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Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans

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DOI: 10.32879/pjpbs.2015.1.2.163-182

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 Peshawar Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 2015, Vol. 1, No. 2, 167-186

A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans

Mifrah Rauf Sethi1

Peshawar Medical College, Warsak Road Peshawar, Pakistan
and
Madiha Asghar2
Islamia College Peshawar, Pakistan

The aim of the study was to explore the relationship and

difference between Self-esteem, social, physical and self-
competence and academic self-concept among Orphans and
Non-orphans. The total sample consisted of three hundred and
twenty five (N=325) children, comprising of one hundred and
fifty (n=150) orphans and one hundred and seventy five (n=175)
non-orphans. The children are divided into four (4) groups
namely: institutionalized orphans are hundred (n=100),
institutionalized non-orphans are ninety (n=90), non-
institutionalized orphans are fifty (n=50) and non-
institutionalized non-orphans are eighty-five (n=85). Boys and
girls were taken from different schools and orphanages of
Peshawar with the age range of 13 to 16 years. Tools used in the
study included self-esteem and a demographic questionnaire.
Non-probability sampling technique is used and data is analyzed
by using t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), inter scale
correlation, logistic regression, and chi-square test to explore the
difference and relationship between these variables. The
findings of inter-scale correlation reveal a significant
relationship between self-esteem, social, physical and self-
competence and academic self-concept among orphans and non-
orphans. Analysis indicated that orphan children have higher
level of self-esteem as compared to non-orphans. The research
concludes that non-orphans hold better social and physical
competence than orphans and the research suggest that more
work needs to be done on orphans to better understand the
problems.

Keywords. Self-esteem, social, physical, self-competence,

academic self concept, orphans, non-orphans

1
Clinical Psychologist, Peshawar Medical College
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Islamia College Peshawar
168 Sethi and Asghar

Orphans usually have lack of sufficient food, accommodation,

education and medical care and are at risk of misuse and economic
exploitation (Berry and Guthrie, 2003). Most of the research work on
orphan focuses on the basic need. There is research available but not
much, but increasing concern, regarding the psychological well-being
and self-esteem of orphans in Africa (Cluver and Gardner, 2006).
Proper family environment plays an important role in the lives of
children. No one can deny the importance of parents for the betterment
and harmonious development of children’s personality. But unfortunately
cruel fortune withdraws some children of the understanding, affectionate,
parental care through death of single or both parents. These types of
children are known as orphan children. In general language an orphan is
one who has lost his one or both parents by death. Adult can also be
stated as adult orphans, but then at adulthood, before their parent’s death,
they are not called as orphans. Basically an orphan is a term used for
those children, who are too young to support themselves (Krider. D,
2002).
Recently researches on orphans are increases around the world
(Andrews, Skinner &Zuma, 2006; Atwine, Flisher, Laas, & Robertson,
2006; Bajunirwe, 2005; Cluver G, &Operario, 2007; Cantor-Graae, &
Earls, Doku, 2009).
The current research examined the difference in self-esteem of
orphan children and children living with their parents. Self-esteem is the
feeling of being happy with your character and abilities. It is obvious in a
wonderful feeling of inner balance, grounded on self- acceptance and a
healthy, comforting self-respect towards you. This is totally different
from self-confidence which is deeply rooted in what you believe you can
attain (Ameachi, 2007).
Mazhar (2004) described that the meaning of self-esteem is a
sense of self, the value one puts on self and the worth one attaches to
self. In fact, self-esteem is the basic belief about self. Thus, it may be
argued that, if one has a positive belief system about one’s self, one will
have a positive self-esteem. On the other hand, if one views oneself as
worthless, one will have a negative self-esteem. Maslow (as cited in
Boeree, 2006) explained self-esteem in his hierarchy of needs. He
described two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one.

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A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 169

