1

Quantum computing
i

SIDDHANT iRAI
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Reg.No i– i11713434
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Roll iNo. i42
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Department iof iComputer iScience iand iEngineering,
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Lovely iProfessional iUniversity, iPhagwara, iPunjab i
Abstract—Quantum itheory iis ione iin iall ithe iforemost iin istructure ishows ithe inumber iof ielectrons irequired ito istore isingle
iconcepts ithat ihave iinfluenced ithe imethod iof iscientific
idevelopment ithroughout ithe i20th icentury. iHe ihas iintroduced ia
idata. iThe i
ibrand inew iline iof iscientific ithought, ione ithat ipredicts ifully reconstruction iof ithis istructure isuggests ithat iit ishould ibe ithere
iinaccessible iconditions iand iinfluenced imany idomains iof irecent ionce ithe iatomic irate iis ireached iamong iten iyears ior iadditional iat
itechnology. iThere iarea iunit imany ialternative iways ito iindicate
ithe iatomic irate.
ithe ilaws iof iscience inormally iand itherefore ithe ilaws iof iphysics.
ithe isame ias inatural ilaws iof inature, idetails ican ieven ibe Fig i1: iShowing ithe inumber iof idopant iimpurities iin ilogic iin
iexpressed iin iseveral iways ithat. ithe iactual ifact ithat idata iis
ibipolar itransistors iwith iyear
ibestowed iin iseveral iways ithat iwhile inot ilosing iits iessential
inature, iends iup iin ithe ideception iof imachine-controlled idata.
iduring ithis ipaper iI ispecialize iin ithe ifundamentals iof iQuantum
icomputing iand iits ialternative ioptions ilike iQuantum itrap iand
iSuperposition, ithis ipaper ifocuses ion ithe iplanning iand
II. QUANTUM iCOMPUTING: iAN iENTIRELY iNEW
iCONCEPT iIN iCOMPUTING
iprogramming iof inatural iphilosophy iand ilater iQuantum
icomputing ito iopen iup ia iwell-directed iapproach ito ithe isuperb
iworld iof iQuantum iscience ifor ibeginners. Doing ithe imathematics, ilooking iat ithe inet, imeasure ithe icountry's
ieconomy, iforetelling ithe iweather iand idifferent ithings iplace ia
I. INTRODUCTION
istrain ion ithe icapability iof ithe iquickest iand imost ipowerful

icomputers. ithe iissue iisn't isuch ia ilot ithat imicroprocessors iare

Quantum itechnology iis itaken iinto iaccount ito ibe ithe ilonger-term islow; ithat icomputers ido inot iwork iproperly. itrendy i(classical)

itechnology iand itherefore ithe igreatest iaction iin iengineering ionce icomputers ioperate iin iline iwith isystems ithat iseparate iwork ifrom

ithe iinvention iof ithe ipresently iused icomputers. iseveral ithings ithat iare idone i1st, iand iso iso ias, ione ioperation iat ia itime.

icomplicated ialgorithms iand iissues ilike iRivest-Shamir-Adleman iEfforts iare icreated ito iintegrate i2 ior ia ilot iof icomputers i(or ia

i(RSA) iand iferredoxin iare iextraordinarily iexpensive iand imay ibe iminimum iof i2 imicroprocessors) ito ifigure ion itotally idifferent

iresolved iwith iQuantum icomputers iin ia i{very} ivery ishort itime. iaspects iof ithe imatter iat ithe iidentical itimes, ihowever, iprogress

iIn isavvy, iRSA iencoding iis ibroken iby ia iprevious ilaptop ifor ion iidentical ipc iis islower iand ia ilot iof iacceptable. ithe irationale

inearly ia ibillion iyears ihowever iwith ithe iproper iintegration iof ithe ifor ithis ican ibe ithat ilogic idesigned ion imicroprocessors iis iserial

iQuantum igates, iwe iare iable ito isolve ithe imatter iin iconcerning i(ordinary icomputers itypically iappear ito iperform iseveral itasks iat

ione ihundred iseconds. ipresently iall iof ithe ischool igiants ilike iidentical itimes, ilike imistreatment ieach ian iapplication iprogram

iGoogle, iIBM, ietc. iit's iattempting iits ihands iduring ithis ifield ito iand ia iprogram, ibut, iin ifact, ia iC.P.U. iis isimply iathletics iquickly

iprove ithe idimensions iof iQuantum. iRecently iIBM ihas iupgraded ifrom ione itask ito isucceeding i). iduring ia itrue isense, icompatible

iits iQuantum iplatform ito ipush ithe isimplest ithanks ito ibeginning icomputers iwould ibe iable ito ibuild iat iidentical itimes. iit'll ibe

ivictimization ithe isimplest. ipotential ito iperform iseveral itasks idirectly, ito iquickly isearch

