attitudes of its members with regards to trust, loyalty,
openness, commitment to organizational goals. Analysis of an organization’s climate
determines whether the environment, when analyzed in different departments is conducive to
the fulfillment of their goals. This will help in knowing areas where training is needed to
improve the climate of the organization.

(ii) Task Analysis.

It is a systematic analysis of jobs to identify job contents, knowledge, skills and aptitudes
required to perform the job. Particular attention should be paid to the tasks to be performed,
the methods to be used, the way employees learn these methods and the performance
standards required of employees. Questionnaires, interviews, personnel records, observation
and other methods can be used to collect information about jobs in the organization.

In task analysis, the main focus is on the job or task. Task analysis requires the study of
various types of skills and training required to perform to the job effectively. (iii) Manpower
Analysis. The quality of manpower required by the organisation has to be carefully analysed.
It has to be done in the light of both internal and external environment of the organisation.
The economic, social, technological and political environment of the organisation should be
properly scanned to determine the quality of human resources desired. To achieve these
quality standards, specific training needs should be determined on the following lines :

(a) specific areas where individuals need training, (b) the capability of present workforce to
learn new skills and behaviours, (c) the time frame within which training must be imparted,
and (d) job designing and redesigning, introduction of new work methods and technology.

Training Objectives Once the training needs are identified, the next step is to define
specifically training objectives and to decide upon the methods to be adopted to achieve these
objectives. The overall aim of any training programme is to increase organizational
effectiveness. However, each training programme must also have specific objectives such as
increased productivity, improved quality, better human resource planning, better health and
safety, prevention of obsolescence and enhanced personal growth.

Organizational Set-Up for Training

Training has to be imparted by the people and in order to enable them work effectively;
organization must have a structure that makes them work effectively and efficiently.
However the issue of establishing a training center within a company has to be addressed
from the very first question that whether is it really feasible to have a separate training center
at all or not?

Advantages of having in-house training center:

In case a company decides to have its own training center, then it can reap several
advantages, as mentioned below:

(i) Training programme shall be under the direct control of the executives.

(ii) The likeliness of a training programme to adhere to the objectives increases if it is being
organized within the organization.

(iii) If training is a regular exercise, as it is the case of software, pharmaceuticals and other
companies, then it is feasible to have a separate training center. In such companies, training
of staff continues throughout the year. So, the overhead expenses are reduced. Even
permanent staff can be hired for management and imparting the training.

(iv) An in-house training center ensures the privacy of training. In the competitive times of
today, privacy is an important issue because the competitors can copy the organization’s
efforts and offset its competitive advantage.

(v) Constant review of training effectiveness is easy if it is being imparted within the
organization.

However, there are arguments favouring outsourcing of training as well. Nowdays the
facilities required for training, such as hotels, conference rooms, training facilities etc. are
available very economically. The external talent can also be hired at an economical cost. The
trainees also tend to pay more attention to what is being said by the external expert.
Moreover, external talent means more ideas and fresh talent. The emerging scenario is that
the companies where training is a regular phenomenon may have a training center, while
other might outsource the same. Even those outsourcing the same may have a permanent staff
to coordinate and manage the training, while the external experts might be hired for imparting
training. Usually, the considerations while deciding having an in-house training center or not
are:

• The support of the top management towards training.

• The amount of investment, which an organization wants to make.

• Volume of the training programme.

• Continuity of the training programme.

• Flexibility of a training programme.

• Privacy desired in a training programme.

In case a company has an in-house training center, the following issues have to be defined to
achieve better effectiveness and avoid clash of responsibilities:

Organizational structure

The exact position of the training department must be specified in the organizational structure
of the company. Training, being a staff function has a risk of being sidelined in a large
organization. Some of the typical structures of training department can be:

(i) As a part of the personnel department

In most companies, human resource development is entrusted upon HRD/Personnel

department. In such situation, the training department would function within the authoritative
control of the HRD manager. Usually, the new employees undergo an orientation/induction
programme, which is organized by this department. In such department, there can be a
permanent training manager, who shall plan and manage the training programmes. He shall
also evaluate the training programmes and report to the HRD manager. Although rare,
organization might hire some permanent faculty to provide the training. The common
practice is that some core faculty might be hired, while the external experts might impart
specialized training. Usually, the training imparted by this department is more generic in
nature.

