Uyghurs

The Uyghurs (/uːˈiːɡərz, ˈwiːɡərz/; Uyghur: ,‫ئۇيغۇر‬ therefore cannot be accurately determined, and histori-
Уйғур, ULY: Uyghur * [13] [ʔʊjˈʁʊː]; Old Turkic: cally the groups it denoted were not ethnically fixed, since
[* ; *
14]* Chinese: 维吾尔族; pinyin: Wéiwúěr zú) it denoted a political rather than a tribal identity,* [26] or
are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central was used originally to refer to just one group among sev-
Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang eral, the others calling themselves Toquz Oghuz.* [27]
Uyghur Autonomous Region in China, where they are one The earliest record of an Uyghur tribe is from the
of 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities. Northern Wei (386-534 AD). At that time the ethnonym
They primarily practice Islam, and are a physically *[kɑutɕʰĭa] > Gaoche (Chinese: 高车; pinyin: Gāochē;
diverse ethnic group ranging from Western Eurasian literally:“high carts”, Uyghur: ,‫ قاڭقىل‬Қаңқил, ULY:
(Europeans, Middle Eastern) to a more East Asian ap- Qangqil) was used, and later, Tiele (Chinese: 铁 勒;
pearance. pinyin: Tiělè).* [28] The first use of Uyghur as a refer-
An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs live in ence to a political nation occurred during the interim pe-
the southwestern portion of the region, the Tarim riod between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates
Basin.* [15] Outside Xinjiang, the largest community of (630-684 AD).* [29]
Uyghurs in China is in Taoyuan County, in south-central The term Uyghur disappeared from historical records
Hunan.* [16] Outside of China, significant diasporic in the 15th century but the Bolsheviks reintroduced the
communities of Uyghurs exist in the Central Asian term Uyghur to replace the previously-used Turk or
countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, Turki.* [30]* [31] In modern usage, Uyghur refers to set-
and in Turkey.* [17] Smaller communities are found tled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim
in Afghanistan, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary
Norway, Sweden, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Australia, practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic pop-
Canada, and the United States. ulations in Central Asia.

1 Name 2 Identity

Uyghur is often pronounced /ˈwiːɡər/ by English

speakers, though an acceptable English pronunciation
closer to the Uyghur people's pronunciation of it is
/uː.iˈɡʊər/.* [18]* [19]
Several alternate romanizations also appear: Uighur,
Uygur, and Uigur (Уиғур, Уйгур, and Уигур). The Xin-
jiang Uyghur Autonomous Region provincial government
recommends that the generic ethnonym [ʊjˈʁʊː], adopted
in the early 20th century,* [20]* [21] be transcribed as
“Uyghur”.* [22]
The meaning of the term Uyghur is unclear. The Old Tur-
kic inscriptions record a word uyɣur* [23] which was tran-
scribed into Chinese as *[ɣuɒiɣət] > Huíhé (Chinese: 回
纥) in Tang dynasty annals.* [24] Later, in response to an
Uyghur request, this was changed to [ɣuɒiɣuət] > Huíhú
(Chinese: 回鹘) in 788 or 809 as mentioned in the Old A Uyghur girde naan baker
History of the Five Dynasties.* [25] Modern etymological
explanations have ranged from“to follow, accommodate Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has taken on
oneself”and“non-rebellious”(from Turk. uy/uð-) to“to an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying
wake, rouse, stir”(from oðğur-), none of which is thought only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in Northern China,
satisfactory because the sound shift ð/ḏ > y did not ap- Mongolia, and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted cit-
pear to have taken place by this time.* [25] The etymology izenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally it was ex-

1
2 2 IDENTITY

themselves with the oasis they came from, like

Kashgar or Turfan.
—Owen Lattimore, “Return to China's
Northern Frontier.”The Geographical Jour-
nal, Vol. 139, No. 2, June 1973* [36]

The term“Uyghur”was not used to refer to any existing

ethnic group in the 19th century, but to an ancient peo-
ple. A late 19th-century encyclopedia titled The cyclopæ-
dia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said “the
Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes, and formerly
inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), which is
now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol,
Uyghur blacksmiths at work. Yengisar, Xinjiang. and Kalmuck".* [37] The inhabitants of Xinjiang were
not called Uyghur before 1921/1934. Westerners called
the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases “Turki”,
panded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with and the Turkic Muslims in Ili were known as "Taranchi".
the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, which The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as
caused Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim “Sart”,* [38] “Turk”, or “Turki”.* [39]* [40] In the
Basin. This migration assimilated and replaced the Indo- early 20th century, they would call themselves by differ-
European speakers of the region to create a distinct iden- ent names to different peoples and in response to different
tity as the language and culture of the Turkic migrants inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kyrgyz
eventually supplanted the original Indo-European influ- and Kazaks, while they called themselves “Chantou”if
ences. This fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse asked about their identity after identifying as a Muslim
ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion about what first.* [41]* [42] The term“Chantou”(纏頭, Ch'an-t'ou,
constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis. meaning “Rag head”or “Turban Head”) was used
Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang,* [43]* [44]
the descendants of a number of people, including the including by Hui (Tungan) people.* [45] These groups
ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia who arrived at the Tarim of peoples often identified themselves by the oases they
Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic came from rather than an ethnic group;* [46] for exam-
Saka tribes, and other Indo-European peoples who in- ple those from Kashgar may refer to themselves as Kash-
habited the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Tur- garliq or Kashgari, while those from Hotan called them-
kic Uyghurs.* [32] DNA analyses indicate that the peo- selves “Hotani”.* [42]* [47] Other Central Asians once
ples of central Asia such as the Uyghurs are all mixed called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang's Southern oases
Caucasian and East Asian.* [33] Uyghur activists identify Kashgari.* [48] The term Kashgari is used in Pakistan's
with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people Gilgit Baltistan region.* [49] The Turkic people also used
who inhabited the region, but research into the genet- “Musulman”, which means“Muslim”, to describe them-
ics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with mod- selves.* [47]* [50]* [51]
ern Uyghurs remain controversial, both to Chinese gov- Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the
ernment officials concerned with ethnic separatism, and ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the na-
to Uyghur activists concerned that research could affect tive Uyghur name for eastern Turkestan or southern Xin-
their claims of being indigenous to the region.* [34]* [35] jiang) before the adoption of the name “Uyghur”in
the 1930s, referring to them by the name “Altishahri”
in his article Modular History: Identity Maintenance be-
2.1 Origin of the modern ethnic concept
fore Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri
The Uighurs are the people whom old Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group
Russian travellers called Sart (a name which separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the no-
they used for sedentary, Turkish-speaking madic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq, and
Central Asians in general), while Western the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as
travellers called them Turki, in recognition Uyghurs. There was no single name used by them to re-
of their language. The Chinese used to call fer to themselves, the various native names Altishahris
them Ch'an-t'ou ('Turbaned Heads') but this used to refer to themselves were Altishahrlik (Altishahr
term has been dropped, being considered person), yerlik (local), Turki, and Musulmān (Muslim),
derogatory, and the Chinese, using their own the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify re-
pronunciation, now called them Weiwuerh. ligious connotations, because the Altishahris would ex-
As a matter of fact there was for centuries clude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz when refer-
no 'national' name for them; people identified ring to themselves as Musulmān.* [52]* [53] Dr. Laura J
 3