The inumber iof iatoms irequired ito irepresent imemory islightly ihas ithrough ia iprotracted ilist iof ipotentialities iand iestablish ithe ione

ibeen idecreasing iconsiderably isince i1950. ithe ipopularity icreated iWHO iis ithe iresolution ithe imatter. iSuch icomputers iexist. ithey're

iby iGordon iMoore iin i1965 iarranged ithe ifoundations iof ithe ireferred ito ias iquantum icomputers. iIn ifact, ithe iforemost iexciting

ialleged i"Moore's iLaw" i- ithose ilaptop icapabilities ithat iincreased iside iof iquantum icorrespondence icomputing. iThe iquantum

ievery ieighteen imonths. iIf iMoore's ilaw ihas ibeen idisclosed isystem, iin igeneral, iisn't iduring ia i"single istate" ihowever iis

iwithin ithe iclose ito ifuture, iit's ilearned ithat ishortly, ievery idata iduring ia i"quantum istate"[2] ithat icontains i(generally ispeaking)

iought ito ibe iincorporated iinto ia ibody isystem ithat icontains ia ithe ihigher ireaches iof ithe imany iancient ior isimilar iprovinces. ithis

isubatomic idimension. iIn ifact, ithis ireality iis iconfirmed iby ia ican ibe ireferred ito ilike ithe iidea iof ithe iupper ipower iaccustomed

isurvey iconducted iby iKeyes iin i1988 ias ishown iin ifig. i1. iThis ito ibuilding ithe icountries. iIf isuperposition[2] iis iprotected iagainst

iunwanted iinput iand iits iatmosphere i(known ias idecoherence) ia

iquantum ipc iwill imanufacture iresults ibetting ion ithe iinfo iof iall iits

iclassical-like icircuits. ithis ican ibe ia icomparison iof iquantum

icorrespondence- iparallelism iduring ia iserial imachine.

III. QUANTUM iSUPERPOSITION iAND iQUANTUM

iVERIFICATION
Visualization iof iquantum icomputers. iIn ia iquantum icomputer ia i interference iresulting ifrom ithe ilinear isuperposition[2] iof ithe
ibasic iinformation iunit i(called ia iquantum ibit ior i“qubit”, i possible iphoton istates iof ipotential ipaths.
ianalogous ito iclassical ibit iused iin ia istandard icomputer), iis inot

ibinary ibut irather ia imore inatural ienvironment. iThis iqubit IV. QUANTUM iENTANGLEMENT
iproperty iemerges ias ia idirect iresult iof iits iadherence ito ithe

istandard idose irules. iThe iline ican iexist inot ionly iin ia icountry ithat The iobservation iof icorrelation iamong ivaried ievents imay ibe ia
iday ito iday iphenomena. iThese icorrelations iar iwell idelineate iwith
iis iin ia ilogical istate i0 ior i1 ias iin ithe istate iof ithe imainstream ibut

ialso iin iregions ithat icorrespond ito ithe ihigher iintegration iof ithose ithe iassistance iof ithe ilaws iof iclassical iphysics. iallow ius ito

iclassical iregions. iIn iother iwords, ia iqubit ican iexist ias izero, ione, icontemplate ithe isubsequent iexample: iImagine ia iscene iof ibank

ior iat ithe isame itime ias iboth i0 iand i1, iwith ia ilinear icombination itheft iis ipicturized. iThe irobber ihas iinformed ia igun iat ithe ipanicky

irepresenting ithe iprobability ithat ieach istate iis ipossible. iThis iteller. iBy iobserving ithe iteller ione iwill itell iwhether ior inot ithe

iconcept imay iseem iconfusing ibecause ithe ieveryday iobject iis igun ihas igone ioff ior inot iif ithe iteller iis ialive iand iunscathed, ione

igoverned iby iclassical iphysics, inot iquantum imechanics, iwhich iwill ibe icertain ithe igun ihas inot ibeen idischarged. iIf ithe iteller iis

iresults iat ithe iatomic ilevel. iPhysical ifluctuations ican ibe iseen ilying idead iof ia ishot iwound ion ithe iground, ione iis iaware iof ithe

igun ihas ibeen idischarged. ithis iis ioften ia istraightforward

iwith ispin is i= i1/2 iof ia isingle ielectron isystem, ithe itwo istates i+1 i/

i2 iand i1/2 iare itwo istates iof iSz i(direction iof ithe ispatial ifield iof idetective icase. iso ithere's ian iimmediate icorrelation ibetween ithe

ithe iouter imagnetic ifield i½.). iAlternatively, ia isingle-Photon istate iof ithe igun iand itherefore ithe istate iof ithe iteller i‘gun ifired’

ibeam ican ibe iused, ithe itotal ibeam iis ihorizontal i(horizontal ior isuggests ithat i“teller ialive”. iwithin ithe ievent, iit's iplausible ithe

ivertical) irelative ito ithe iselected iaxis. iThus ia iqubit ican itake ithief isolely ishots ito ikill iand ihe ine'er imisses. iwithin ithe iworld iof

ivalues iof i2, i0 ior i1, iassociated iwith itwo ieigenstates iof isingle imicroscopic iobjects idelineate iby iquantum iphysics, ithe

ielectron ispin i(say)[2]: icorrelation iamong ithe ievents iisn't itherefore istraightforward.

icontemplate ia inucleus ithat imay ibear idecay iat ian iexact itime ior

i i i i i i i i i i i| i1> i= i| i↑> i| i0> i= i| i↓> i| i0> i+ i| i1> i= i| iit'd inot. iso iwith ireference ito idecay ithe inucleus iexist iin i2 iV iH

i↑> i+ i| i↓> i11 iabsolutely iSilvered i[*fr1] iSilvered i(Beam isplitter) iB ithirteen

iattainable istates ionly: i‘decayed’ iand i‘not idecayed’, ieven ias iwe

And ifurthermore, iit icould ibe ithe isurface iarea iof ithe itwo istates ihave ia itendency ito ihad i2 istates, i‘fired’ iand i‘not ifired’ ifor ithe

iwith icomplex icoefficients iand ithis iproperty idistinguishes igun ior i‘alive’ iand i‘dead’ ifor ithe iteller[3]. iHowever, iwithin ithe