The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status,
fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity and
even dominance. The higher form involves the need for self-respect,
including such feelings as confidence, competence, achievement,
mastery, independence, and freedom.
Juffer, Marinus and Ijzendoorna (2007) found that orphan
children show lower self-esteem than their non- orphan peers. Orphan
children are hypothesized to be at risk of low self-esteem. Children with
high self-esteem have a much closer relationship with their parents than
do children with low self-esteem. (Cooper smith 1967; Gecas&Schwalbe
1986; Kernis 2000)
Students with high level of self-esteem participate actively in the
learning process. Such types of students are more confident, energetic
and motivated towards education. Students with high self-esteem achieve
better grades in examination as compared to those students who has low
self-esteem (Jordon and Kelly (1990). Wood et al (1994) found in their
study that there is close relationship between self-esteem and high rate of
academic achievement. Students with low self-esteem do not contribute
actively in teaching and learning procedure. They stayquiet, inactive and
have a withdrawal attitude towards learning activities. Similarly
Tootoonchi (1993) highlights that students with low self-esteem do not
depict their skills or show unwillingness to take part in the learning
process actively.
Educational psychology has been concerned with evaluating
different types of connection between both associative and predictive
that are present between self-concept and academic performance.
(Gonzalea Pineda et al, 2000). Self-concept, which means acceptance of
the self, valuing self, self-confidence, and self-esteem has an important
place in a person’s life especially in adolescence. Starting with babyhood
attachments during the period until adolescence including childhood,
individual develops a sense of identity and self-esteem in parallel with
the sense of identity (Cebe 2005). During this phase, there are different
dynamics, which are having effect on the self. Among these dynamics,
socio-economic situations (Bilgin, 2001), working on roads (Arnas,
2004), disability (Ersek, 1992), children physical appearance (Phillips
and Hill, 1998), health conditions, their perception of their parents as

Peshawar Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 2015, Vol. 1, No. 2, 167-186


170 Sethi and Asghar

work-focused (Chamberlin, and Naijian, 2009), their functioning (Song

et al., 2007), peer relationships (BüyükşahinÇevik, 2007) and residential
care (Avdeeva,2009) can be calculated. Among all these factors children
living in an orphanage may have negative effects on self-concept and
self-concept of children thus disturbingthe all developmental areas of
children (Cebe 2005).Being brought up by an institution can affect the
children’s growth in a negative way (Sloutsky, 1997; Garland, Hough,
McCabe, Yeh, Wood and Aarons, 2001; Üstüner, Erol, Şimşek, 2005;
Jacobi, 2009). According to different studies, institutional care have
negative effects on children’s mental health (Şimşek and Erol, 2004),
social development (Tharp-Taylor, 2003; Pantıukhına, 2009;
Shakhmanova, 2010), intellectual growth (McCall, 1996; Sloutsky, 1997;
MacLean, 2003), level of isolation (Aral et al., 2006) and anxiety and
depression level (Gürsoy and YıldızBıçakçı, 2005).
The purpose of this study is not only to conclude the importance
of family or unavailability of sufficient attachment and care needed by
the child to function satisfactorily, but it will also measure some of the
indicators of self-esteem and personal satisfaction and level of self-
concepts of children. The results of the current research will be
illuminating the relationship and especially the difference between self-
esteem and its subtypes, and it will facilitate the policy makers,
educationists, and administration of Orphanage and family members to
take crucial steps for enhancing their good, and healthy relationships and
build higher and positive self-esteem. This study is to find out the
institutionalized orphan children’s attitude, their level of anxiety and
self-esteem, and how they behave with others is in focus, and this study
will enlighten the relationship and differences among orphans and non-
orphans.

Objectives

1. To study and compare the relationship between demographic

variables among Orphans and Non-orphans.
2. To determine the level of self-esteem in orphans and non-
orphans.

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A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 171

3. To investigate the effects of institutionalization on the self-

esteem of children.
4. To investigate and compare the relationship between self-esteem,
social, physical and self-competence and academic self-concept
among orphans and non-orphans.

Method

Sample

The sample was comprise of orphans and non-orphans from

orphanages and private and public schools of Peshawar. The total sample
consisted of three hundred and twenty five (N=325) orphans and non-
orphans with the age range of 13-16 years. The sample included hundred
(n=100) institutionalized orphans, fifty (n=50) non-institutionalized
orphans, ninety (n=90) institutionalized non-orphans and eighty five
(n=85) non-institutionalized non-orphans. Non-probability convenient
sampling was used in for data collection.

Inclusion and exclusion Criteria

• Orphans who were either single (maternal or paternal) or double

orphans were taken.
• Non-orphans of intact families were taken.
• The age ranges was 13 to 16 years.
• Orphans of broken families, either separated or divorced were
excluded.
• Adolescents either orphans or non-orphans physically
handicapped and mentally retarded were excluded.

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172 Sethi and Asghar

Instruments

1. Demographic Information (DI)

Demographic information consists of a general demographic information

questionnaire. Information concerning age, race, sex, birth order,
educational background, Orphan, non-orphans, Socio-economic status,
social environment and religious background were gleaned from this
questionnaire.