Newby has also noted that the sedentary Altishahri Tur- as subgroups of the Uyghur based on similar historical
kic people felt themselves as a separate group from other roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similari-
Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.* [54] ties for the Salar. These groups are recognized as separate
*
The name “Uyghur”reappeared after the Soviet Union ethnic groups, though, by the Chinese government. [70]
took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Kha- Pan-Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence ac-
ganate and reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Mus- tivists Muhammad Amin Bughra (Mehmet Emin) and
lims of Xinjiang,* [55] following western European ori- Masud Sabri rejected the Soviet imposition of the name
entalists like Julius Klaproth in the 19th century who re- “Uyghur”upon the Turkic people of Xinjiang. They
vived the name and spread the use of the term to lo- wanted instead the name“Turkic ethnicity”to be applied
cal Turkic intellectuals,* [56] and a 19th-century proposal to their people. Masud Sabri also viewed the Hui people
from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his own peo-
descended from the Kingdom of Qocho and Kara-Khanid ple.* [71] The names“Türk”or“Türki”in particular were
Khanate, which had formed after the dissolution of the demanded by Bughra as the real name for his people. He
Uyghur Khaganate.* [57] Historians generally agree that criticized Sheng Shicai for his designation of Turkic Mus-
the adoption of the term “Uyghur”is based on a de- lims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion
cision from a 1921 conference in Tashkent, which was among Turkic Muslims.* [72]“Turki”and“Turk”were
attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xin- demanded as ethonyms instead of Uyghur by Turki intel-
jiang).* [55]* [58]* [59]* [60] There,“Uyghur”was chosen lectuals who opposed Sheng Shicai's introduction of the
by them as the name of their own ethnic group, although “Uighur”name.* [73]
the delegates noted that the modern groups referred to In current usage, Uyghur refers to settled Turkic ur-
as “Uyghur”were distinct from the old Uyghur Kha- ban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili
ganate.* [38]* [61] According to Linda Benson, the So- who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices,
viets and their client Sheng Shicai intended to foster a as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in
Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Central Asia. However, the Chinese government has also
Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples designated as “Uyghur”certain peoples with signifi-
themselves preferred to identify as “Turki”, “East cantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main
Turkestani”, or “Muslim”.* [38] group. These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County
On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that and the Dolan people, who are thought to be closer to
time, the Kuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz.* [74]* [75] The use of
the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "Hui the term Uyghur has led to anachronisms when describ-
nationality".* [62]* [63] The Qing dynasty and the Kuom- ing the history of the people.* [76] In one of his books
intang generally referred to the sedentary, oasis dwelling the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Mill-
Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as “turban-headed Hui”to ward.* [77]
differentiate them from other Muslim ethnic groups in “Turkistani”is used as an alternate ethonym for“Uyghur”
China.* [38]* [64]* [65] Westerners traveling in Xinjiang by some Uyghurs,* [78] for example the Uyghur diaspora
in the 1930s, like George W. Hunter, Peter Fleming, Ella in Saudi Arabia have adopted the identity “Turkistani”
Maillart, and Sven Hedin, all referred to the Turkic Mus- .* [79]* [80] Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the
lims of the region as “Turki”in their books. Use of Arabic nisba of their home city, such as Al Kashgari from
the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934, Kashgar. Saudi born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari's family
when the governor, Sheng Shicai, came to power in there. originated from Kashgar. Uyghurs who migrated from
Sheng adopted the Soviets' ethnographic classification the Tarim Basin to Ürümqi and Dzungaria in the northern
rather than that of the Kuomintang and became the first to portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known
promulgate the official use of the term “Uyghur”to de- as Taranchi meaning “farmer”.
scribe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.* [38]* [57]* [66]
“Uyghur”replaced“rag-head”.* [67] After the Commu- We never call each other Uyghur, but only refer to
nist victory, the Communist Party of China under Mao ourselves as East Turkestanis, or Kashgarlik, Turpan-
Zedong continued the Soviet classification, using the term lik, or even Turks.- according to some Uyghurs born in
“Uyghur”to describe the modern ethnic group.* [38] Turkey.* [81]* [82]
Another ethnic group, the Tibetan Buddhist Western
Yugur of Gansu, have consistently been called by
themselves and others the “Yellow Uyghur”(Sarïq 3 History
Uyghur).* [68] Some scholars say that the Yugur's culture,
language, and religion are closer to the original culture of Main article: History of the Uyghur people
the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture The history of the Uyghur people, as with the eth-
of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang.* [69] Linguist nic origin of the people, is a matter of contention
and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey has argued for inclu- between Uyghur nationalists and the Chinese author-
sion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar ity.* [83] Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the
4 3 HISTORY

the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably

speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka
tribes. Other people in the region mentioned in ancient
Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu
who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chi-
nese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists
also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the
Chinese historical text the Book of Wei, the founder of the
Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),* [25] but
the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.* [84]
The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu, but
founded the Kushan Empire, which exerted some influ-
ence in the Tarim Basin where Kharosthi texts have been
found in Loulan, Niya and Khotan. Loulan and Khotan
were some of the many city states that existed in the
Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty, others include
Kucha, Turfan, Karasahr and Kashgar. The settled pop-
ulation of these cities later merged with incoming Turkic
Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha people such as the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate to form
Caves, Xinjiang, China, 8th to 9th century AD, wall painting
the modern Uyghurs.

original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history.