ibetween ithe iold ipieces iused iin iconventional icomputers. iquantum imechanical iworld, iit's iconjointly iattainable ifor ithe

iMathematically, iwe isay ithat isince ithe igeneral istate iof ia iqubit iatom ito ibe iduring ia icombined istate idecayed-not idecayed iduring

ican ibe ithe isurface iarea iof itwo ipure istates iwith iopposing iwhich iit's ineither ione inor ithe iopposite ihowever isomewhere iin

icoefficients, ithen ithe istate iis idefined ias ia ivector iin ia icomplex ibetween. ithis iis ioften ibecause iof ithe iprinciple iof ilinear

ispace iwith ic-2 ispace iand itwo ipure isurfaces iform ithe ibasis iof ithe isuperposition iof i2 iquantum imechanical istates iof ithe iatom iand

ipresentation. iisn't ione ithing iwe ihave ia itendency ito iordinarily iexpect iof

iclassical iobjects ilike iguns ior itellers. iFurther, iallow ius ito

icontemplate ia isystem iconsisting iof i2 inuclei. i2 inuclei iare ialso

icorrelated iso iif ione ihas idecayed, ithe iopposite iwill ihave

idecayed. iAnd iif ione ihas inot idecayed, ineither ihas ithe iopposite.

ithis iis ioften ia i100 ipercent icorrelation. iHowever, ithe inuclei ican

ialso ibe icorrelated iso iif ione iis iwithin ithe isuperposition istate,

i‘decayed-not idecayed’, ithe iopposite iwill ibe. iso iquantum

iautomatically, ithen ian iadded icorrelation ibetween inuclei ithan iwe

imight iexpect iclassically. ithis itype iof iquantum i‘super

icorrelation’ iis itermed i‘Entanglement[2]’.

Here ifrom ia ilight isource, ia iphoton iis iemitted itowards ia ihalf-

silvered imirror ialong ia ipath. iFrom ithis imirror, ilight iis ireflected.
iHalf iof ithe ireflected ilight iis idirected ivertically itowards idetector

iA iand itransmitting ihalf itoward idetector iB. ia iphoton, ihowever,

irepresents ia isingle iquantized ienergy istate i(E=hν) iand ihence

icannot ibe isplit, iso iit iis idetected iwith iequal iprobability iat ieither

iA ior iB. iThis iis iverified iby iobservation ithat iif ithe idetector iA

iregisters ithe isignal ithan iB idoes inot iand ivice-versa. iIn ireference
V. EPR iSITUATION, iHIDDEN iVARIABLES, iAND
iBELL iTHEOREM
ito ithe iabove iexperiment, iwe ican iconclude iand iobserve ithat

iphotons itravel ivertically ior ihorizontally, irandomly ichoosing

A icritical iexamination iof ia ipaper ion iquantum imechanics i"Is
ibetween ithe itwo ipaths. iQuantum imechanics, ihowever, ipredicts
iQuantum iMechanics iPerfect?" iby ifamous iscientists, iEinstein,
ithat ithe iphoton iactually itravels iboth ipaths isimultaneously,
iPodolsky, iand iRosen i(EPR) icarried iby iJohn iBell ileads ito ithe
icollapsing idown ito ione ipath ionly iupon imeasurement i(collapse
iconclusion iof icontradictory iconclusions: i1. iThe iintegration iof
iof ithe iwave ifunction). iThis ieffect iis iknown ias isingle-particle
iEPR i(often icalled iquantum iinput) iinto iquantum imechanics iis iso i hidden ivariables.
ipowerful ithat ione icannot iavoid ithe iconclusion ithat iquantum
imechanics ishould ibe icompleted iwith isome isupplementary VII. QUANTUM iTELEPORTATION iAND iTHEORY
iparameters i(the iso-called ihidden ivariables.) i2. iThe ispecification iOF iINFORMATION

iof ithe iabove iresult ishows ithat ithe idefinition iof ihidden isymbols

iactually icontradicts icertain iassumptions iof iquantum imechanics. The iinformation iis iphysical iand iany iprocessing iis ioften icreated
iIn ithe iface iof ithese itwo iconvincing iand icontradictory iresults, iduring ia imaterial imethod ithat's ian iannouncement ithat isounds

ithere iis ionly ione iway iout: iask iNature ihow iit iworks. iUntil ithe iinnocent, ihowever, ithe iresults isquare imeasure imeaningless.

iend iof i1970, ithere iwas ino itest iresult ito ianswer ithis iquestion. iOver ithe iprevious ifew iyears, ithere ihas ibeen iAN iexplosion iof

iThe icontradictions ifound iby iBell iin ithe iEPR ipaper iare iso isubtle iinnovation iand iexperimentation[4] iresulting iin ithe icreation iof ia

ithat ithey iarise ionly iin ivery idifferent icases ithat ihave inot ibeen ireplacement ielementary idiscipline: ithe idefinitive ivision iof

iinvestigated. iWe ialso ineed ito idesign iand ibuild isome iexercises. iQuantum ithe iknowledge. iphysics ipermits ithe icreation iof ilatest