2. Self-Esteem Scale

Self-Esteem Scale comprised of 29 items, divided into four subscales. It

is the 5point likert scale ranging from 4(extremely true) to 0 (extremely
false). The distribution of 29 items in each subscale is as follow:

a. Self-Acceptance

In self-acceptance category, there are 11 items; including numbers are 1,

5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21 and 25. All the items in this sub category
are negatively stated, so therefore items were taken in an opposite
direction in a reverse scoring. (Reverse scored items is: 1, 5, 8, 10, 11,
13, 16, 17, 19, 21 and 25).

b. Self-Competence

In self-competence subcategory, there are 6 items and the constitute item

numbers are 2, 6, 9, 14, 22 and 27. All are positively stated.

c. Social and Physical Competence

This subscale is comprised of 7 items, which are 3, 7, 12, 18, 23, 26 and
29. This subscale does not include any negative item.

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A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 173

d. Academic Self-Concept

In academic self-concept 5 items are included, which are 4, 15, 20, 24

and 28. One item is negatively phrase, which need to be reverse scoring,
item is 28.
The average inter score correlation is .42. The internal consistency as
indicated by alpha coefficient value is .83, p< .00. The split half
reliability of self-esteem scale is r = .72, <.00 for all 29items.

Procedure

Before collection of the data formal permission was obtained

from mercy complex (institute for orphanages) to draw the sample of
orphans from this orphanage. Moreover, formal permission was also
obtained from different private and government schools of Peshawar
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Before the administration of the Self-esteem
Scale, the participants were briefed about the nature and purpose of the
study. Rapport was established with the participants assuring them of
confidentiality of their personal information to elicit their true responses.
They were assured that their information would be used wholly and
solely for the research purpose. A consent form was also obtained from
the participant. The Self-esteem Scale was individually administered to
all the research participants in order to determine the level of their self-
esteem and its subtypes.

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 174 Sethi and Asghar

Results

Table 1

Demographic Details of the Sample (N=325)

Orphans Non-orphans
Variables χ2
(N=155) (N=170 )
Gender
Boy 126 (38.77) 138 (42.46)
Girl 29 (8.92) 32 (9.85) .001
Age
13 Years 13(4.00) 24(7.38)
14 Years 43(13.23) 46(14.15) 3.102

15 Years 39(12.00) 35(10.77)

16 Years 60(18.46) 65(20.00)

Socioeconomic Status

Lower class 48(14.77) 20(6.15)

Middle class 103(31.69) 126(38.77) 27.49***

Upper class 4(1.23) 24(7.38)

Social Environment

Urban 59(18.15) 92(28.31) 8.40**

Rural 96(29.54) 78(24.00)

Note. Group 1= Institutionalized Orphans and Non-Orphans and Group 2=

Non-institutionalized orphans and non-orphans. IO stands for Institutionalized
orphans.* = p<0.05, ** = p< 0.01 & *** = p<0.001.

Table 1 shows frequency distribution of the sample and chi-

square of demographic variables of orphans and non-orphans. Results
shows a significant difference atp<0.01 level on socioeconomic status
and social environment between orphans and non-orphans.

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A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 175

Table 2

Inter Scale Correlation

Measures 1 2 3 4 5

1 SE -
2 SA .875** -
3 SC .635** .359** -

4 SPC .762** .510** .468** - .

5 ASC .780** .598** .477** .518** -

Note. **= p<0.01,* =p<0.05. SE=Self Esteem; SA=Self Acceptance; SC= Self
Competence; SPC= Social and Physical Competence; ASC=Academic Self
Concept

Table 2 shows the results of the inter scale correlation, the

findings revealed a significant correlation between self-esteemand social,
physical competence, self-competence and academic self-concept, in
each cell of the correlation matrix, inter scale correlation shows the
strengths of the relationship. The correlation between self-esteem and its
subtypes are highly significant at 0.01 and 0.05 level. Overall the results
indicate a significant relationship between the self-esteem and social,
physical competence, self-competence and academic self-concept among
orphans and non-orphans.

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176 Sethi and Asghar

Table 3

Mean Difference and t-Value of Orphans and Non-Orphans on self-

esteem, Self-acceptance, self-competence, social and physical
competence and Academic self-concepts (N=325).
Non-
Orphans 95% CI Cohe
Groups Orphans t(2) Sig
n’s d
M SD M SD LL UL
SE 81.55 22.37 82.20 22.55 -.25 .79 -5.55 4.26 -0.02

SA 28.07 9.82 28.62 10.86 -.47 .63 -2.81 1.72 -0.05

SC 18.08 4.94 17.32 5.45 1.31 .19 -.38 1.90 0.14

SPC 20.03 6.49 21.34 6.15 -1.87 .06 -2.69 .06 -0.26

ASC 15.37 5.60 14.92 5.81 .71 .47 -.79 1.70 0.07

Note. **= p<0.01, * =p<0.05. SE=Self Esteem; SA=Self Acceptance; SC= Self
Competence; SPC= Social and Physical Competence; ASC=Academic Self
Concept. Higher the scores on self-esteem, Self-acceptance, self-
competence, social and physical competence and Academic self-concepts
subscales, the more the participants possess high characteristics of Self-
acceptance, self-competence, social and physical competence and
Academic self-concepts.