(ii) In the form of a matrix organization

The training manager might not be a specialist in all functional areas. While imparting
sophisticated training, the common practice is to take a manager from the functional
department. For example, if sales training was to be given to the representatives, the sales
manager might be asked to plan the same. In such a situation, he shall design the training
programme and identify the faculty who shall provide the training. He might even identify
the trainees who need to be trained. The training manager, who shall be under the HRD
manager, shall organize the training according to the plan suggested by the sales manager. He
might arrange for the hotel, training facilities and other necessary paraphernalia required for
the training. In such a situation, the training activity is conducted in the form of a matrix
organization, where the training manager merely becomes a facilitator of a training
programme.

(iii) Training by functional heads

When training is not a very regular exercise, even the functional heads, such as marketing
manager/production manager etc. might undertake the task of organizing the training
programmes. They plan and organize the entire programme themselves.

Role and Responsibility

After the place in the organizational structure, the role and responsibility of the training
department must be specified clarity. The risk of role conflict exists particularly in a matrix
form of the training department. Each of the managers might see the other as infringing upon
the other’s authority. Such a situation is not conducive for an effective training. Shared
responsibility might not fix the responsibility in case the training does not achieve the desired
results.

Training Operations From the operational angle, the following activities have to be
undertaken to conduct a training programme. (a) Selection of the Trainees. The proper
selection of trainees is very important factor that determines permanent and gainful results. A
trainee must be provided the training which he really needs. Sometimes, the employees
perceive training as a paid vacation. This might lead to wastage of the entire effort. The
trainee might receive the training in a subject, which he is not very likely to use. Again, the
effort would be of no use. Sometimes, training is also seen as a sign of incompetence. The
employees might resist the same. So, proper screening of the candidates for training improves
the effectiveness of the training a programme. While giving training to an employee, the first
step is to attempt to place him at ease. It is generally seen that many people are somewhat
nervous when approaching an unfamiliar task. The instructor should not forget the newness
of the training programme to the trainee though he has repeated experience of this. In
addition to minimize any possible apprehension, the trainer should emphasize the importance
of job, its relationship to the workflow and the importance of rapid and effective learning.
Thus, the trainee must be given the proper background information before he starts learning
the new skills and knowledge.

(b) Training the trainer.

The trainer is a key figure of any training programme. Before he is entrusted upon with the
task of undertaking the training, he must be judged whether s/he him/herself is competent
enough to do the same or not. The firms might engage a qualified instructor from inside or
outside the organization. However, many insiders are not good instructors because they might
not possess the ability to teach the skill. Trainer needs many qualities besides theoretical
competence. He must be able to divide the job into logical parts so that he may take up one
part at a time without losing his perspective of the whole. He must be tolerant and patient. He
must be able to appreciate the value of training job in relation to the enterprise and an
understanding of what the employees would go through in order to acquire the skills and
knowledge as envisaged by the programme. The trainer has to have professional expertise to
fulfill his responsibility. Therefore, it is desirable that the trainer must have knowledge about
the job for which he is going to instruct the trainees. He must be able to suggest solutions to
the practical problems faced by the trainees. The trainer should explain and demonstrate the
operations step by step and should allow the trainees to repeat these operations. He should
also encourage questions from the trainees in order to be sure that the trainees understand the
job. (c) Training Period. The duration of a training programme depends upon the skill to be
acquired, the trainee's learning capacity and the training methodology used, For example, a
simple orientation programme for clerks may require an hour a day over a period of one
week, while a course in computer programming may be require two hours a week for 10
weeks. The use of training aids usually helps to reduce the training time. To maintain interest
and secure maximum accomplishment, no single session should last longer than two hours.
Another issue is whether the training should be given during working hours or after the
working hours. If the training is given during working hours, the productivity may suffer and
the organization will have to pay for this time. But if the training is arranged after the
working hours, the employees may not be able to make full use of training programmes
because they might be tired already. For effective training, the training manager should
reconcile these situations. (d) Training Methods and Material. There are several on-the-job
and off-the-job methods of training, which have been discussed in lesson no. 7. As was
mentioned in that lesson, the choice of any training method depends upon the specific
objectives of the training programme and several other factors. To increase the effectiveness
of training, some written material is usually desirable as a basis for instruction, review and
reference. The training section may prepare the training material with the help of line
supervisors to be used for different jobs. A complete outline of the whole course should be
made with the main topics included under each heading. The training material should be
distributed among the trainees well in advance so that they may come prepared in the lecture
class and may be able to understand the subject quickly and may remove their doubts by
asking questions from the instructor.