istyles iof ilogical icodes, iutterly isecure icryptosystems i(systems ias

VI. BELLS iTHEOREM iwell ias icommunications iand icryptography), ithe idualization iof

iknowledge iand, irecently, ithe ison iof i"teleportation"[4]. itill

Bell icritically iexamined ithe inecessity ifor ia ihidden ivariable ito irecently iunpredicted icalls iwere itaken iseriously iby iscientists.
iclarify ithe iexpected ioverlap ibetween ithe i2 iserpentine istates iof
iTypically, itransportation iis ithat ithe iname igiven iby ifantasy
ithe ipictures. iit ihad ibeen ishown ithat ithe iexpected icorrelations, iof
iwriters ito icreate iAN iobject ior iperson ifall iaside iin ione iplace
ithe icombined istrategies iof ithe iintegrated iimage iworld ias
iwhereas ia ipositive iimage iemerges iin ianother. iUsually, ithis iis
imentioned ion itop iof, icannot icapture iany iset iof ivalues, ihowever
ioften idone iby icapturing iAN iobject iin isuch ithe iway ithat ieach
isquare imeasure isubject ito isure iconstraints. iSpecifically, iif iwe
ione ithe iknowledge iis iextracted, ithen ithe iknowledge iis
iglance iat ithe ifour isets iof icoordinates. iit's irestricted ito ithe iBell
itransferred ito ithe isupply, iand iso ithe iinfo iis itransferred ito ithe
idifference iwhich isuggests ithat ia igiven icombination iof ithose
ioffered ihouse iand iwont ito iproduce ia ipicture, inot ifrom ithe iinitial
ifour icoefficients iis ibetween ia ipair iof iand i+2 ifor iany inull
iobject, ihowever iin iall iprobability ifrom iatoms iof ian iequivalent
ihypothesis iof ihidden ivariance. iBell's idifference iso iprovides ia
isort, iorganized iwithin ithe isame iorder ias ibefore. iA itransportation
icheck iof ithe ilegitimacy iof ia idistinct irefined ithought. iHowever,
imachine iis ianalogous ito ia ifax imachine, iexcept ithat iit'll iwork ion
iquantum iphysics ipredicts ia iprice iof is ias ia ipair iof.8 ii.e., iviolates
ithree idimensions iand idocuments, iit iwill iturn iout ian iadditional
iBell's idifference[1], iand ialso ithe isame iis iby iexperimentation
iprecise icopy ithan ithe iedition iand ican iharm ithe iinitial iwithin ithe
itested.
iscan.

Charles iH iBennet ialong iwith ihis icluster iand iwriter iWiesner ihas
iinstructed ia imotivating iprocedure ifor iteleporting iquantum istates

imistreatment iEPR istates i(entangled istates). iQuantum

itransportation[4] iis ialso idelineated iabstractly iin iterms iof i2

iparticles, iA i& iB. iA ihas iin iits ipossession iAN iunknown istate i|ψ>

idelineated ias

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i |ψ> i= iα|0> i+ iβ|1>

This iis ione iquantum ibit i(qubit)-a itwo-level iquantum isystem.

Thus ithe ihidden ivariable itheories ienvisaged ion itop iof isquare
iThe iaim iof itransportation iis ito imove ithe istate i|ψ> ifrom iA ito iB.
imeasure iunable ito isend iassociate idegree iaccount iof ithe iEPR

icorrelation i(quantum ientanglement) iforeseen iby iquantum iThis iis ioften iachieved iby iusing ientangled istates. iA i& iB ievery

iphysics. iAs ia imatter iof itruth, iquantum imechanical icorrelations ipossess ione iqubit iof ia itwo-qubit ientangled istate;

isquare imeasure ia ilot iof iinvolved ito igrasp ias icompared ito

imutual icorrelations ibetween itwin ibrothers. iBell idifference irelies

iii iiiiiiiiiiii |ψ>(|0>A i|0>B) i+ i|1>A|1>B)
ion ithe ibelief iof inative ihidden ivariable imodels. ithe ibelief iof

isection istates ithat ithe iresults iof ia imeasure iby ia ipolariser ican't ibe
The ihigher ithan ithe istate iis irewritten iwithin ithe iBell ibasis,
idirectly iinfluenced iby ithe iselection iof ithe iorientation iof ithe

iopposite iremotely isituated ipolariser. itruly ithis iis ioften} inothing

ihowever ithe iconsequence iof iEinstein irelation i(No isignal ican iiiiiiiiiii (|00>±|11>)), i(|01>±|10>)
imove iwith ia ispeed ibigger ithan ithe ispeed iof isunshine iin ia

ivacuum). ieven iso, iBell iseventeen iinequalities iapply ito ia igood for ithe iprimary itwo-qubit iand ia iconditional iunitary
icategory iof itheories ithan inative ihidden ivariable itheories. iAny
itransformation iof ithe istate i|ψ> ifor ithe ilast ione, ithat iis,
itheory, iduring iwhich ievery igauge iboson iincludes ia i“physical

ireality” ilocalized iin ithe ireference iframe, ideterminative ithe iend

iresult iof ithe icorresponding imeasure, ican icause iinequalities ithat

(|00>+|11>)|ψ>+(|00>-|11>)σZ|ψ> i+ i(|01>+|10>)σX i|ψ> i+ i(|
i(sometimes) iconflict iwith iquantum iphysics. iBell’s itheorem[1]
01>-|10>)(-iσY|ψ>)
iwill iso ibe iphrased iwithin ithe ifollowing iway: isome iquantum