Uyghur politician and historian Muhemmed Imin Bughra 3.2 Uyghur Khaganate
wrote in his book A history of East Turkestan, stress-
ing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks
have a 9000-year history, while historian Turghun Al-
mas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to con-
clude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of history,* [84]
and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year
history in East Turkestan.* [85] However, official Chi-
nese view asserts that the Uyghurs in Xinjiang origi-
nated from the Tiele tribes and only became the main
social and political force in Xinjiang during the ninth
century when they migrated to Xinjiang from Mongo-
lia after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, replac-
ing the Han Chinese they claimed were there since the
Han Dynasty.* [84] Many contemporary Western schol-
ars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be
of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate
of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descen-
dants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient
Uyghurs.* [32]* [86]* [87]* [88]

3.1 Early history

Discovery of well-preserved Tarim mummies of a peo-
ple European in appearance indicates the migration of an
Indo-European people into the Tarim area at the begin-
An 8th-century Uyghur Khagan
ning of the Bronze age around 2,000 BCE. These people
probably spoke Tocharian languages and were suggested
by some to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chi- The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a
nese texts.* [89]* [90] However, Uyghur activists claimed Turkic confederation called the Tiele,* [92] who lived in
these mummies to be of Uyghur origin, based partly on a the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei
word, which they argued to be Uyghur, found in written River. They overthrew the Turkic Khaganate and estab-
scripts associated with these mummies, although other lished the Uyghur Khaganate.
linguists suggest it to be a Sogdian word later absorbed The Uyghur Khaganate stretched from the Caspian Sea
into Uyghur.* [91] Later migrations brought peoples from to Manchuria and lasted from 744 to 840.* [32] It was ad-
3.4 Islamization 5

ministered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed signif-
the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, fol- icant autonomy and played an important role as civil ser-
lowing a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was vants to the Mongol Empire, but was finally destroyed by
overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz, another Turkic people. the Chagatai Khanate in the 1390s.
As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under
Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.
3.4 Islamization
3.3 Uyghur kingdoms Main article: Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xin-
jiang

In the tenth century, the Karluks, Yagmas, Chigils and

other Turkic tribes founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate in
Semirechye, Western Tian Shan, and Kashgaria, and later
conquered Transoxiana. The Karakhanid rulers were
likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the Toquz
Oghuz, and some historians therefore see this as a link
between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur
Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by oth-
ers.* [94]
The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century
beginning with Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the first Tur-
kic dynasty to do so.* [95] Modern Uyghurs see the Mus-
lim Karakhanids as an important part of their history,
however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin
was a gradual process. The Indo-European Saka Buddhist
Kingdom of Khotan was conquered by the Turkic Mus-
lim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century,
but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the
15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to
Islam was not completed until the 17th century.

Uyghur king of the Turfan region attended by servants. Mogao

Caves, 409, 11th-13th century.

According to the New Book of Tang, the Uyghurs who

founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall
of the Khaganate; some went to live amongst the Kar-
luks, and some moved to Turpan and Gansu.* [93] These
Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the eastern-
most state was the Ganzhou Kingdom (870–1036), with Chagatai Khanate (Moghulistan) in 1490
its capital near present-day Zhangye, Gansu, China. The
modern Yugurs are believed to be descendants of these The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-
Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by the Western Xia in Muslim powers: first the Kara-Khitans in the 12th cen-
1036. tury, followed by the Mongols in the 13th century. Af-
The second Uyghur kingdom, the Kingdom of Qocho, ter the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Transoxiana and
also known as Uyghuristan in its later period, was founded Kashgar became the domain of his second son, Chagatai
in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modern Khan. The Chagatai Khanate split into two in the 1340s,
Gaochang) and Beshbalik. The Kingdom of Qocho lasted and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern
from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to Uyghurs live became part of Moghulistan, which meant
be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or “land of the Mongols”. In the 14th century, a Cha-
since.* [32] The Uyghurs were originally Manichaean, but gatayid khan Tughluq Temür converted to Islam. His son
converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho ac- Khizr Khoja conquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of
cepted the Qara Khitai as its overlord in 1130s, and in Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became
1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising Mongol Empire. largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century.* [96]
 6 3 HISTORY

After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the nal solution”of genocide to solve the problem of the
previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars,
memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement
the“infidel Kalmuks”(Dzungars) were the ones who built of millions of other people in Dzungaria.* [101]* [102]
Buddhist monuments in their area.* [97] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui,
From the late 14th through 17th centuries the Xinjiang Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis
region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's to-
the north, Altishahr (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and tal population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern
area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern
the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by compet-
ing Chagatayid descendants, the Dughlats, and later the Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.* [103] In Dzungaria, the Qing
established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.* [104]
Khojas.* [94]
The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many
Islam was also spread by the Sufis, and branches of its Kazakhs.* [105] The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and
Naqshbandi order were the Khojas who seized control of changed its demographic composition as well.* [106] The
political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Tur- crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the
fan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang,
two rival factions, the Aqtaghlik Khojas (also called the migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and
Afaqiyya) and the Qarataghlik Khojas (the Ishaqiyya). increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim
The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the
The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where Qing.* [107] It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz
the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing that “the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory
the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile. for Islam”.* [108]
In Beijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around
the mosque near the Forbidden City, having moved to
3.5 Qing rule Beijing in the 18th century.* [109]
During the Dungan Revolt (1862–77), Andijani Uzbeks
In the 17th century, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew
from the Khanate of Kokand under Buzurg Khan and
in power in Dzungaria. The Dzungar conquest of Al-
Yaqub Beg expelled Qing officials from parts of southern
tishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the
Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian king-
Yarkent Khanate, after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja attempt
dom called Yettishar “Country of Seven Cities”. Un-
to gain aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar
der the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it included Kashgar,
Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the
Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, Kucha, Korla, and Turpan.
Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim
Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars, who extracted Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General Zuo
heavy taxes and tribute from the Tarim Basin cities. Zongtang attacked Yettishar in 1876. After this invasion,
the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as
The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol
the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian
territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict
Shan,* [110]* [111] and the Tarim Basin, which had been
with Qing China in the late 17th century, and in the pro-
known as“Muslim land”or southern marches of the Tian
cess also brought Chinese presence back into the region
Shan,* [112] were reorganized into a province named Xin-
a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the
jiang meaning “New Territory”.* [113]* [114]
Western Regions.* [98]
The Dzungar–Qing War lasted a decade. During the
Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called 3.6 Modern era
“Younger Khoja”(Chinese: 霍 集 占), also known
as Khwāja-i Jahān, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic
(Chinese: 波 羅 尼 都), also known as Burhān al-Dīn, of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic Jadidist Islamists had
after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by
become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin
the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against
who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several upris-
Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzun-
ings against Chinese rule. Twice, in 1933 and 1944, the
gars, then they rebelled against the Qing, an action which
Uyghurs successfully gained their independence (backed
prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin
by the Soviet Communist leader Joseph Stalin): the First
by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at in-
such as Emin Khoja were allies of the Qing in this con-
dependence around Kashghar, and it was destroyed dur-
flict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing to rule the
ing the Kumul Rebellion by Chinese Muslim army under
Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.* [99]* [100] General Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan at the Battle of
The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s Kashgar (1934). The Second East Turkestan Republic
ended with the Dzungar genocide. The Qing “fi- was a Soviet puppet Communist state that existed from
 7

