Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of

Heutagogical Practice and Self-Determined Learning

Lisa Marie Blaschke

Oldenburg University and University of Maryland University College (UMUC)

Abstract
Heutagogy, a form of self-determined learning with practices and principles rooted in an-
dragogy, has recently resurfaced as a learning approach after a decade of limited attention.
In a heutagogical approach to teaching and learning, learners are highly autonomous and
self-determined and emphasis is placed on development of learner capacity and capability
with the goal of producing learners who are well-prepared for the complexities of today’s
workplace. The approach has been proposed as a theory for applying to emerging tech-
nologies in distance education and for guiding distance education practice and the ways in
which distance educators develop and deliver instruction using newer technologies such as
social media. The renewed interest in heutagogy is partially due to the ubiquitousness of
Web 2.0, and the affordances provided by the technology. With its learner-centered design,
Web 2.0 offers an environment that supports a heutagogical approach, most importantly
by supporting development of learner-generated content and learner self-directedness in
information discovery and in defining the learning path. Based on an extensive review of
the current literature and research, this article defines and discusses the concepts of andra-
gogy and heutagogy and describes the role of Web 2.0 in supporting a heutagogical learn-
ing approach. Examples of institutional programs that have incorporated heutagogical ap-
proaches are also presented; based on these examples and research results, course design
elements that are characteristic of heutagogy are identified. The article provides a basis for
discussion and research into heutagogy as a theory for guiding the use of new technologies
in distance education.

Keywords: Lifelong learning; heutagogy; self-determined learning; andragogy; self-di-

rected learning; social media; capability; competency; double-loop learning; reflection
 Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A Review of Heutagogical Practice and Self-Determined Learning
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Introduction
Educators today are tasked with developing lifelong learners who can survive and thrive in
a global knowledge economy – learners who have the capability to effectively and creatively
apply skills and competencies to new situations in an ever-changing, complex world (The
World Bank, 2003; Kuit & Fell, 2010). Pedagogical, even andragogical, educational meth-
ods are no longer fully sufficient in preparing learners for thriving in the workplace, and
a more self-directed and self-determined approach is needed, one in which the learner re-
flects upon what is learned and how it is learned and in which educators teach learners how
to teach themselves (Peters, 2001, 2004; Kamenetz, 2010). New technologies have also
created a need for considering new pedagogical approaches, with andragogy falling out of
favor with some educators, seemingly “outmoded in the light of recent rapid development
in new teaching methods, learning resources, and digital media” (Wheeler, 2011 para. 1).

The concept of heutagogy offers certain principles and practices that could be considered
as a response to these developments within higher education. A heutagogical learning envi-
ronment facilitates development of capable learners and emphasizes both the development
of learner competencies as well as development of the learner’s capability and capacity to
learn (Ashton & Newman, 2006; Bhoryrub, Hurley, Neilson, Ramsay, & Smith, 2010; Hase
& Kenyon, 2000). A renewed interest in heutagogy has also been generated by Web 2.0
as a result of the affordances of social media that complement and support this learning
approach. Heutagogy has been called a “net-centric” theory that takes advantage of the
key affordances of the Internet; it is also a pedagogical approach that could be applied to
emerging technologies in distance education, as well as serve as a framework for digital age
teaching and learning (Anderson, 2010, p. 33; Wheeler, 2011).

Heutagogy is of special interest to distance education, which shares with heutagogy cer-
tain key attributes, such as learner autonomy and self-directedness, and has pedagogical
roots in adult teaching and learning. Self-determined learning, characteristic of distance
education formats such as contract learning and prior learning assessment, is also an at-
tribute of distance education. Distance education and heutagogy also have in common the
same audience: mature adult learners. Specifically, heutagogy has the potential to become a
theory of distance education, in part due to the ways in which heutagogy further extends the
andragogical approach and also due to the affordances it offers when applied to emerging
technologies in distance education (such as Web 2.0).

Research Method
This article provides an extensive review of the past and current research available on heu-
tagogical practice and approaches. In approaching the research, the author sought to es-
tablish a basic understanding of the concept of heutagogy (for example, by relating the
concept to andragogy) and how it has been applied within education environments. The
review of the literature first presents definitions of andragogy and heutagogy, describing
heutagogy in relation to established educational concepts of pedagogy and andragogy. The
review incorporates discussion on the reasons for the re-emergence of heutagogy and spe-

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cifically considers the role of social media in supporting heutagogical practice. Examples of
instructional design elements and social media that support heutagogical practice are also
included. The article provides a basis for further discussion and research into heutagogy as
a theory for emerging technologies in distance education and for exploring the feasibility of
adopting heutagogy within distance education practice.