Table no 3 shows that Non-Orphan students show slightly higher

score on self-esteem scale as compared to Orphans, mean difference is
0.65. Result shows that there is insignificant difference on self-esteem of
orphans and non-orphans and Cohen’s d value -0.028 shows that there is
smaller level of effect size and difference between non-orphans and
orphan students. Mean difference and t-value of orphans and non-
orphans on Self-acceptance, self-competence, social and physical
competence and Academic self-concepts (subtypes of self-esteem) scale
shows that Orphan students on self-competence and academic self-
concepts shows slightly higher score as compared to Non-Orphans, mean
difference is 0.76 & 0.45, and non-orphan students’ shows slightly low


Peshawar Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 2015, Vol. 1, No. 2, 167-186


A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 177

scores on self-competence and social and physical competence as

compared to orphans, mean difference are 0.55 & 1.31. results indicates
that there are insignificant difference in self-acceptance, self-
competence, social and physical competence and academic self-concepts
among institutionalized and non-institutionalized orphans and non-
orphans and Cohen’s d values suggest that there are small effect size and
difference.

Table 4

One Way ANOVA and Follow up Multiple Comparison Showing Mean,

Standard Deviation and F-Values of Orphans and Non-Orphans on Self-
Esteem Scale (N=325)
MD(i-
Groups M SD F(3,321) i-j SE 95% CI
j)
LL UL
IO
1<2 -0.15 3.25 -8.77 8.48
(n=100) 83.71 21.38

INO 1>3 7.77 3.87 -2.51 18.05

83.86 24.71
(n=90)
1<4 2.53 -6.23 11.29
75.94 23.65 1.66 3.30
NIO 2>3 7.92 -2.56
81.18 19.97 3.94 18.39
(n=50)
-6.30
2>4 2.68 3.38 11.66
NINO -
3<4 -5.24 3.98 5.35
(n=85) 15.82
Note. IO stands for Institutionalized orphans, INO stands for
Institutionalized Non-orphans, NIO stands for Non-institutionalized
orphans and NINO stands for Non-institutionalized non-orphans.

Table 4 shows mean, standard deviation and analysis of variance

of Orphans and Non-orphans on self-esteem scale. One-way ANOVA
results for Self-esteem among institutionalized and non-institutionalized
orphans and non-orphans reveals that there is no significant difference
existed among institutionalized and non-institutionalized orphans and

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178 Sethi and Asghar

non-orphans. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni test indicated

that the mean score for the non-institutionalized orphans was
significantly different than the institutionalized orphans. However, there
is a no significant difference between institutionalized non-orphans and
non-institutionalized non-orphans. Taken together, these results suggest a
no significant difference between all groups.

Table 5

Mean, Standard Deviation and Analysis Of Variance of Orphans and

Non-Orphans on Subtypes of Self-Esteem Scale, (N=325)
Social &
Self- Self- Academic
Groups Physical
Acceptance Competence Self-Concepts
Competence
M SD M SD M SD M SD
IO 29.26 9.55 17.88 4.93 20.47 5.90 16.10 4.95
(n=100)
INO 29.64 10.91 17.86 5.22 21.50 6.43 14.86 6.10
(n=90)
NIO 24.98 9.83 18.30 5.11 18.74 7.38 13.92 6.66
(n=50)
NINO 27.92 10.70 16.92 5.44 21.33 5.90 15.01 5.41
(n=85)
F(3,321) 2.57 .919 2.42 1.80

Sig 0.54 .43 .06 .14

Note. IO=Institutionalized Orphans, INO=Institutionalized Non-

orphans, NIO=Non-Institutionalized Orphans and NINO=Non
Institutionalized Non-Orphans.

Table 5 shows mean, standard deviation and analysis of variance

of Orphans and Non-orphans on self-acceptance, self-competence, social
and physical competence and academic self-concepts (subtypes of self-
esteem) scale. One-way ANOVA results for Self-acceptance, self-
competence, social and physical competence and academic self-concepts
(sub types of self-esteem) among institutionalized and non-

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A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 179

institutionalized orphans and non-orphans reveals that there are no

significant difference existed between subtypes of self-esteem among
institutionalized and non-institutionalized orphans and non-orphans.