Evaluation of Training. Management of training would not be complete without proper

evaluation of training. Training is a very costly and time consuming process. It is essential to
determine its effectiveness in terms of achievement of specific training objectives.
Individuals like to know how much they learnt or how well they are doing. The sooner
employees know the results of a quiz or test, the sooner they can assess their progress. The
sooner employees receive positive feedback from the trainer, the less time they will waste.
Self-graded tests and programmed learning kits provide the necessary feedback to a person
on his progress on a particular subject. This principle does not necessarily mean frequent
testing, but the more immediate the feedback on learning the more motivating it is likely to
be. Evaluation of training would provide useful information about the effectiveness of
training as well as about the design of future training programmes. It will enable an
organization to monitor the training programme and also to modify its future programmes of
training. The evaluation of training also provides useful data on the basis of which relevance
of training and its integration with other functions of human resource management can be
examined.

Training Effectiveness Training effectiveness is the degree to which trainees are able to
learn and apply the knowledge and skills acquired during the programme. It is influenced by
the attitudes, interests, values and expectations of the trainees and the training environment.
A training programme is likely to be more effective when the trainees want to learn, are
involved in their jobs and have career plans. Contents of training programme, and the ability
of trainers also determine training effectiveness to a certain extent. Some of the criteria to
measure training effectiveness are the trainees’ reactions, their extent of learning,
improvement in job behaviour, and the results at the job.

Types of Training: Training can be classified into many types, depending upon several bases.
On the basis of purpose, several types of training programmes, which are not mutually
exclusive, are offered to the employees. They invariably overlap and employ many common
techniques. Some of the important types of training programmes are as follows:

1. Orientation or Induction training. 2. Job training. 3. Apprenticeship training 4. Internship

training 5. Refresher training 6. Training for promotion.

1. Orientation or Induction Training

Induction relates to introducing or orienting a new employee to the organization. When a new
employee joins any organization, he needs to be acquainted with its procedures, rules and
regulations. He must be helped to familiarize himself with the work environment and with his
fellow employees. It is better to give him a friendly welcome when he joins the organization,
get him introduced to the organization and help him to get a general idea about the rules and
regulations, working conditions, etc. of the organization. Employee orientation or induction
training basically deals with the introduction of the organization to the newly employed
person. The purpose is to give a ‘bird’s eye view’ of the organization where he has to work. It
is a very short and informative type of training given immediately after recruitment. It creates
a feeling of involvement in the minds of newly appointed employees.

2. Job Training When an employee joins an organization, he undergoes job training, which
relates to the specific job, which the worker has to perform. It gives information about
machines, process of production, instructions to be followed, methods to be used and so on. It
develops skills and confidence among the workers and enables them to perform the job
efficiently. Job training is the most common form of the formal in-plant training
programmes. It is necessary for the new employees to acquaint them with the jobs they are
expected to perform. It helps in creating interest of the employees in their jobs.