1944 to 1949 in the three districts of what is now Ili “leaders”such as Rebiya Kadeer mainly try to garner in-
Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture during the Ili Rebellion ternational support for the “rights and interests of the
while the majority of Xinjiang was under the control Uyghurs”, including the right to demonstrate, although
of the Republic of China. Religious Uyghur separatists the Chinese government has accused her of orchestrating
from the First East Turkestan Republic like Isa Yusuf the deadly July 2009 Ürümqi riots.* [117]
Alptekin and Muhammad Amin Bughra opposed the So-
viet Communist backed Uyghur separatists of the Second
East Turkestan Republic under Ehmetjan Qasim and they
supported the Republic of China during the Ili Rebellion.

4 Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan

Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and

other parts of Changde in Hunan province.* [118]* [119]
They are descended from Hala Bashi, a Uyghur leader
from Turpan (Kingdom of Qocho), and his Uyghur sol-
diers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th
Map showing the distribution of ethnicities in Xinjiang according century to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Re-
to census figures from 2000, the prefectures with Uyghur majori- bellions in the Ming Dynasty.* [16]* [120] The 1982 cen-
ties are in blue. sus records 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan.* [121] They have
genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present
Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which
China on October 1, 1949. He turned the Second East the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given
Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Pre- the surname Jian by the Emperor.* [122] There is some
fecture, and appointed Saifuddin Azizi as the region's confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some
first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loy- say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not
alists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries. practice Islam anymore, and only their genealogies indi-
The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Au- cate their Uyghur ancestry.* [123] Chinese news sources
tonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest eth- report that they are Muslim.* [16]
nic group, mostly concentrated in the southwestern Xin-
jiang.* [115] (see map, right) The Xinjiang conflict is an The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming
ongoing separatist conflict in China's far-west province Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles
of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known as Dzun- by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the
garia and whose southern region (the Tarim Basin) is Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur
known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and inde- have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermar-
pendence movements claim that the region is not a part ried in the Hunan area.* [124] The Hui are descendants of
of China, but that the Second East Turkestan Republic Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried, and they share
was illegally incorporated by the PRC in 1949 and has the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan.* [124] It
since been under Chinese occupation. Uyghur identity re- is reported that they now number around 10,000 people.
mains fragmented, as some support a Pan-Islamic vision, The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious, and eat
exemplified by the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, pork.* [124] Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially
while others support a Pan-Turkic vision, such as the East elders at the mosques in Changde, and they seek to draw
Turkestan Liberation Organization. A third group would them back to Islamic customs.* [124]
like a“Uyghurstan" state, such as the East Turkestan in- In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of Changde Hu-
dependence movement. As a result, "[n]o Uyghur or East nan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor
Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs, although it might worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the
claim to”, and Uyghurs in each of these camps have com- Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest.* [124] Also,
mitted violence against other Uyghurs who they think are the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language,
too assimilated to Chinese or Russian society or are not instead, they speak Chinese as their native language, and
religious enough.* [116] Mindful not to take sides, Uyghur Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.* [124]
8 5 GENETICS

5 Genetics specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6%, and east-

Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%* [129] A further study
shows that the western-Eurasian patrilineal Y-DNA hap-
Diversity of Uyghur people logroup in Uyghurs is around 65% to 70%, and east-Asian
Y-DNA haplogroup around 30% to 35%.* [130]
The admixture may be the result of a continuous gene
flow from populations of European and Asian descent,
or may have been formed by a single event of admixture
during a short period of time (the hybrid isolation model).
If a hybrid isolation model is assumed, it can be estimated
that the hypothetical admixture event occurred about 126
generations ago, or 2,520 years ago assuming 20 years per
generation.* [126]* [131]
Uyghurs in
Kashgar According to the paper by Li et al.:

... the western East Asians are more

closely related to Uyghurs than the east-
ern East Asians. ... STRUCTURE cannot
distinguish recent admixture from a cline
of other origin, and these analyses cannot
prove admixture in the Uyghurs; however,
historical records indicate that the present
Uyghurs were formed by admixture between
Tocharians from the west and Orkhon Uyghurs
A young (Wugusi-Huihu, according to present Chi-
Uyghur girl in Turpan, Xinjiang, China nese pronunciation) from the east in the 8th
century AD. The Uyghur Empire was origi-
nally located in Mongolia and conquered the
Tocharian tribes in Xinjiang. Tocharians such
as Kroran have been shown by archaeological
findings to appear phenotypically similar to
northern Europeans, whereas the Orkhon
Uyghur people were clearly Mongolians. The
two groups of people subsequently mixed
in Xinjiang to become one population, the
present Uyghurs. We do not know the genetic
Group of constitution of the Tocharians, but if they
boys in Hotan were similar to western Siberians, such as the
Khanty, admixture would already be biased
toward similarity with East Asian populations.
The Uyghurs are a Eurasian population with Eastern
—* [128]
and Western Eurasian anthropometric and genetic traits.
Uyghurs are thus one of the many populations of Cen-
tral Eurasia that can be considered to be genetically re-
lated to European and East Asian populations. How- The paper further concludes:
ever, various scientific studies differ on the size of each
component.* [125] One study, using samples from Het- ... that the Uyghurs' genetic structure is
ian (Hotan) only, found that Uyghurs have 60% Euro- more similar to East Asians than to Europeans,
pean ancestry and 40% East Asian ancestry.* [126] A in contrast to the reports by Xu and Jin, whose
further study showed slightly greater European compo- work may have been affected by their sparse
nent (52% European) in the Uyghur population in south- population coverage. The median line of the
ern Xinjiang, but slightly greater East Asian compo- Eurasian genetic landscape appears to lie to
nent (47% European) in the northern Uyghur popula- the west of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
tion.* [127] Another study used a larger sample of indi- Region of China. When we have collected
viduals from a wider area, and found only about 30% more data on these 34 populations, we should
European component to the admixture.* [128] A study be able to refine these estimates.
on mitochondrial DNA (therefore the matrilineal genetic —* [128]
contribution) found the frequency of western Eurasian-
6.2 Language 9