imechanical ipredictions i(EPR icorrelations-quantum Where iσX, iσY, iσZ isquare imeasure iWolfgang iPauli imatrices[4]
ientanglement[3]) ican't ibe imimicked iby iany inative irealistic iwithin ithe i|0>, i|1> ibasis. iMeasuring iis iperformed
imodel iwithin ithe ispirit iof iEinstein’s iconcepts iof ithe iidea iof
on iA’s iqubits iwithin ithe iBell ibasis. ilooking ion ithe ioutcomes iof i a itrue iquantum icomputer ibecause iit ican icreate, ioperate iand
ithose imeasurements, iB’s iseveral istates isquare imeasure i maintain imaximum iand imaximum ioutput.
|ψ>, iσZ i|ψ>, iσX i|ψ>, i-iσZ i|ψ>
Nuclear iMagnetic iResonance
A isends ithe iresult iof iits imeasuring ito iB, iUnited iNations iagency The iNuclear iMagnetic iResonance i(NMR) icomputer iconsists iof
iwill ithen irecover ithe iinitial istate i|ψ> iby iapplying ithe isuitable ia icomputer ithat iis ifilled iwith ia iliquid iand ian iNMR imachine.

iunitary itransformation iI, iσZ, iσ iY ior iiσY ilooking ion iA’s iEach imolecule iin ithe iregister iis ian iindependent iquantum

imeasuring ioutcome. iit ishould ibe inoted ithat iquantum istate imemory iregister. iThe icomputer iproceeds iby isending iradio

itransmission[4] ihas inot ibeen iaccomplished iquicker ithan ilight- istations ito ithe isample iand ireading ithe iresponse. iQubits iare iused

weight ias ia iresult iof iB ishould iwatch ifor iA’s imeasuring iresult ito ias ispin icenters ifor iatoms icontaining imolecules. iIn ithe iNMR

iarrive ibefore ihe iwill irecover ithe iquantum istate. icomputer, ithe ireading iof ithe imemory iregister iis iaccomplished

iby ia imeasure imade iin ithe iStatistical iensemble iof isay, i2.7x10 i19

imolecules. iThis iis iin icontrast ito ithe iQED iion-trap icomputer,

iwhere ia isingle iquantum imemory isystem iwas iused. iAn iNMR

icomputer ican isolve iabsolute iNP i(Non-polynomial) iproblems

iduring ia ipolynomial. iThe ibest iaccomplishment iof iquantum

icomputing ihas ithus ifar ibeen iachieved iusing iNMR icomputers.

Quantum idots
Quantum icomputers ibased ion iquantum idot itechnology iuse ia ifew
isimple iconstructs iand itests, itheoretical iand imathematical iskills

ias icompared ito ithe ifour iquantum icomputers idiscussed iso ifar. iA
VIII. EXPERIMENTAL iREALISATION iOF iseries iof iquantum idots[3], iwhere ithe idots iare iconnected ito itheir
iQUANTUM iCOMPUTER
inearest ineighbors iby iway iof igated iline ibarriers iare iused ito iform

iquantum igates iusing ithe iclassification iprocess. iThis ischeme iis

The iprecision iof ithe iart iof icreating ia iquantum icomputer iis ifast,
ione iof ithe ibasic ibenefits: ielectrically icontrolled iqubits. iThe
ismall iand icheap ibut ithe icomplex iunderstanding iof iits imind
idisadvantage iof ithis iconstruction iis ithat iquantum idots ican ionly
iposes idifficult iproblems iwith iits iexperimental ifulfillment.
iinteract iwith itheir inearest ineighbors iwhich iresults iin idata
iNevertheless, ia inumber iof iefforts ihave ibeen imade iin ithis
ilearning ibeing idifficult.
isuccessful i20-year iapproach. iIt ihas ibeen ispeculated ithat iit imay

inot ibe itoo ifar ioff iwhen ia iquantum icomputer iwill ireplace ithe
Josephson iJunctions
idigital icomputer iwith iits ifull iprospects. iSome iof ithe iquantum
The iComputer iwith ifirst iJosephson ijunctions iwas idemonstrated
icomputer irecognition iefforts iare isummarized ias ifollows:
iin i1999 iby iNakamura iand ihis icolleagues. iOn ithis icomputer, ia

ibox iof iCooper ipair, ia ismall iisland isize ielectrode iis iweakly
Heteropolymers
icoupled ito ia ilarge isuperconductor. iThe iweak icoupling ibetween
The ifirst iheteropolymer ibased iquantum icomputer iwas ideveloped
ithe isuperconductors icreates ia iJosephson inecklace ibetween ithem
iand ibuilt iin i1988 iby iTeich iand ithen ideveloped iby iLloyd iin
ithat ibehaves ilike ia icapacitor. iIf ithe iCooper ibox iis ias ismall ias ia
i1993. iIn ia iheteropolymer icomputer, ithe ilist iof iatoms iused iis
iquantum idot, ithe icurrent icharge ibreaks iinto ithe icombined
iused ias imemory icells. iData iis istored iin ithe icell iby ipumping ithe
itransmission iof ieach iCooper ipair, iso ithat iit iis ieventually
icorresponding iatom iinto ian iexcited istate. iInstructions iare
ipossible ito isimply ipass ianother iCooper ipair iacross ithe ijunction.
itransmitted ito ithe iheteropolymer iby ilaser ipulses iof iwell-formed
iAs iquantum idots, icomputers iare iin iJosephson ijunction
imuscle. iThe itype iof icomputer-generated iat ithe iselected iatoms iis
icomputers, ielectrically icontrolled iqubits. iJunior iquantum
idetermined iby ithe inature iand iduration iof ithe iinfluence. i2.8.2
ijunction icomputers iare ione iof ithe imost ipromising iof ifuture
iIon iTraps: iThe iion itrap iquantum icomputer iwas ifirst iproposed
idevelopments.
iby iCirac iand iZoller iin i1995 iand ifirst iused iby iMonroe iand ihis

icollaborators iin i1995 iand ideveloped iby iSchwarzbele iin i1996.