Table 6

Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Variables Effecting

Orphans (n=155) and Non-Orphans (N=170)

95% CI for Odds Ratio

Odds
b (SE) Lower Upper
Ratio
Orphans vs.
Non-orphans
1.684
Constant (1.698)*
SA .005 (.016) .973 1.005 1.037
-.087
SC (.030)** .864 .916 .972
.099
SPC (.028)*** 1.045 1.104 1.165
-.064
ASC (.032)* .880 .938 1.000
Note. SA=Self Acceptance; SC= Self Competence; SPC= Social and Physical
Competence; ASC=Academic Self Concept. R2 = .147 (Cox & Snell), R2 = .196
(Nagelkerke). Model Chi-Sq. (df= 8), 18.363, p value = .019. * = p<0.05, ** =
p< 0.01 & *** = p<0.001.
Coded (0=orphans, 1= non-orphans).

The model was fitted to the data to test the research hypothesis
regarding the relationship between self-acceptance, self-competence,
social and physical competence and academic self-concepts among
orphans and non-orphans. According to the model orphans and non-
orphans are negatively related with self-competence and academic self-
concepts but positively related to self-acceptance and social and
physical-competence but all predictors shows a significant relationship
except self-acceptance, which shows a non-significant relationship.

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180 Sethi and Asghar

Discussion

The study aimed at exploring the relationship between self-

esteem, among orphans and non-orphans. According to the objective of
the study there is a relationship between self-esteem self-acceptance,
self-competence, social and physical competence and academic self-
concepts between orphans and non-orphans was rejected because no
statistical significant difference was observed in this study. Orphan
children are theorized and hypothesized to be at risk of low self-esteem
which is shown in the study by Ijzendoorna, Juffer and Marinus (2007).
Also, Izzat (2014) found that Non-orphan children reported higher level
of self-esteem than the orphan children. This is in contrast to the findings
of this study probably because the orphan and non-orphan adolescents
were mostly studying in same school where teachers treated both the
groups equally. The school environment, teacher’s interaction with
student, and structure of activities e.g., debate competitions, Milad
functions, Iqbal day etc., in which children participate, is likely to help in
promoting the self-esteem of all the school going children and act as a
nurturing element to develop confidence in them. Self-esteem was
probably not affected also because there was no difference in the social
economic status of both orphan and non-orphan children.
Another objective of the study was rejected that orphans have
low self-concepts and low academic achievements as compared to non-
orphans, because in this study orphan children score high on self-
competence and academic self-concept, which are sub types of self-
esteem, as compared to non-orphans. This may be due to the fact that
they received different counseling skills and trainings due to which they
feel loved and cared and thus getting hope and motivation. This enhances
their performances either in academics or in other fields of life. The
findings of this study on differences of orphans and non-orphans on Self-
esteem based on gender shows a significant difference with males having
higher level of self-esteem as compared to females. Girls are influenced
by relationships and boys are influenced by objective success. This is
supported by many studies around the globe [Bagley, C., et al, (1997),
Booth & Gerard (2011), Dhlamini (2004), Whitehouse (2002)].

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A Study of Self-Esteem of Orphans and Non- Orphans 181

There are insignificant Gender and age differences between

orphans and non-orphan children which is in agreement to the last
hypothesis regarding the demographic variables of the sample. In
contrast with the findings of the present study, is a study conducted by
Zhao et al, (2011) who described no significant differences with respect
to gender and age of orphan children.

Limitations and Recommendations

Despite of the benefits of the findings of the study, it is

noteworthy mentioning here and admitting the limitations of the study.

1. The sample of the study was selected from the schools

both orphans and non-orphans, data was collected in
group.

2. The study was only limited to self esteem and some

demographic variables, that might limit the
generalizability of the findings of the study

3. Addition of variables such as age at the time of parents

death, perceived stigma as orphans, degree of societal
connection, role of the surviving parent in case of
single parent orphan and the relationship with
caretaker could help in drawing more clear
conclusions.

Recommendations

It is suggested that educationists, policy makers and

administration of government and non-government institutions to
allocate resources for trainings and seminars and similarly courses to
educate school teachers in identifying, assessing and dealing with
psycho-social and relationship problems related to children with special

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182 Sethi and Asghar

focus on children with special needs such as orphans, traumatized,

handicapped etc. Episodic workshops and conferences need to be
planned for teachers, guardians and family members to train them in
problem identification and counseling. In a nutshell, Orphans and non-
orphans both need extraordinary child supervision and counseling
programs, conducted by mental health professionals, to address issues
related to child mental health.

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