6 Culture 6.2 Language

Main article: Uyghur language
6.1 Religion The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke

Map of languages in Xinjiang

different languages such as Saka (Khotanese), Tocharian

and Gandhari. The Turkic people who moved into re-
gion in the 9th century brought with them their languages
which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the lo-
cal inhabitants. By the 11th century, it was noted by
Mahmud al-Kashgari that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke
a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke an-
other language among themselves and have two differ-
ent scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did
not know Turkic well, and have their own language and
script (Khotanese).* [141] Writers of the Karakhanid pe-
riod, al-Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun, referred to their
Turkic language as Khāqāniyya (meaning royal), or the
“language of Kashgar”, or simply Turkic.* [142]* [143]

An Uyghur mosque in Khotan. The modern Uyghur language is classed under to the
Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is closely
related to Äynu, Lop, Ili Turki, and Chagatay (the East
Karluk languages), and slightly less closely to Uzbek
The ancient Uyghurs believed in Shamanism and (which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is an
Tengrism, then Manichaeism, Buddhism and Church of agglutinative language and has a subject-object-verb word
the East.* [132]* [133] People in the western Tarim Basin order. It has vowel harmony like other Turkic languages,
region began to convert to Islam in significant number and has noun and verb cases, but lacks distinction of gen-
early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period.* [95] Modern der forms.* [144]
Uyghurs are now primarily Muslim, and they are the
Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for
second largest Muslim ethnic group in China after the
their language. The Arabic script, known as the Chagatay
Hui.* [134]
alphabet, was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is
The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis, although known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in
conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious or- the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the writing
ders.* [134] While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be scripts, for example the Cyrillic-based Uyghur Cyrillic al-
part of their identity, religious observance varies between phabet, a Latin Uyghur New Script, and later a reformed
different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern re- Uyghur Arabic alphabet which represents all vowels un-
gion, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative.* [135] like Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, the Uyghur Latin
For example, women wearing the full veil (brown cloth alphabet, was also devised in the 21st century.
covering the head completely) are more common in Kash-
gar but may not be found in some other cities.* [136]
There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the 6.3 Literature
Hui Muslims in Xinjiang, and they normally worship in
different mosques.* [137] There had been Christian con- The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly
versions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but these translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious
were suppressed.* [138]* [139]* [140] texts,* [145] but there were also narrative, poetic, and epic
10 6 CULTURE

works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However, it is sitions by ensembles.

the literature of Kara-Khanid period that is considered by The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by
modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Human-
traditions. Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and ity.* [151]
histories of Turkic peoples, and important works surviv-
ing from that era are Kutadgu Bilig “Wisdom of Royal Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan,
Glory”by Yusuf Khass Hajib (1069–70), Mahmud al- (1526–1560) is credited with collecting and thereby pre-
Kashgari's Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk “A Dictionary of serving the Twelve Muqam.* [152] Russian scholar Pan-
Turkic Dialects”(1072), and Ehmed Yükneki's Etebe- tusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own
tulheqayiq. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes musical instruments; they had 62 different kinds of mu-
the Taẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and sical instruments and in every Uyghur home there used to
saints.* [146]* [147] Robert Barkley Shaw translated ex- be an instrument called a "duttar".
tracts from the Tazkiratu'l-Bughra which was about the
Muslim Turkic conquest of the“infidel”Khotan.* [148]
The Turki-language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was writ- 6.5 Dance
ten by M. Sadiq Kashghari.* [149] Between the 1600s
and 1900s many Turki language tazkirah manuscripts Sanam is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur peo-
devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints ple.* [153] It is commonly danced by people at wed-
were written.* [150] Perhaps the most famous and best- dings, festive occasions, and parties.* [154] The dance
loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim may be performed with singing and musical accompani-
Ötkür's Iz, Oyghanghan Zimin, Zordun Sabir's Anayurt ment. Sama is a form of group dance for Newruz (New
and Ziya Samedi's novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the Year). Some dances may be alternate between singing
years. and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums called dap are
commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.

6.4 Music
6.6 Art

Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand.

Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains, Turpan
are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam Depression.
system developed among the Uyghur in northwest China
and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific
from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang's
many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Silk Road discovered numerous cave temples, monastery
Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books,
the oasis towns of Xinjiang, such as Dolan, Ili, Kumul and documents. There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site.
and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is Most have rectangular spaces with rounded arch ceilings
the Western Tarim region's 12 muqams, which are now a often divided into four sections, each with a mural of
large canon of music and songs recorded from the tradi- Buddha. The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with
tional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted
others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, includ-
system. Although the folk performers probably impro- ing Indians, Persians and Europeans. The quality of the
vised their songs as in Turkish taksim performances, the murals vary with some being artistically naïve while oth-
present institutional canon is performed as fixed compo- ers are masterpieces of religious art.* [155]
6.8 Medicine 11

fore prefer the Uyghur language school.* [157]* [174]