ipathways ibetween iions. iIn itheory, ieach iion ioperates iwith ia

idifferent ilaser. iPreliminary ianalysis ishowed ithat iFourier

Kane's icomputer
ichanges ican ibe imonitored iby ithe iion itrap icomputer. iThis, iin
This icomputer ilooks ia ilittle ilike ia iquantum idot icomputer ibut iin
iturn, ileads ito iShor's ifactoring ialgorithm, ibased ion iFourier
isome iways, iit iresembles ian iNMR icomputer. iIt iconsists iof ia
itransforms.
isingle imagnetic inucleus iof ip i31 iin iSi-28 icrystal ithat iis inot

icompletely ipurified. iThe isample iis ithen iplaced iin ia imagnetic

Quantum iElectrodynamics iCavity
ifield ito iestablish ia ip i31 iparallel irotation ior ifield-directed
The iQuantum ielectrodynamics i(QED) icomputer iwas ideveloped
iantiparallel. iThe irotation iof ithe ip i31 inucleus ican ibe ioffset iby
iby iTurchetta iand iits iaffiliates iin i1995. iThe icomputer icontains ia
ithe iuse iof ia iradio ifrequency itag ion ia icontrol ielectrode, icalled ian
iQED icavity ifilled iwith iother icesium iatoms iand ithe iarrangement
iA-gate, inear ithe inucleus. iElectromagnetic iinteractions ibetween
iof ilasers, iphase ishift idiagnoses, ipolarizer, iand imirrors. iSetup iis
ithe igums, iin iturn, ican ibe imade iusing ielectromagnetic iforce ion
i electrodes icalled iJ-gates, iwhich iare ipositioned ibetween ip i31 Schrodinger itime iindependent iEq. iin ithis ieq. iψ: iwave ifunction,
i nuclei. im iis ithe ieffective imass iof ithe isystem, iE iis itotal ienergy, iV iis ithe

ipotential ienergy iof ithe isystem iand ih’ i= ih i2 i/ i4π i2 i(h: iPlank

Topological iQuantum iConstant) iand iSchrodinger iTime-dependent iwave ieq. iis igiven

Computer iIn ithese icomputer iqubits iis iinstalled iin ianyons iby: i

iprogram. i"Anyons" iare iquasiparticles iin i2 imainstream imedia i i i i i iih/2π i(∂/∂t) iψ i= iH iψ i---------(2) i

ithat iare isubject ito iparastatistics i(whether iFermi iDirac ior iBose-

Einstein). iBut iin ia iway ianyons iare iclose ito ivegetables, ibecause where ithe iwave ifunction iof ithe isystem iis irepresented iby iψ i iand
iamong ithem ithere iare iirritations isuch ias ipuffiness. iThe irelative iH iis iHamiltonian iof ithe isystem. iNow, iby iputting iall ithe ithree

imotion iof ianyons iis idefined iby ithe ibraid igroup. iThe iidea ibehind idefinitions iof iψ iinto ithese ifundamental iwave iequations iof

ia iquantum icomputer ifor itopological iis ito iuse ibraid igroup iQuantum iMechanics ithat ithe imodified idefinition iof iψ iis icorrect

ielements ithat idescribe ithe imovement iof ianyons ito iachieve ias iwe iget ithe iexpected iresults.

iquantum icomputation. iIt iis isaid ithat isuch ia icomputer ishould ibe Suitability iof iQuantum iBits ifor iQuantum iComputation iSince
isusceptible ito ithe ierrors iof ithe isociological isolid iof ianyons. ithere iare ithree itypes iof iwave ifunction isystems ias iwe ihave

idiscussed iin iprevious isections, ithus ihow ido ithey irelate ito iqubits

iis igiven iin ithe ifollowing ilines:

IX. WAVE iFUNCTION iAND iQUANTUM
TELEPORTATION
i
1. iFor ipurely iunentangled istates ii.e. iCorrelation iof ithe isystem i=
i0, isuch itype iof isystems iwave ifunctions iis igiven iby iLinear

Here iwe iintroduce ia ipossibility iof imodification iof ithe iSuperposition iPrinciple:

iExpansion iTheorem ias iapplicable ito ian iEPR isituation ifor

icorrelated iterms. iIn ithis isection, iwe iattempt ito iintroduce ia i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ψ i= iΣ i(a iψn) i& iΣ i| ia i| i2 i=1
i
icorrelation iterm iin ithe idefinition iof ithe iwave ifunction i(ψ) ias
where in iε i(1,2,3,4……) iand iψ(n) iare ieigenstates. iIn ithis isystem
igiven iby iLinear iSuperposition iPrinciple. iA igeneral iexpression
iof iqubits, iquantum ialgorithms ican ibe iapplied iefficiently, ias iin
iof ithe iwave ifunction i(ψ) ican ibe iexpressed iin iword iequation ias:
ithis icase, ithe iunderlying itonnes iof iparallelism iof icomputation

iand ivast istorage iof iinformation iis ipossible iaccording ito ithe
i i i i i i i i i iWave iFunction i(ψ) i= iTerm iof iCorrelated istates i(δ) i+
iconception iof iBloch iSphere ior iotherwise isince ievery istate iψn iis
iSum iof iUn-correlated iterms. i
iindependent iof ieach iother iand ihence ican ibe iused ifor