Andragogy (Self-Directed Learning)

Knowles (1978, as cited in Moore & Kearsley, 2012) defined andragogy in the 1970’s as spe-
cific to adult education and characterized by learner control and self-responsibility in learn-
ing, learner definition of learning objectives in relation to their relevance to the learner, a
problem-solving approach to learning, self-directedness in how to learn, intrinsic learner
motivation, and incorporation of the learner experience. In an andragogical approach to
teaching and learning, learners are actively involved in identifying their needs and planning
on how those needs will be met (McAuliffe, Hargreaves, Winter, & Chadwick, 2008; Rachal,
2002). A key attribute of andragogy is self-directed learning, defined by Knowles (1975) as

a process in which individuals take the initiative,

with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their
learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying
human and material resources for learning, choosing
and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and
evaluating learning outcomes (p. 18)

The goals of self-directed learning include helping learners develop the capacity for self-
direction, supporting transformational learning, and promoting “emancipatory learning
and social action” (Merriam, 2001, p. 9). Within transformational learning, learning occurs
along a self-directed path; as the learner matures and reflects on life experiences in relation
to his or her self-perception, beliefs, and lifestyle, the learner perspective is adjusted and
transformative learning can occur (Mezirow, 1997).

The role of the educator in an andragogical approach is that of tutor and mentor, with the
instructor supporting the learner in developing the capacity to become more self-directed
in his or her learning. The instructor shows learners how to find information, relates infor-
mation to the learner experience, and places a focus on problem-solving within real-world
situations (McAuliffe et al., 2008). Instructors establish objectives and curriculum based
on learner input and guide students along the learner path, while the responsibility for
learning lies with the learner.

Heutagogy (Self-Determined Learning)

Heutagogy (based on the Greek for “self”) was defined by Hase and Kenyon in 2000 as
the study of self-determined learning. Heutagogy applies a holistic approach to developing
learner capabilities, with learning as an active and proactive process, and learners serving

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as “the major agent in their own learning, which occurs as a result of personal experiences”
(Hase & Kenyon, 2007, p. 112). As in an andragogical approach, in heutagogy the instructor
also facilitates the learning process by providing guidance and resources, but fully relin-
quishes ownership of the learning path and process to the learner, who negotiates learning
and determines what will be learned and how it will be learned (Hase & Kenyon, 2000;
Eberle, 2009).

A key concept in heutagogy is that of double-loop learning and self-reflection (Argyris &
Schön, 1996, as cited in Hase & Kenyon, 2000). In double-loop learning, learners consider
the problem and the resulting action and outcomes, in addition to reflecting upon the prob-
lem-solving process and how it influences the learner’s own beliefs and actions (see Figure
1). Double-loop learning occurs when learners “question and test one’s personal values and
assumptions as being central to enhancing learning how to learn” (Argyris & Schön, 1978,
as cited in Hase, 2009, pp. 45-46).

Figure 1. Double-loop learning (Eberle & Childress, 2005, as shown in Eberle, 2009, p.
183).

In self-determined learning, it is important that learners acquire both competencies and

capabilities (Stephenson, 1994 as cited in McAuliffe et al., 2008, p. 3; Hase & Kenyon,
2000, 2007). Competency can be understood as proven ability in acquiring knowledge
and skills, while capability is characterized by learner confidence in his or her competency
and, as a result, the ability “to take appropriate and effective action to formulate and solve
problems in both familiar and unfamiliar and changing settings” (Cairns, 2000, p. 1, as
cited in Gardner, Hase, Gardner, Dunn, & Carryer, 2007, p. 252). Capable people exhibit
the following traits:

• self-efficacy, in knowing how to learn and continuously reflect on the learning process;

• communication and teamwork skills, working well with others and being openly com-
municative;

• creativity, particularly in applying competencies to new and unfamiliar situations and

by being adaptable and flexible in approach;

• positive values (Hase & Kenyon, 2000; Kenyon & Hase, 2010; Gardner et al., 2007).