3. Apprenticeship Training Apprenticeship training programmes are more inclined towards

education than merely on the vocational training. Under this, both knowledge and skills in
doing a job or a series of related jobs are involved. The governments of various countries,
including India, have passed laws which make it obligatory for certain classes of employers
to provide apprenticeship training to the young people. The usual apprenticeship programmes
combine on the job training and experience with classroom instructions in particular subjects.
The trainees receive wages while learning and they acquire valuable skills, which command a
high wage in the labour market. In India, there are several ‘earn while you learn’ schemes
both in the private as well as public sector undertakings. Such schemes are also advantageous
to the trainees. Some employers look upon apprentices as a source of cheap labor.
Apprenticeship training is desirable in industries, which require a constant flow of new
employees expected to become all round craftsmen. It is very much prevalent in printing
trades, building and construction, and crafts like mechanics electricians, welders, etc.

4. Internship Training Under this method of training, the educational or vocational institute
enters into an arrangement with an industrial enterprise, or any organization which can utilize
their knowledge, for providing practical knowledge to its students. Internship training is
usually meant for such vocations where advanced theoretical knowledge has to be backed up
by practical experience on the job. For instance, engineering students are sent to big industrial
enterprises for getting practical work experience and medical students are sent to big
hospitals to get practical knowledge. The period of such training varies from six months to
two years. The trainees do not belong to the business enterprises, but they come from the
vocational or professional institutions. It is quite usual that the enterprises giving them
training absorb them by offering suitable jobs after completion of their trainings.

5. Refresher Training As the name implies, the refresher training is meant for the old
employees of the enterprise. It is also called retraining. The basic purpose of refresher
training is to acquaint the existing workforce with the latest methods of performing their jobs
and to improve their efficiency further. While explaining this, Dale Yoder has rightly
remarked, “Retraining programmes are designed to avoid personnel obsolescence”. The skills
with the existing employees become obsolete because of technological changes and because
of the tendency of human beings to forget. Thus, refresher training is essential because of the
following factors: (a) The workers require training to bring them up-todate with the
knowledge and skills and to relearn what they have forgotten. (b) Rapid technological
changes make even the qualified workers obsolete in course of time because new technology
is associated with new work-methods and job requirements. The workers need to learn new
work methods to use new techniques in doing their jobs. (c) Refresher training becomes
necessary because many new jobs that are created due to changes in the demand for goods
and services are to be handled by the existing employees.

6. Training for Promotion The talented employees may be given adequate training to make
them eligible for promotion to higher jobs in the organization. Promotion of an employee
means a significant change in his responsibilities and duties. Therefore, it is essential that he
be provided sufficient training to learn new skills to perform his new duties efficiently. The
purpose of training for promotion is to develop the existing employees to make them fit for
undertaking higher job responsibilities. This serves as a motivating force to the employees.

Methods of Training There is a wide range of training methods and techniques have been
developed over the years by various organizations and training experts. Different training
methods are suitable for different categories of people in the organization. There can be
several categories of personnel in an organization, e.g. managerial and nonmanagerial,
technical, administrative, skilled, unskilled, senior, junior etc. Each organization has to
choose the methods and techniques of training which are relevant for its training needs.
Various methods of training may be classified into the following categories: I. Vestibule
training. II. On-the-job training. III. Off-the-job training.
l. On-the-job Training (at the place of work) (i) Coaching (ii) Understudy (iii) Position
Rotation

II. Vestibule Training (adapted to the environment at the place of work)

III. Off-the-job Training (away from the place of work) (i) Special Lecture-cum-Discussion
(ii) Conference (iii) Case Study (iv) Sensitivity training (v) Special projects (vi) Committee
assignments.

On-The-Job Training On-the-job training is considered to be the most effective method of

training the operative personnel. Under this method, the worker is given training at the work
place by his immediate supervisor. In other words, the worker learns in the actual work
environment. It is based on the principle of ‘learning by doing’. On-the-job training is
suitable for imparting skills that can be learnt in a relatively short period of time, It has the
chief advantage of strongly motivating the trainee to learn. It is not located in an artificial
situation. It permits the trainee to learn on the equipment and in the work-environment. On-
the-job training methods are relatively cheaper and less time consuming. Another important
factor about on-the-job training is that supervisors play an important part in training the
subordinates. There are four methods of on-the-job training explained below:

(i) Coaching. Under this method, the supervisor imparts job knowledge and skills to his
subordinate. The emphasis in coaching or instructing the subordinate is on learning by doing.
This method is very effective if the superior has sufficient time to provide coaching to his
subordinates.