icomputation iand istoring iof iinformation. i

This iword iequation ican ibe iexpressed inumerically iin ithe
ifollowing iway:
2. iFor iQuantum iSystem iwith imixed ientangled
istates ii.e. i0< icorrelation. i< i1, iin isuch itype iof
iiiiiiiiiii ψ i= iδ i+ iΣ,
isystems iwave ifunction iis igiven iby: iψ i= iδ i+ iΣ ian iψn

i& iΣ i|an| i2 i≠ i1 iwhere in iε iallowed iun-correlated

a iψn iwhere in iε iallowed iun-correlated istates i& iψ(n) iare
istates i& iψ(n) iare iEigen istates. iIn isuch ia icase isince
ieigenstates. iwe ican inow idivide iwave ifunction iinto i3 icategories
ientangled iand iunentangled istates icannot ibe
iwhich iare i:
iseparated ias ithat iwould iamount ito ian iinteraction

iwith ithe isystem ileading ito iinformation iloss iand

1. iQuantum iSystems iwith iCorr. i= i0 i iψ i= iΣ ian iψn iwhere in iε
iwave ifunction icollapse. iHence isuch itype iof ia istate
i(1,2,3,4..) i& iψ(n) iare ieigenstates.
iis inot ifit ifor icomputational ipurposes ias iit imay ilead
2. iQuantum iSystems iwith i0 i< iCorr. i< i1 i iψ i= iδ i+ iΣ ian iψn
ito ispurious iresults.
iwhere in iε iallowed iuncorrelated istates i& iψ(n) iare ieigenstates.

3.Quantum iSystems iwith iCorr. i= i1 i iψ i= iδ iand iΣ ian iψn i= i0

3. iFor iQuantum isystems ithat iare ipresent iin icomplete ior ipurely
iψ(n) iare ieigenstates.
ientangled istates, ii.e. iCorr. i= i1, iin isuch itype iof isystems iwave

ifunction, iis igiven iby: i

Thus ithe iabove itreatment iof ithe iExpansion iTheorem iin
iQuantum iSystems isuggests ithat ithe idefinition iof iwave ifunction
i i i i i i i i i i i i i iψ i= iδ iand iΣ ian iψn i= i0 iψ(n), iare iEigen istates.
ishould ibe imodified ito itake iinto iaccount ithe irepresentation iof

iEPR istates iand ifurther iinvestigation ishould ibe idone ito

These istates iare isuitable ifor ithe iteleportation iof iinformation
idetermine ithe ivalue iof iδ iin ithe iwave ifunction idefinition.
iusing iEPR istates iand inot ifor iinformation istorage ior
In iorder ito isupport ias iwell ias ivalidate ithe icorrectness iand
icomputational ipurposes.
iapplicability iof iSchrodinger’s iwave iequation ito ithe iexpansion

ichange itheorem. iHere, iwe ihave ia iSchrodinger iwave iequation

X. FUTURE iDIRECTIONS iOF iQUANTUM
ithat iis igiven iby i: iCOMPUTING

i iiiiiii ∇ i2 iψ+ i2m/h’ i(E-V) iψ i= i0 i------(1)

The itheoretical ibasis ifor iquantum icomputing ihas ibeen iwell isecurity. iThe ilargest iresearch ilab iin iSanta iBarbara, iCalifornia,
iestablished, ibut ieverything ielse ineeded ifor iits ifuture igrowth iis iUSA, ireached ia imilestone iin iwhich iscientists ihave iworked isince
iexplored. iThat iincludes iquantum ialgorithms, iperceptual ipower, ithe i1980s: iIts iquantum icomputer iperforms itasks ithat icannot ibe

iand idecoherence icontrol, iatomic itechnology, iand ipractical idone iby itraditional icomputers, iaccording ito ia ipaper ipublished iin

iapplications. iQuantum icomputational itransformation ican ihelp ithe iscientific ijournal. iNature.

isolve iNP iproblems, iwhich iare isimple iin ione iarea ibut idifficult iin A iquantum imachine icould ione iday idrive isignificant iadvances iin
ithe iopposite isense. iGlobalization iproblems ican ibenefit ifrom iareas isuch ias iartificial iintelligence iand imake ieven ithe imost

iinterference i(as iseen iin iFermat's iprinciple iin iwave imechanics). ipowerful iones ilook ilike itoys. iGoogle's idevice imade i3 iminutes

iQuantitative imeasurement imethods ican ibe iimproved idue ito iin i20 iseconds ifor ia icomplete iunmasked icalculator iby

idose iefficacy ithrough ibarriers. iDynamic ifeatures iof icomplex iSupercomputer iin iless ithan i10,000 iyears, ithe icompany isaid iin

inumbers i(analytical ifunctions, iprivate imappings) ican iprovide iits ipaper.