However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese gov-
ernment began to reduce teaching in Uyghur, and start-
ing mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from
the two systems. By 2002 Xinjiang University, origi-
nally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses
in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the govern-
ment policy is that classes should be conducted in Chi-
nese as much as possible, and in some selected regions,
instruction in Chinese began in the first grade.* [175] The
level of education attainment among Uyghurs is gener-
ally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due
to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the
Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction)
Xinjiang carpet factory among many Uyghurs, and a poorer employment prospect
for Uyghur graduates.* [176] Uyghurs in China, unlike
the Salar and Hui who are also mostly Muslim, generally
6.7 Education do not oppose coeducation.* [177] Girls however may be
withdrawn from school earlier than boys.* [157]
Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people
was higher than the other ethnic groups around them. The
6.8 Medicine
Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants
of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a
Their traditional medicine is Unani (Greek)
high status in the Mongol empire. In the Islamic era, ed-
medicine.* [178] Sir Percy Sykes described the medicine
ucation may be provided by the mosques and madrassas.
as “based on the ancient Greek theory”and mentioned
During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were
how ailments and sicknesses were treated in Through
also set up in Xinjiang,* [156] and in the late 19th cen-
Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.* [179] Today, tra-
tury Christian missionary schools.* [157]
ditional medicine can still be found at street stands.
In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, school were Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually
often located in mosques and madrassah. Mosques ran made through checking the pulse, symptoms, and disease
the informal schools, known as mektep or maktab, at- history, and then the pharmacist pounds up different
tached to the mosques,* [158] The maktab provided most dried herbs, making personalized medicines according
of the education and its curriculum was primarily reli- to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals
gious and oral.* [159] Boys and girls may be taught in sep- adopted modern medical science and medicine and
arate schools, some of which may also offer modern secu- applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to
lar subjects in the early 20th century.* [156]* [157]* [160] traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical
In Madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar, and Islamic knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in
law were taught.* [161] In the early 20th century, the terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and
Jadidists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas ingredients, and symptom detection. It introduced to
on education,* [162]* [163]* [164]* [165]* [166] and popu- Chinese medicine the medical use of snakes, opium and
larized the identity of “Turkestani”.* [167] many new kinds of plants.* [180] During the Qing era
In more recent times, religious education is highly re- the Uyghurs used Chinese medicine.* [181]
stricted in Xinjiang, and the Chinese authority had
sought to eradicate any religious school they considered
6.9 Cuisine
illegal.* [168]* [169] Although Islamic private schools
(Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported Main article: Xinjiang cuisine
and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui Uyghur food shows both Central Asian and Chinese el-
Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not ements. A typical Uyghur dish is polu (or pilaf), a dish
extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of sepa- found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of
ratism.* [170]* [171]* [172] the Uyghur polu, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first
Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education be- fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added,
came more widespread. Early in the PRC era, Uyghurs and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apri-
may have a choice from two separate secular school sys- cots may also be added. Kawaplar (Uyghur: Каваплар)
tems, one conducted in their own language, and one of- or chuanr (i.e., kebabs or grilled meat) are also found
fering instructions only in Chinese.* [173] Many Uyghurs here. Another common Uyghur dish is leghmen (‫لەغمەن‬,
link the preservation of their cultural and religious iden- ләғмән), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping usually
tity with the language of instruction in schools and there- made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes,
12 6 CULTURE

Uyghur polu ( , полу)

onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers, and cabbage.

This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese
lamian, but its flavor and preparation method are distinc-
tively Uyghur.* [182]
Uyghur food (Уйғур Йәмәклири, Uyghur Yemekliri) is
characterized by mutton, beef, camel (solely bactrian),
chicken, goose, carrots, tomatoes, onions, peppers,
eggplant, celery, various dairy foods, and fruits.
A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of tea with home-
baked bread, hardened yogurt, olives, honey, raisins, and
almonds. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea, naan, and Dopa Maker, traditional Uyghur hats, Kashgar
fruit before the main dishes are ready.
Sangza (Uyghur: ‫ساڭزا‬, Саңза) are crispy fried wheat тәлпәк, salwa tälpäk) is worn by Uyghurs.* [187]
flour dough twists, a holiday specialty. Samsa (Uyghur:
‫سامسا‬, Самса) are lamb pies baked in a special brick
oven. Youtazi is steamed multi-layer bread. Göshnan
(Uyghur: ‫گۆشنان‬, Гөшнан) are pan-grilled lamb
pies. Pamirdin (Uyghur: Памирдин) are baked pies
stuffed with lamb, carrots, and onions. Shorpa is lamb
soup (Uyghur: ‫شۇرپا‬, Шорпа). Other dishes include
Toghach (Uyghur: Тоғач) (a type of tandoor bread) and
Tunurkawab (Uyghur: Тунуркаваб ). Girde (Uyghur:
Гирде) is also a very popular bagel-like bread with a hard
and crispy crust that is soft inside.
Due to a price gouging scam involving a traditional
Uyghur nut cake (Chinese: 切 糕; pinyin: qiēgāo; lit-
erally: “nut cake”)* [183] or (Chinese: 核 桃 糕;
pinyin: hétao gāo; literally: “walnut cake”) or 瑪仁糖
(Chinese: 瑪仁糖; pinyin: mǎréntáng) sold by Uyghur
vendors called 切糕党 (Chinese: 切糕党; pinyin: qiēgāo
dǎng; literally: “nut cake party”), ethnic tensions have
risen.* [184]* [185]* [186]

6.10 Clothing
See also: Uzbeks § Attire

Chapan is worn by Uyghurs. Doppa is headgear worn Uyghur girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to
by Uyghur men. Another headwear, Salwa telpek (салва the Uyghurs
 13

Yengisar (‫يېڭىسار‬, Йеңисар) is famous for manufac- 7 See also

turing Uyghur handcrafted knives,* [188]* [189] called
“Yingjisha”knife (英 吉 沙 刀) or (英 吉 沙 小 刀) in • List of Uyghurs
Chinese.* [190]* [191]* [192]* [193] The Uyghur word for
knife is pichaq (‫پىچاق‬, пичақ) and the word for knives • Meshrep
is pichaqchiliq (‫پىچاقچىلىقى‬, пичақчилиқ).* [194]
Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for • Uyghur timeline
their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carrying knives
• Uyghur people in Beijing
on their body is a major part of Uyghur culture. The
knives are intended to demonstrate the masculinity • East Turkestan independence movement
of the wearer* [195] but have also led to ethnic ten-
sion.* [196]* [197] Limitations were placed on knife vend- • Makan Map
ing due to terrorism and violent assaults where they were
utilized.* [198]
In the early 20th century, face covering veils with caps 8 References
velvet with trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets
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adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.* [199] Travelers ican Association. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in
[2] Агентство Республики Каписью на 26,1% и составила
Kashghar women went into the bazar “transacting busi-
10098,6 тыс. человек. Увеличилась численность
ness with their veils thrown back”but mullahs tried to en- узбеков на 23,3%, составив 457,2 тыс. человек, уйгур
force veil wearing and were“in the habit of beating those - на 6%, составив 223,1 тыс. человек. Снизилась
who show their face in the Great Bazar”."* [200] Uyghur численность русских на 15,3%, составив 3797,0 тыс.
women who had non-Muslim Han Chinese husbands did человек; немцев - на 49,6%, составив 178,2 тыс.
not wear veils due to their slackness in regards to reli- человек; украинцев – на 39,1%, составив 333,2 тыс.
gion in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended.* [201] человек; татар – на 18,4%, составив 203,3 тыс.
Belonging to different social statuses meant a difference человек; других этносов – на 5,8%, составив 714,2
in how rigorously the veil was worn.* [202] тыс. человек.