(ii) Understudy. The superior gives training to a subordinate as his understudy or assistant.
The subordinate learns through experience and observation. It prepares the subordinate to
assume the responsibilities of the superior’s job in case the superior leaves the organization.
The subordinate chosen for under-study is designated as the heir-apparent and his future
depends upon what happens to his boss. The purpose of under study is to prepare someone to
fill the vacancy caused by death, retirement, promotion, or transfer of the superior.

(iii) Position Rotation. The purpose of Position rotation is to broaden the background of the
trainee in various positions. The trainee is periodically rotated from job to job instead of
sticking to one job so that he acquires a general background of different jobs. However,
rotation of an employee from one job to another should not be done frequently. He should be
allowed to stay on a job for a sufficient period so that he may acquire the full knowledge of
the job. Job rotation is used by many organizations to develop allround-workers. The
employees learn new skills and gain experience in handling different kinds of jobs. They also
come to know the interrelationship between different jobs. Job rotation is also used to place
workers on the right jobs and prepare them to handle other jobs in case of need.

Importance of On-the-job training

On-the-job training techniques are most appropriate for teaching knowledge and skills that
can be learnt in a relatively short time and where only one or a few employees are to be
trained at the same time for the same job. But the success of the training depends almost
entirely on the trainer. If he understands training principles and methods and if he takes an
interest in proper training of new employees, chances are that it will be done properly.

On-the-job training has the chief advantage of strongly motivating the trainee to learn. It is
not located in an artificial situation, either physically or psychologically. It permits the trainee
to learn at the actual equipment and in the environment of the job. On-the-job training
methods are relatively cheaper and less time consuming. If only a few persons are to be
trained at one time, it is cheaper for the employer to resort to on-the-job training. It will take
less time to learn on the job itself and, moreover, production does not suffer. Another
important factor about on-the-job training is that line supervisors take an important part in
training their subordinates.

On-the-job training is the most effective method of training the employees because it is in
complete accord with the three basic laws of learning: (i) The law of readiness; (ii) The law
of exercise; and (iii) The law of effect.

When a person is confronted with a job which he is potentially able to do and is interested in
learning how to do a job in order to hold it; the law of readiness is definitely satisfied. Such a
situation presents a good incentive for learning. The second law of learning is that of
exercise and it is satisfied when a person is trained on the job. He has the chance to
immediately apply what he has been trained to understand and to do. The law of effect is
likewise satisfied through on-the-job training. If the training is good and new employee is
intelligently dealt with by his supervisor, he will get satisfaction out of his work and feel
secured in the job. He will be better satisfied than he would have been if he had been left to
learn by trial and error method.

Vestibule Training Vestibule means a cabin and the term ‘vestibule training’ is used to
designate training in a cabin (or a classroom) for semi-skilled jobs. It is more suitable where a
large number of employees have be trained at the same time for the same kind of work.
Where this method is used, there should be well-qualified instructors in charge of training
programme. Here the emphasis tends to be on learning rather than production. It is frequently
used to train clerks, machine operators, typists, etc.

Vestibule training is adapted to the same general type of training problem that is faced by on-
the-job training. A vestibule school is run as a special endeavour of the personnel department.
An attempt is made to duplicate, as nearly as possible, the actual material, equipment and
conditions found in the real work place. The vestibule school may be started when the
training work exceeds the capacity of the line supervisors. Thus, in vestibule training, the
workers are trained on specific jobs in a school run by the organization. An attempt is made
to create working conditions, which are similar to the actual workshop conditions. The
learning conditions are also carefully controlled. Vestibule training is particularly suitable
where it is not advisable to put the burden of training on line supervisors and where a special
coaching is required. The staff of the vestibule school consists of expert and specialist
instructors. The trainees avoid confusion and pressure of the work situation and are thus able
to concentrate on training. Their activities do not interfere with the regular processes of
production. Moreover, trainees get an opportunity to become accustomed to work routine and
recover from their initial nervousness before going on to actual jobs. Vestibule training has
certain demerits also. The artificial training atmosphere may create the adjustment problem
for the trainees when they return to the place of job. Vestibule training is relatively expensive
because there is duplication of materials, equipment and conditions found in a real
workplace.