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When learners are competent, they demonstrate the acquisition of knowledge and skills;
skills can be repeated and knowledge retrieved. When learners are capable, skills and
knowledge can be reproduced in unfamiliar situations. Capability is then the extension of
one’s own competence, and without competency there cannot be capability. Through the
process of double-looping, learners become more aware of their preferred learning style
and can easily adapt new learning situations to their learning styles, thus making them
more capable learners. With its dual focus on competencies and capability, heutagogy
moves educators a step closer toward better addressing the needs of adult learners in com-
plex and changing work environments (Bhoryrub et al., 2010).

Heutagogy as an Extension of Andragogy

The heutagogical approach can be viewed as a progression from pedagogy to andragogy to
heutagogy, with learners likewise progressing in maturity and autonomy (Canning, 2010,
see Figure 2). More mature learners require less instructor control and course structure
and can be more self-directed in their learning, while less mature learners require more in-
structor guidance and course scaffolding (Canning & Callan, 2010; Kenyon & Hase, 2010).
Cognitive development of learners, a requirement for critical reflection and discourse to
occur, could also be integrated into this pyramid, with cognitive development progressing
in parallel with learner maturity and autonomy (Mezirow, 1997).

Figure 2. Progression from pedagogy to andragogy then to heutagogy (based on Canning,

2010, p. 63).

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With its basis in andragogy, heutagogy further extends the andragogical approach and can
be understood as a continuum of andragogy (Table 1). In andragogy, curriculum, questions,
discussions, and assessment are designed by the instructor according to the learner needs;
in heutagogy, the learner sets the learning course, designing and developing the map of
learning, from curriculum to assessment (Hase, 2009). Heutagogy emphasizes develop-
ment of capabilities in addition to competencies (andragogy). Table 1 provides an overview
of traits that help demonstrate ways in which heutagogy builds upon and extends andra-
gogy.

Table 1

Heutagogy as a Continuum of Andragogy

Andragogy (Self-directed) ► Heutagogy (Self-determined)

Single-loop learning ► Double-loop learning
Competency development ► Capability development
Linear design and learning ap- ► Non-linear design and learning approach
proach
Instructor-learner directed ► Learner-directed
Getting students to learn (content) ► Getting students to understand how they learn
(process)

These traits and the continuum from andragogy to heutagogy require further consideration
and definition. What can be derived from this comparison, however, is that heutagogy is
an approach founded in andragogy and can be considered an expansion of the existing
concept.

Relevance to Distance Education

Distance education is in a unique position for creating learning environments for support-
ing a heutagogical teaching and learning approach, as well as for contributing to further re-
search into heutagogy. Specific characteristics of distance education that align themselves
with heutagogy include:

• Technology: Technology’s symbiotic relationship with distance education requires

that, with each emerging technology, distance educators consider the implications of
the technology on distance education theory and practice. Heutagogy has been identi-
fied as a potential theory for applying to emerging technologies in distance education
(Anderson, 2010; Wheeler, 2011), although additional research and discussion is nec-
essary in order to determine the credibility of heutagogy as a theory of distance educa-
tion.

• Profile of the distance education learner: Traditionally, distance education has been
designed, developed, delivered, and targeted to the adult learner, usually working

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adults with extensive life experience and more maturity than campus-based students
(Holmberg, 2005; Peters, 2001; Moore & Kearsley, 2012; Richardson, Morgan, &
Woodley, 1999). Distance education practice has historically been strongly influenced
by Knowles’ andragogical theory of teaching and learning, and as an extension of an-
dragogy, heutagogy could be considered as a relevant theory for adult distance educa-
tion.

• Learner autonomy: Distance education, as a distinct form of education, both requires

and promotes autonomy, a learner skill that is central to a heutagogical teaching and
learning approach (Peters, 2001). Because learner autonomy is characteristic of and
promoted in distance education learning environments, distance education inherently
supports heutagogical practice.

How Web 2.0 and Social Media Enable Heutagogy

Web 2.0 and social media has played an important role in generating new discussions about
heutagogy within higher education. Web 2.0 design supports a heutagogical approach by
allowing learners to direct and determine their learning path and by enabling them to take
an active rather than passive role in their individual learning experiences. Key affordances
of social media – connectivity with others, information discovery and sharing (individually
and as a group), and personal collection and adaptation of information as required – are
also affordances that support self-determined learning activities (McLoughlin & Lee, 2007,
p. 667). In addition, Web 2.0 encourages interaction, reflection in dialogue, collaboration,
and information sharing, as well as promotes autonomy and supports creation of learner-
generated content (Lee & McLoughlin, 2007; McLoughlin & Lee, 2008, 2010). With Web
2.0 as its supporting technological framework, heutagogy can now be seen as further de-
veloping pedagogy 2.0 (as defined by McLoughlin & Lee, 2007): learners are self-directed
to continue to learn on their own and “can personalize their learning paths in the way they
desire” (Kuit & Fell, 2010, p. 320).