Qing era Muslim Turkestani men cut all the hair off [3] Национальный статистический комитет Кыргызской
their head.* [203] It was observed that the Turki Muham- Республики : Перепись населения и жилищного
madan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a фонда Кыргызской Республики 2009 года в цифрах
substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it и фактах - Архив Публикаций - КНИГА II (часть I в
was just then. by Sir Aurel Stein.* [204] No hair cutting таблицах) : 3.1. Численность постоянного населения
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İhbar Etti”. ISLAH HABER "Özgür Ümmetin Habercisi”
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[6] "Перепись населения России 2010 года". Retrieved

6.11 Names 2014-03-03.

[7] State statistics committee of Ukraine - National composi-

Since Islam reached them much after Altishahr, personal tion of population, 2001 census (Ukrainian)
names of non-Islamic Old Uyghur origin are still used in
Qumul and Turfan while people in Altishahr use mostly [8] “Nitaqat rules for Palestinians and Turkistanis eased”.
Islamic names of Persian and Arabic origin.* [207] Af- arabnews.com. Sadui Labor Ministry. Retrieved 3 Nov
2015.
ter the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs
who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suf- [9] ‫"قرية الزنبقي السورية أقرب إلى الصين منها الى‬
fixes to Russify their surnames and make them look Rus- ."‫ صور‬+ ‫دمشق‬
sian.* [208] Names from Russia and Europe are used
in Qaramay and Urumchi by part of the population of [10] ."‫"داعش جلب آلاف المقاتلين مع عائلاتهم إلى الرقة‬
city dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard to
[11] ."!‫"قرية الزنبقي صينية أم سورية‬
understand etymologies, with the majority dating from
the Islamic era and being of Persian or Arabic deriva- [12] ‫ قرية الزنبقي يتحول الى مستوطنة‬: ‫"بالفيديو‬
tion.* [209] ."‫للأيغور والتركمان‬
14 8 REFERENCES

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[193] wangyuliang. “Specialties and Sports of the Uyghur Eth- cial, industrial and scientific, products of the min-
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[195] " 英吉沙小刀". sinobuy.cn. States.
[196] Palmer, James (September 25, 2013). “The Strangers: • Austin, Peter (2008). One Thousand Languages:
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20 9 FURTHER READING

• Dillon, Michael (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim • Wei, C. X. George; Liu, Xiaoyuan (2002).
Far Northwest. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203- Exploring Nationalisms of China: Themes and Con-
16664-2. flicts. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31512-
1.
• Drompp, Michael Robert (2005). Tang China And
The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documen-
tary History. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-14129-4.
9 Further reading
• Fairbank, John King; Chʻen, Ta-tuan (1968). The
Chinese world order: traditional China's foreign re- • Chinese Cultural Studies: Ethnography of China:
lations. Harvard University Press. Brief Guide acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu
• Golden, Peter B (1 January 1992). An Introduc-
• Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk
tion to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogene-
Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze
sis and State-formation in Medieval and Early Mod-
Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN
ern Eurasia and the Middle East. O. Harrassowitz.
978-0-691-13589-2.
ISBN 978-3-447-03274-2.
• Güzel, Hasan Celal (2002). The Turks: Early ages. • Berlie, Jean A (2004). Islam in China: Hui and
Yeni Türkiye. Uyghurs Between Modernization and Sinicization.
White Lotus Press. ISBN 978-974-480-062-6.
• Hahn, Reinhard F. (2006). Spoken Uyghur. Univer-
sity of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98651- • Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World
7. History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
516770-8, ISBN 0-19-517726-6 (pbk.)
• Köprülü, Mehmet Fuat; Leiser, Gary; Dankoff,
Robert (2006). Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. • Hessler, Peter. Oracle Bones: A Journey Through
Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-36686-1. Time in China. New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.

• Lattimore, Owen (1973).“Return to China's North- • Hierman, Brent. “The Pacification of Xinjiang:
ern Frontier”. The Geographical Journal. 139 (2): Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988–2002.”
233–242. doi:10.2307/1796091. JSTOR 1796091. Problems of Post-Communism, May/Jun2007, Vol.
54 Issue 3, pp 48–62
• Mackerras, Colin (1968). The Uighur Empire (744-
840): According to the T'ang Dynastic Histories. • Human Rights in China: China, Minority Exclusion,
Centre of Oriental Studies, Australien National Marginalization and Rising Tensions, London, Mi-
Univ. nority Rights Group International, 2007
• Mair, Victor H (2006). Contact And Exchange in the • Kaltman, Blaine (2007). Under the Heel of the
Ancient World. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN Dragon: Islam, Racism, Crime, and the Uighur in
978-0-8248-2884-4. China. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-
• Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A 0-89680-254-4.
History of Xinjiang. Columbia University Press. p.
• Kamberi, Dolkun. 2005. Uyghurs and Uyghur iden-
69. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3.
tity. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 150. Philadelphia,
• Özoğlu, Hakan (2004). Kurdish Notables and the PA: Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civiliza-
Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loy- tions, University of Pennsylvania.
alties, and Shifting Boundaries. SUNY Press. ISBN
978-0-7914-5994-2. • Millward, James A. and Nabijan Tursun, (2004)
“Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–
• Russell-Smith, Lilla (2005). Uygur Patronage In 1978”in Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland, ed.
Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The North- S. Frederick Starr. Published by M. E. Sharpe.
ern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
BRILL. ISBN 90-04-14241-X.
• Rall, Ted. Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New
• Tetley, G. E. (17 October 2008). The Ghaznavid Middle East? New York: NBM Publishing, 2006.
and Seljuk Turks: Poetry as a Source for Iranian His-
tory. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-89409-5. • Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam, Oasis identities:
Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road, New
• Walcott, Susan M.; Johnson, Corey (12 Novem- York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
ber 2013). Eurasian Corridors of Interconnection:
From the South China to the Caspian Sea. Routledge. • Thum, Rian. The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History
ISBN 978-1-135-07875-1. (Harvard University Press; 2014) 323 pages
 21

• Tyler, Christian. (2003). Wild West China: The Un-

told Story of a Frontier Land. John Murray, London.
ISBN 0-7195-6341-0.