Off-The-Job Training The biggest merit of on-the-job training methods is that they do not
require the worker to be absent from his work place. There is no disruption in the normal
activities. However, when the training is specialized, or needs the use of sophisticated
equipment, or needs a specialist trainer, it might not be feasible to provide the training while
on job. For such situations, off-the-job training methods are used by the organizations. Off-
the-job training methods require the worker to undergo training for a specific period away
from the work-place. These methods are concerned with both knowledge and skills in doing
certain jobs. The workers are free of tension of work while they are learning. There are
several off-the-job methods of training and development as described below:

(i) Special Lecture cum Discussion. Training through special lectures is also known as
‘classroom training’. It is more associated with imparting knowledge than with skills. Some
executives of the organization or specialists from vocational and professional institutes may
deliver the special lectures. Many firms also follow the practice of inviting experts for special
lectures for the staff on matters like health, safety, productivity, quality, etc. There are
certain aspects of nearly all jobs that can be learnt better in the classroom than on the job.
Orientation about organization and safety training can be accomplished more effectively in
the classroom. The standard instructional method suitable for operative employees is a
‘formal lecture’ by in instructor to the trainees. The lecturer possesses a considerable depth of
knowledge of the subject at hand. He seeks to communicate his thoughts in such a manner as
to interest the class and cause the trainees to retain what he has said. The trainees generally
take notes as an aid to learning. The lecture method can be used for providing instructions to
large groups. Thus, the cost per trainee is low. However, it has certain limitations also. The
learners may be passive. It violates the principle of learning by doing and constitutes, one-
way communication. But if the learners are permitted to ask questions, they will provide
feedback to the instructor. Lectures can easily be combined with other techniques. Thus, a
teacher may conduct a class by the combined lecture-cum-discussion method. He may lecture
only to add new information that the group does not possess. Formal reading assignment may
be given, demonstration may be presented and video films may be shown along with the
lecture.

(ii) Conference / Seminar Training. The literal meaning of conference is ‘consultation’. But
in practice, conference implies sharing some information with an audience of a large number
of people. It is conducted in a big hall where the participants are allowed w exchange their
views and raise queries. The proceedings of the conference are conducted by the chairman
who is also responsible for summing up the proceedings of the conference. These days video
conferencing is also gaining popularity under which people can participate in the conference
through link via satellite.
 A conference is a group meeting conducted according to an organized plan in which the
members seek to develop knowledge and understanding by oral participation. It is an
effective training device for persons in the positions of both conference member and
conference leader. As a member, a person can learn from others by comparing his opinion
with those of others. He learns to respect the viewpoints of others and also realizes that there
is more than one workable approach to any problem. Seminars are also used for bringing
various people to a platform where they discuss various issues relating to work. This helps
them in understanding others’ viewpoints, making themselves understand and seeking
solutions to the problems, which they might not be able to solve themselves. Seminars offer
brainstorming platforms where more than one brains work on solving work-related problems.
Seminars can include lecturing by external experts as well. Seminars can be within the
organization or the trainees can be nominated to participate in those being organized by other
institutions.