inew ialgorithms. Scientists ilikened iGoogle's iannouncement ito ithe ifirst iflight iof
Quantum ifield itheory ican iextend iquantum iintegration ito iallow ithe iWright iBrothers iin i1903 i- iproof ithat isomething imight

ifor ithe iformation iand idegradation iof iquanta. iA inatural isetting iactually ihappen ieven iyears ibefore iits ipower iwas irealized. iChina

ifor iperforming isuch itasks iin iOptum iOptics. iFor iexample, ia ispends iabout i$ i400 imillion ion ia inational iquantum ilaboratory

itraditional idouble-slit itest i(or ibeam isplitter) ican ibe iviewed ias ia iand ihas iinvested inearly itwice ias imuch ias ithe iUnited iStates iin

icopy ioperation. iIt iis ipermissible iin iquantum itheory ibecause ithe irecent iyears. iThe iTrump iadministration ifollowed isuit ithis iyear

isize iof ithe itwo icopies iis ipart iof ithe iprevious ivalue. iThe iwith iits iNational iQuantum iInitiative, iwhich ipromises ito ispend i$

itheoretical itools ifor imanaging ithe iplacement iof imultiple imasses i1.2 ibillion ion iprice iresearch, iincluding icomputers.

iare ipoorly iconstructed. iIts iimproved ishape ican iproduce ibetter Thus, ithe iQuantum icomputer iwill iplay ia ivery iimportant irole iin
icoverage iof iquantum ilogic igates iand ithe ipotential ifor iintegrated ithe idevelopment iof iparallel iprocessing iand isynchronized

ierror icorrection. icomputing iand iwill icontribute ito igreater isuccess inot ionly iin

Although ideception ican ibe idescribed ias ian iactive iprocess, iits iArtificial iIntelligence ibut iin ithe ifield iof icloud-based

ipotential iis inot iunderstood. iTo ibe iable ito icontrol ithe iincrease iin icommunication itechnology.

idecoherence, ione imust ibe iable ito ifind ithe ieigenstates ifavored iby

ithe ienvironment iin ithe igiven iset. iThe ipower iof iquantum

imechanics iis inot iappreciated ithough, ieven iafter iseveral idecades XII. REFERENCES
iof iquantum imechanics. iMeasurement iis idefined ias ithe

iperformance iof ia inon-unified iproject ioperating iwithin ia ispecific 1. Laloe, iF. i(n.d.). iBell itheorem. iDo iWe iReally
iUnderstand iQuantum iMechanics?, i56–99. idoi:
iarea. iIn ithe iend, iboth ithe isystem iand ithe iobserver iare imade iup

i10.1017/cbo9781139177160.006
iof iquantum ibuilding iblocks. iApart ifrom ithe ibenefit iof itheory, iit

iwill ialso ihelp ito idevelop idetectors ithat iwork inear ithe ithreshold

iof ithe ivisual ispectrum. iFor ia iphysicist, iit iis ivery iinteresting ito
2. Superposition, iEntanglement, iAnd iQuantum
iComputation. i(2019). iMesoscopic iPhysics iMeets
istudy ithe itransformation ifrom iclassical idownloads ito iquantum.
iQuantum iEngineering, i7–36. idoi:
iExpansion iof ithe isystem ifrom imicroscopic ilevels ito imesoscopic
i10.1142/9789811201400_0002
iexpressions, ias iwell ias ienvironmental idegradation ifrom

imacroscopic ilevels ito imesoscopic iexpressions, ican itake ius

3. Quantum-Dot iCellular iAutomata iTechnology-
ithere. iIf ithere iwas isomething ibeyond ithe iconcept iof iquantum
based iOptimized iMultiplexers iDesign. i(2019).
itheory ilying ithere, iit iwould ibe ireflected iin ithe istruggle ito imake
iInternational iJournal iof iRecent iTechnology iand
iquantum idevices. iWe ican idiscover inew ilimits iof iquantum
iEngineering iSpecial iIssue, i8(2S11), i2717–2725.
itheory iby itrying ito iovercome ithe iillusion.
idoi: i10.35940/ijrte.b1333.0982s1119
The idevelopment iof ithe imind ialone iwill inot ibe ipossible iwithout 4. Quantum iTeleportation. i(2011). iQuantum
ithe isame itechnology. iToday, ithe iminiaturization irace iof iTeleportation iand iEntanglement, i179–215. idoi:

ielectronic icircuits iis ifar ifrom ithe ireality iof inatural iquantum. i10.1002/9783527635283.ch4

iDesigning inew ikinds iof itools iwe ihave ito itransform iour ivision

ifrom iscience ito itechnological ioutcomes iis inot ijust ivisual, iwe 5. i IBM iQuantum iExperience
ihave ito ilearn ito icontrol iourselves ifrom ipractical iapplication.

iThe ifuture iis inot iyet iforeseen, ibut iit iis ivery ipromising. 6. Quantum iComputing iExplained iby iArun iC. iThomas
i(HackerNoon)
i

XI. CONCLUSION
7. Wikipedia iarticle ion iQuantum
Quantum icompute ifuture itechnology iand iits iability ito iprint iin icomputing(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell

iparallel, iwill ibe iplaying ione iof ithe imost iimportant iparts iof ithe %27s_theorem)
icreation iof iArtificial iIntelligence ias iit ireleases ia ivery igood iGPU

iand ithus imodel itraining iwill ibe imuch iclearer iand ifaster. iICloud 8. Research iat iIBM
icomputing iis icontributing ito ia ibetter ifuture iby iallowing ithis iWatson(https://researcher.watson.ibm.com/researcher/v

imethod ito ibe imade iavailable ito ithe ipublic iwith ienergy iand iew_group.php?id=2862)
9. Quantum isuperposition ifrom iquantum
iinspire(https://www.quantum-

inspire.com/kbase/superposition-and-entanglement/)

10. Veritasium iQuantum icomputing iand ispooky iaction

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuvK-od647c)

11. Quantum imechanics iby i3 iBlue i1 iBrown

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MBnnXbOM5S4)