Recent research also indicates that the use of social media can support self-determined
learning.

• Mobile learning: Cochrane and Bateman’s (2010) research showed that mobile learn-
ing supports collaboration, data and resource capturing and sharing, and reflective
practice. Use of mobile learning was also found to increase learner-learner and learner-
external interaction, as well as reflective practice (learning journals).

• Virtual Philosopher: Hornsby and Maki (2008) report on an asynchronous learning

tool meant to build learners’ skills in developing, reflecting upon, and transforming
thinking processes and logic. The online tool provides active learning activities built
around various scenarios that the learner works through in a process of self-discovery.
Through these scenarios and the responses provided by students, the Virtual Philoso-
pher identifies flaws in the learner’s thought processes, forcing the learner to evaluate
and re-evaluate why she or he thinks in a certain way. According to Hornsby and Maki

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(2008), the asynchronous environment “seemed to reinforce deeper learning” and pro-
motes problem solving and critical analysis (para. 30).

• Twitter: A recent study by Junco, Heiberger, and Loken (2010) showed that students
who used Twitter (as compared to those who did not) were more actively engaged in
their learning processes and had higher GPAs. Junco et al. (2010) also found that the
use of Twitter boosted student-student and student-instructor interaction, as well as
promoted active learning.

• Learner-generated content (active media use): Active use of social media in creating
learner-generated content seems to contribute to development of skills of self-directed-
ness. Initial research findings by Blaschke, Porto, and Kurtz (2010) indicate that active
use of social media, for example, development of learner-generated content, supports
cognitive and metacognitive skill development, whereas passive use (consumption) is
less effective in supporting development of these skills.

These examples illustrate how social media has the potential to support elements of a heu-
tagogical approach, such as creation of learner-generated content, active engagement in
the learning process and with instructors and other learners, group collaboration, and re-
flective practice through double-loop learning. Research on the use of social media and its
role in supporting heutagogy is limited, however, indicating that this is an area for further
investigation.

Heutagogy in Practice
The higher education response to heutagogy so far has been one of reluctance, which could
be due to the impracticality of implementing a full-blown educational framework of heuta-
gogy. While acknowledging the need for pedagogy and andragogy, McAuliffe et al. (2008)
argue that “the removal of the educator makes the concept of heutagogy impractical in a
credentialing institution” and that it is not possible or even reasonable to implement heu-
tagogy’s trademark of learner-guided assessment (p. 4). Despite this, educators in the nurs-
ing, engineering, and education professions have found heutagogy to be a credible response
to the critical issues that their learners are faced with in the workplace and have designed
their learning environments based on the approach (Bhoryrub et al., 2010; Ashton & New-
man, 2006; Gardner et al., 2007). For example, within the nursing profession, Bhoyrub
et al. (2010) report that heutagogy provides a learning framework that addresses needs
of nursing students, who must learn in an ever-changing environment that is both com-
plex and unpredictable; a heutagogical approach to learning helps them to become lifelong
learners, as well as “makes sense of the necessary uncertainties that defines nursing” (p.
326).

University of Western Sydney in New South Wales, Australia, is an example of one institu-
tion that has implemented a heutagogical approach in its teacher education program by
redesigning programs to integrate learner-directedness through blended learning. The ap-
proach has been integrated into course design, development, and delivery, however not in

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the area of summative assessment. Through the use of this approach, the university has
identified the following benefits: improved teacher outcomes, more capable teachers (learn-
ers) who are better-prepared for the complexities of the learning environment, increased
learner confidence in perceptions, engaged learners in communities of practice, learner
scaffolding of peers’ learning processes, improved ability of the learner to investigate ideas,
and further development of the learner’s ability “to question interpretations of reality from
their position of competence” (Ashton & Newman, 2006, p. 829; Ashton & Elliott, 2008).

