Biology

Assignmen
t

Name of student: Ayushi nanda

Roll no: 1912948
Class: B. tech sec c
Submitted to:
Date of submission:
 Biosensors
Biological and biochemical processes have a very important role on medicine,
biology and biotechnology. However, it is very difficult to convert directly
biological data to electrical signal, the biosensors can convert these signals and
the biosensors over this difficulty. In recent years, thanks to improved
techniques and devices, the usage of these products has increased
The first biosensor was described in 1962 by Clark and Lyons who immobilized
glucose oxidase (GOD) on an amperometry oxygen electrode surface
semipermeable dialysis membrane in order to quantify glucose concentration
in a sample directly.
According to a recently proposed IUPAC definition “A biosensor is a self-
contained integrated device which is capable of providing specific quantitative
or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition
element (biochemical receptor) which is in direct spatial contact with a
transducer element. A biosensor should be clearly distinguished from a
bioanalytical system, which requires additional processing steps, such as
reagent addition. Furthermore, a biosensor should be distinguished from a bio
probe which is either disposable after one measurement, i.e. single use, or
unable to continuously monitor the analyte concentration”.

A biosensor is a device composed of two

elements:
1. A bioreceptor that is an immobilized sensitive biological element (e.g. enzyme,
DNA probe, antibody) recognizing the analyte (e.g. enzyme substrate,
complementary DNA, antigen).

2. A transducer is used to convert (bio)chemical signal resulting from the

interaction of the analyte with the bioreceptor into an electronic one.

Types of biosensors
 biosensors
biosensors

resonant
resonant thermal
thermal electrochemical
electrochemical Bioluminescence
Bioluminescence Nucleic Acid-based
Nucleic Acid-based
optical
optical biosensors
biosensors Nanobiosensors
Nanobiosensors
biosensors
biosensors biosensors
biosensors biosensors
biosensors sensors
sensors Biosensors
Biosensors

Surface
Surface plasmon
plasmon Conductimetric
Conductimetric
resonance (SPR)
resonance (SPR) Biosensors
Biosensors
biosensor
biosensor

Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric Amperometric
Amperometric
biosensors
biosensors Biosensors
Biosensors

Potentiometric
Potentiometric
Biosensors
Biosensors

2.1. Resonant Biosensor

In this type of biosensor, an acoustic wave transducer is coupled with an
antibody (bio element).

2.2. Optical biosensors

The output transduced signal that is measured is light for this type of
biosensor. The biosensor can be made based on optical diffraction or
electrochemiluminescence.

2.2.1. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor

This is an evanescent field based optical sensors using thin gold film for
sensing applications. The interaction between analyte flowing over
immobilized interactant on gold surface is probed through the detection of
reflection minima on photo-detector array sensors. SPR has successfully been
applied to the detection of pathogen bacteria by means of immunoreactions.

2.2.2. Piezoelectric biosensors

Piezoelectric (PZ) biosensor offers a real-time output, simplicity of use and
cost effectiveness. The general idea is based on coating the surface of the PZ
 sensor with a selectively binding substance, for example, antibodies to
bacteria, and then placing it in a solution containing bacteria. The bacteria will
bind to the antibodies and the mass of the crystal will increase while the
resonance frequency of oscillation will decrease proportionally.

2.3. Thermal Biosensors

This type of biosensor is exploiting one of the fundamental properties of
biological reactions, namely absorption or production of heat, which in turn
changes the temperature of the medium in which the reaction takes place.
They are constructed by combining immobilized enzyme molecules with
temperature sensors.

2.4. Electrochemical Biosensors

Electrochemical biosensors are mainly used for the detection of hybridized
DNA, DNA binding drugs, glucose concentration, etc.
Electrochemical biosensors can be classified based on the measuring electrical
parameters as: (i) conductimetric, (ii) amperometry and (iii) potentiometric.
.

2.4.1. Conductimetric Biosensors

The measured parameter is the electrical conductance/resistance of the
solution. When electrochemical reactions produce ions or electrons, the
overall conductivity or resistivity of the solution changes. This change is
measured and calibrated to a proper scale.

2.4.2. Aerometric Biosensors

This is perhaps the most common electrochemical detection method used in
biosensors. This high sensitivity biosensor can detect electroactive species
present in biological test samples. Aerometric biosensors produce a current
proportional to the concentration of the substance to be detected.