(iii) Case Study. The case method is a means of simulating experience in the classroom.
Under this method, the trainees are given a problem or case which is more or less related to
the concepts and principles already taught. They analyse the problem and suggest solutions
which are discussed in the class. The instructor helps them reach a common solution to the
problem. This method gives the trainee an opportunity to apply his knowledge to the solution
of realistic problems. Cases may be used in either of the two ways. Firstly, they can be used
subsequent to the expansion of formal theory under which the trainees apply their knowledge
of theory to specific situations. Secondly, the trainees may be assigned the cases for written
analysis and oral discussion in the class without any prior explanation of pertinent concepts
and theory. The case study places heavy demands upon the trainees and requires that they
should have a good deal of maturity in the subject-matter concerned. The comprehension of
cases can also vary. The trainer has to put forward the underlying idea of the case so that it is
understood in a proper perspective.

(iv) Role Playing In this technique, the trainees are made to experience what others feel of a
particular situation. They understand the viewpoint of others and come to know of constrains
within which others are working. Such an interaction and understanding helps in reducing the
dysfunctional conflicts within the organizations. Many times, various departments of the
organizations disagree because they do not understand each others’ viewpoint. Role playing
is an effective training technique to bridge the differences between them. Besides, this, it is
an effective method to prepare the trainees to face the situations that they are likely to face
while discharging their duties. For example, the sales staff is often asked to play the role of
the customers to understand how they might behave in a given situation. They become
trained enough to face the likely situations. Role-playing is a very flexible training method. It
may be elaborately pre-planned, with each task specified. Usually, a discussion is done at the
end to sum up the situation after role-playing. This planning helps in time management
otherwise the exercise can go uncontrolled.

(v) Behavioural Simulation Games These focus primarily on the process of inter-personal
relations, on how decisions are made, and with what consequences, rather than on the
substance of the decisions. Sometimes, structured exercises is used to connote all types of
simulations, but there exists a distinction between a game and an exercise. Games have set
rules and have predictable results. Often, their design is hidden in order to highlight a
behavioural process and to dramatize its effects. The repetition of the game becomes
meaningless once the trainees learn the secret of the game. On the other hand, exercises
simulate a process that can be repeated until learning is assured. They provide scope for
improvisation, adaptation, and redesigning according to the personal and situational needs.

(vi) In-basket Exercises These are more elaborate simulation exercises in which a complex
organization is created in the form of an office environment. The trainees work in an office
setting with their in-basket full of interdepartmental memos, letters, reports, forecasts and
other data on their desks, as one receives in an office. The normal phone calls, emails and
face to face meetings also keep on happening to give a real office-like environment. Such a
simulation of the office in-basket familiarizes the trainees with the role that they are expected
to play. They also get acquainted with the nature of communication that they have to perform
in the worksettings. Critical incidents are also included in the in-basket to familiarize to the
trainees. While this is one of the most real-life experiences, the trainees might get carried
away with the enactment of the scene and might not achieve the desired goal, i.e. learning.

(vii) Laboratory training Laboratory training provides the participants with an extensive
experience of how various groups and individuals interact in group situations. Laboratory is a
controlled environment for training where the external factor are not allowed to interfere with
the training process. The biggest advantage of laboratory training if its effectiveness and the
limitation is that controlled conditions might nor provide a real-life enactment of the
situations.

Training Effectiveness Training effectiveness is the degree to which trainees are able to
learn and apply the knowledge and skills acquired during the programme. The attitudes,
interests, values and expectations of the trainees and the training environment influence it. A
training programme is likely to be more effective when the trainees are involved in their jobs
and have career plans. Contents of training programme, and the ability of trainers also
determine training effectiveness to a certain extent.

Criteria for evaluating training effectiveness The following criteria may be used to measure
the effectiveness of training:

(i) Reactions

Trainees’ reactions to the objectives, contents and methods of training are good indicators of
effectiveness. In case the trainees considered the programme worthwhile and liked it, the
training can be considered effective.

(ii) Learning. The extent to which the trainees have gained the desired knowledge and skills
during the training period is a useful basis of evaluating training effectiveness.

(iii) Behaviour.
 Improvement in the job behaviour of the trainees reflects the manner and extent, to which,
the learning has been put to practice.

(iv) Results.

Productivity improvement, quality improvement, cost reduction, accident reduction,

reduction in labor turnover and absenteeism are the outcomes of training which can be used
for evaluating effectiveness.