Canning and Callan (2010) report on three higher education institutions in the UK that
have used a heutagogical approach. Findings from their research show that the approach
supports learner control of learning, collaborative reflection, learner’s self-perception and
professional development, and critical thinking and reflection. Reflective practice was
found to help learners gain more control over learning, as well as comprehend and apply
what they have learned in practical situations. Reflecting on the learning experiences and
relating these experiences to professional practice helped keep learners motivated to learn,
to connect with other learners, and to continue on with the reflective process (Canning
& Callan, 2010; Canning, 2010). Learners demonstrated both competency and capability
through self-awareness, articulation of “feelings, experiences, and ideas,” engagement in
group discussion, self-directed investigation in developing independent ideas, and self-
confidence (Canning & Callan, 2010, p. 80).

Design Elements of a Heutagogical Approach

When designing a self-determined learner experience, certain considerations should be
made. A heutagogical approach to learning and teaching is characterized first and foremost
by learner-centeredness in terms of both learner-generated contexts and content. Course
design elements that support learner-centeredness in a heutagogical approach are present-
ed below.

• Learner-defined learning contracts: Learning contracts support students in defining

and determining their individual learning paths. These individualized contracts, such
as those used at distance education institution Empire State College (see www.esc.
edu), define what will be learned (e.g., scope), how it will be learned (e.g., teaching and
learning approaches, learning activities), and what will be assessed and how it will be
assessed (Kenyon & Hase, 2010; Gilbert, 1975; Cristiano, 1993).

• Flexible curriculum: In a self-determined learning environment, the learner is the

driver in creating flexible curriculum, which is defined by the student: learners create
the learning map, and instructors serve as the compass (Hase & Kenyon, 2007; Hase,
2009). Flexible curriculum in this sense is negotiated action learning, which adapts
and evolves according to learner needs (Hase, 2009; Hase & Kenyon, 2007). Learners
negotiate “how, when, where and to what upper (rather than minimal) level they want
to take their learning” (Hase, 2009, p. 47).

• Learner-directed questions: Learner-directed questions and the discussion that re-

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sults from these questions are what guide learners and serve as mechanisms for helping
learners make sense of course content, bring clarity to ideas, and promote individual
and group reflection (Kenyon & Hase, 2001; Eberle, 2009). Guiding learners to define
self-directed questions is one of the biggest challenges facing developers of heutagogi-
cal courses, as designers must be “creative enough to have learners ask questions about
the universe they inhabit” (Kenyon & Hase, 2001, para. 29).

• Flexible and negotiated assessment: In heutagogy, the learner is involved in designing

his or her assessment. Negotiated and learner-defined assessment has been shown to
improve the motivation of learners and their involvement in the learning process, as
well as make learners feel less threatened by instructor control of their learning process
(Hase & Kenyon, 2007, p. 115; Hase, 2009; Ashton & Elliott, 2007; Canning, 2010).
One way of incorporating negotiation into the assessment process is through the use
of learning contracts (Hase, 2009). The assessment should include measurable forms
of assessing understanding of content, including whether the learner has achieved the
competencies desired. Rubrics can also be used effectively in guiding learners in their
self-assessment process, for example by assessing “discussion skills, quality of work,
outcomes, collaboration, academic soundness and knowledge of material” (Eberle,
2008, p. 186).

Another dually important characteristic of heutagogy is that of reflective practice, “a criti-

cal learning skill associated with knowing how to learn” (Hase, 2009, p. 49). According
to Schön (1983), reflective practice supports learners in becoming lifelong learners, as
“when a practitioner becomes a researcher into his own practice, he engages in a continu-
ing process of self-education” (p. 299). Heutagogy’s holistic approach takes into account
the learner’s prior learning experiences and the way in which these influence how she or
he learns; by considering these past experiences and the learner’s current experience and
reflecting upon these, the learner moves into a growth process that has the potential to lead
to transformative learning – a process described by Canning and Callan (2010) as “spirals
of reflection” (p. 71). The following course design elements can be incorporated to support
reflective practice.

• Learning journals: Reflective learning journals can be used for learners to document
their learning journey, reflect upon the course content and discussions, and explore
new ideas. Learning journals have also been found to support students in developing
cognitive and metacognitive skills, as well as help establish an ongoing practice of re-
flection (Blaschke & Brindley, in press).

• Action research: Another form of reflective practice, which can be done individually
or as a group, is action research. Action research gives learners an opportunity to ex-
periment with real-world scenarios, which can help prepare them for the professional
workplace (Hase & Kenyon, 2007, p. 113).

• Formative and summative assessment: Ongoing, personalized assessment and feed-

back support the learner in developing his or her reflective practice. Canning and Cal-

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lan (2010) recommend that as part of the formative assessment, instructors should
recognize and reinforce examples of reflective practice demonstrated by learners.