2.4.3. Potentiometric Biosensors

These are the least common of all biosensors, but different strategies may be
found nonetheless in this type of sensor the measured parameter is oxidation
or reduction potential of an electrochemical reaction. The working principle
relies on the fact that when a voltage is applied to an electrode in solution, a
 current flow occurs because of electrochemical reactions. The voltage at which
these reactions occur indicates a particular reaction and particular species.

2.5. Bioluminescence sensors

Recent advances in bioanalytical sensors have led to the utilization of the
ability of certain enzymes to emit photons as a by-product of their reactions.
This phenomenon is known as bioluminescence. The potential applications of
bioluminescence for bacterial detection were initiated by the development of
luciferase reporter pages

2.6. Nucleic Acid-based Biosensors

A nucleic acid biosensor is an analytical device that integrates an
oligonucleotide with a signal transducer. The nucleic acid probe is immobilized
on the transducer and acts as the bio-recognition molecule to detect DNA/RNA
fragments.

2.7. Nano biosensors

Nano sensors can be defined as sensors based on nanotechnology.
Development of nano biosensor is one of the most recent advancement in the
field of Nanotechnology. The silver and certain other noble metal
nanoparticles have many important applications in the field of biolabeling,
drug delivery system, filters and also antimicrobial drugs, sensors

The application of biosensor areas is clinic, diagnostic, medical applications,

process control, bioreactors, quality control, agriculture and veterinary
medicine, bacterial and viral diagnostic, drag production, control of industrial
waste water, mining, military defence industry etc. A few advantages of
biosensors are listed below:
1. They can measure nonpolar molecules that do not respond to most
measurement devices
2. Biosensors are specific due to the immobilized system used in them
3. Rapid and continuous control is possible with biosensors
4. Response time is short (typically less than a minute) and practical.

Recent development
 Biosensors and cancer
Cancer diagnosis and treatment are of great interest due to the widespread
occurrence of the diseases, high death rate, and recurrence after treatment
Bacterial and viral infections are also strongly associated with some types of
cancer. In medicine, biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucose levels in
diabetics, detect pathogens, and diagnose and monitor cancer. The use of
emerging biosensor technology could be instrumental in early cancer detection
and more effective treatments, particularly for those cancers that are typically
diagnosed at late stages and respond poorly to treatment, resulting in
improvements in patient quality of life and overall chance of survival. By
measuring levels of certain proteins expressed and/or secreted by tumour
cells, biosensors can detect whether a tumour is present, whether it is benign
or cancerous, and whether treatment has been effective in reducing or
eliminating cancerous cells.

Biosensors and Pathogen detection

Bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms are found widely in nature and
environment. Microbial diseases constitute the major cause of deaths in
developing countries . Pathogen detection is of the utmost importance
primarily for health and safety reasons. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR),
culture and colony counting methods as well as immunology-based methods
are the most common tools used for pathogen detection. They involve DNA
analysis, counting of bacteria and antigen–antibody interactions, respectively.
In spite of disadvantages such as the time required for the analysis or the
complexity of their use, they still represent a field where progress is possible.
Biosensors have recently been defined as analytical devices incorporating a
biological material intimately associated with or integrated within a
physicochemical transducer or transducing microsystem, which may be optical,
electrochemical, thermometric, piezoelectric, magnetic or micromechanical.
There are three main classes of biological recognition elements which are used
in biosensor applications. These are enzymes, antibodies and, nucleic acids.
There are also some disadvantages
of biosensors:

1. Heat sterilization is not possible because of denaturization of biological

material,
2. Stability of biological material (such as enzyme, cell, antibody, tissue, etc.),
depends on the natural properties of the molecule that can be denaturalized
under environmental conditions (pH, temperature or ions)
3. The cells in the biosensor can become intoxicated by other molecules that
are capable of diffusing through the membrane

Future Biosensors Directions:

Miniaturization of developed biosensors will be important in the future.
Because miniaturization is required for small electrodes, for example
measurements in vivo. Another future approach is the combination of
biological materials with a silicon chip because it seems to be the most
comprehensive integration between biology and electronics [50].
Nanostructures will be important new components in recently developed
electrochemical biosensors: Nanowires, carbon nanotubes, nanoparticles and
nanorods are some of the familiar objects that are crucial elements of future
bioelectronics devices and biosensors.