Collaborative learning is also a critical component of the heutagogical classroom. When

learning collaboratively, learners work together in a collaborative space to create shared
meaning and to reflect and think about how they learned and how to apply it in practice
(Canning & Callan, 2010). Kenyon and Hase (2001) and Hase (2009) recommend team-
based approaches to learning such as communities of practice, where the focus of learning
is primarily on the learning process and how learners learn. Knowledge sharing should be
strongly encouraged and can be achieved by encouraging learners to share resources and
information (Ashton & Newman, 2006).

To implement a self-determined learning environment, instructors need to alter their

teaching approach, primarily by placing value on learner self-direction of the learning pro-
cess. Such a shift would require minimal change within distance education environments
as distance education teaching methods support self-directed learning and the instructor
role is already one of guide-on-the-side. They would also need to accept the heutagogi-
cal approach as one that is unconventional, where the instructor becomes a facilitator in
the learning students’ learning process (Cristiano, 1993). Instructors not only must change
their approach to teaching and learning, but also ensure that they explain this type of learn-
ing to their students from the very start of class. As in a distance learning environment,
students also need to understand that a heutagogical learning environment is quite differ-
ent from the traditional learning experience with which they are familiar. Instructor ex-
pectations of learners should be clearly stated: learners are responsible for knowledge cre-
ation and deciding upon the learning path (Ashton & Newman, 2006; Schwier, Morrison,
& Daniel, 2009). Empathy helps create a comfortable learning environment for learners
unaccustomed to self-determined learning, and, as with self-directed learning, it is impor-
tant to create a climate of mutual trust and respect with a clear delineation of instructor
and learner roles and one that supports dialogue (Knowles, 1975). Ongoing guidance and
feedback, as well as sharing of resources, support students along their learning journey,
and learners will require ongoing instructor guidance and support throughout the learning
process if they are to develop the capability of self-direction (Collis and Moonen, 2001, as
cited in Ashton & Newman, 2006).

Further Research
When considering emerging technologies in distance education, Veletsianos (2010) calls
for additional inquiry and research into the relationship of technology, pedagogy, and the
Web, and for further research and discussion into new pedagogies for emerging technolo-
gies. The literature review conducted here indicates that there is substantial work to be
done in researching heutagogy within this research construct, for example examination
of the means in which Web 2.0 and social media support a self-determined teaching and
learning approach, and investigation of the effectiveness of the approach in higher educa-
tion and in creating lifelong learners able to effectively and successfully translate compe-

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tencies into capability in complex, real-world situations. Another area of research includes
defining and testing criteria for heutagogy as a framework for teaching and learning.

Conclusion
Since its beginnings in Australia in 2000, heutagogy has been presented as an extension of
andragogy, but has received limited attention from higher education and from researchers.
Challenges of adopting a heutagogical approach are many, such as academic resistance to
change and a “fear of relinquishing power” (from instructor to student), increased financial
and learning pressure on students due to new technology requirements, and a continued
student focus on assessment and grades rather than the learning process (Ashton & New-
man, 2006, p. 832; Lee & McLoughlin, 2007; McAuliffe et al., 2008). While higher educa-
tion is more accepting of pedagogical and andragogical approaches within the institutional
framework, it views heutagogy with more wariness, as heutagogy places full control of all
aspects of learning into the hands of the student, from curriculum development and in-
structional format to assessment. A lack of student preparedness and acceptance would
require a shift in learner attitude and a greater emphasis on scaffolding within the course
design process and on the development of learner autonomy skills.

Creating competent and capable learners is “critical to life in the rapidly changing economy
and cultures that characterize postmodern times” (Anderson, 2010, p. 33). By incorporating
heutagogical practice, educators have the opportunity to better prepare students for the
workplace and for becoming lifelong learners, as well as to foster student motivation by
cultivating students who “are fully engaged in the topic they are studying because they are
making choices that are most relevant or interesting to them” (Kenyon & Hase, 2010, p.
170). Distance education has a particular affinity to the heutagogical approach, due to dis-
tance education’s inherent characteristics of requiring and promoting learner autonomy,
its traditional focus on adult learners, and its evolutionary and symbiotic relationship with
technology – all characteristics shared with this emerging theory. Because of this affinity,
distance education is in a unique position to provide a sustainable environment for study-
ing and researching this teaching and learning method – and for assessing and evaluating
the theory’s appropriateness as a theory of distance education.

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