10 External links
• Cartogracy: Uighur Independence Movement

• Britannica Uighur people

• London Uyghur Ensemble Uyghur Culture and His-
tory; multimedia site-links to cultural and historical
background, current news, research materials and
photographs.
• Uyghur News News aggregator representing the
views of Uyghur activists
• Introduction to Uyghur Culture and History Links
to cultural and historical background, current news,
research materials and photographs.

• Map share of ethnic by county of China

22 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
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Jiang, Charles Matthews, Lfh, Vanished user aewrkmvkmsdvke334c, WhisperToMe, Wik, Hyacinth, Itai, Zestauferov, Robbot, Alten-
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Old Nol, Andycjp, J. 'mach' wust, Beto, LiDaobing, Ran, Oneiros, Bumm13, Sam Hocevar, Enzino, Burschik, Oknazevad, Babelfisch,
Sysy, Bri, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Parishan, Florian Blaschke, Dyl, Bender235, Kelvinc, Billlion, Zscout370, MBisanz, Kwamikagami,
QuartierLatin1968, Sietse Snel, IFaqeer, Gedanken, Bobo192, Heian-794, Stesmo, Flxmghvgvk, ZayZayEM, Nlight, Nk, Darwinek, Har-
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Craigy144, Linmhall, Pouya, Lucky dog, Theodore Kloba, Bart133, Abstrakt, Max rspct, SidP, HenryLi, Sfrantzman, Angr, Kelly Martin,
Alainna, Woohookitty, Bjones, RHaworth, LOL, PoccilScript, Bkkbrad, Briangotts, MikeEdwards~enwiki, Tabletop, Grace Note, Cb-
dorsett, Gruguuru, John Hill, SDC, Brendanconway, Vineviz, Mandarax, Ryoung122, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Fox Mccloud, Rjwilmsi,
Koavf, Gryffindor, XP1, Menthapiperita, Trlovejoy, Sghan, SeanMack, Lairor, FlaBot, Pfctdayelise, GnuDoyng, Hottentot, Airunp, Kol-
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rodEgo, Taz Manchester, Brianski, Hmains, Linguiste, Quadratic, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Yehforvina, TimBentley, Thumperward, Ela-
gatis, Papa November, Hibernian, Jerome Charles Potts, TheLeopard, Kotra, OrphanBot, Ed4linda, Khoikhoi, Hakozen, Letowskie, Savi-
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knight, Jsx, Mr Stephen, Subey, Ft1~enwiki, Intranetusa, Ryulong, Andrwsc, Jose77, ShakingSpirit, Phuzion, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in
Australia, Geoffg, Kamikaze Highlander, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Foscoe, Szfski, Joostvandeputte~enwiki, JForget, KillaShark, Paulm-
lieberman, Theraven, CmdrObot, P106 peppy, Eiorgiomugini, Morganfitzp, Basawala, Kylu, Denereri, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Пакко, Mar-
queed, Mikebrand, Drybittermelon, Penkyamp, Gogo Dodo, Zurg342000, Hanfresco, Quibik, Doug Weller, Walter Humala, DumbBOT,
DBaba, Nishidani, JamesAM, Epbr123, Allexx, Rporteus, Staberinde, Headbomb, WilliamH, Marek69, Merbabu, Caorongjin, Dmitri Ly-
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BillSung, Gunnar Guðvarðarson, TXiKiBoT, Daveisall, Andres rojas22, Pdashu, Don4of4, Seb az86556, Mr. Absurd, Yaan, Erkin2008,
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Chadsnook, Rosiestep, Gomeying, MusinW, Alyar99, Spotty11222, Ptr123, Denisarona, Sitush, Gantuya eng, Angelo De La Paz, 3rdAl-
cove, Ibrahim4048, ImageRemovalBot, Llywelyn2000, Dtb2105, Faithlessthewonderboy, ClueBot, Grimmdude, Vontrotta, Bacrito, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Podzemnik, Franamax, Sevilledade, Uyghurman, Uncle Milty, Niceguyedc, MrKIA11, Yvalbert, Jusdafax, Ot-
tre, Leonard^Bloom, FOARP, Arjayay, JamieS93, Redthoreau, Dbrophy, SyedNaqvi90, Polly, Dwwren, Thingg, BWH76, Kikos, MaxSem
on AWB wheels, DumZiBoT, Editorofthewiki, YXN, XLinkBot, Tilivay, Ugwiki, FACT NEEDED, MarmadukePercy, Dave1185, Ad-
dbot, Ave Caesar, Betterusername, Dagrenzer, Queenmomcat, DougsTech, Ctulip, Mtimpson, Szechwan001, Debresser, Numbo3-bot,
Herzleid, Yastanovog, ‫زرشک‬, Luckas Blade, ‫محمد عزيز‬, Team4Technologies, Suwa, Amateur55, The Mummy, Legobot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Cflm001, Nallimbot, Dfgxx, Asa a1, AlecTrevelyan402, KamikazeBot, LGE Vehltrone, Burord, 虞海,
AnomieBOT, Chedorlaomer, Momoricks, Chau87, Rjanag, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Chuckiesdad, Kepper66, Ulric1313, Kavas, Mah-
mudmasri, CrazyChinaGal, James of Smith, John of Smith, Citation bot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, ARAGONESE35, SophiaKD, Brane.Blokar,
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JanDeFietser, East-turkistani, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Mttll, Nedim Ardoğa, WALTHAM2, Cyfraw, Shadowjams, Schnitzel-
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Poyuki, Georodin, SALGINHO, Citation bot 1, Elements00, Haaqfun, HRoestBot, Mathalus, Jackmacmillan, MastiBot, Kaiyr, Saskia
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lindyjj, Kamran the Great, Nathan.reid.pedersen, EmausBot, Immunize, Giornorosso, Hhqq, YELKENN, Arronarr, Dcirovic, Homuncu-
lus, Jkban56ty, Nozdref, Informer3X, Josve05a, Dzung01, Theclassicistyo, Vargavandnick, Mar4d, BredoteauU2, Uyghurstan, 客家帝
國, AManWithNoPlan, Mostafa.Hassan, Wayne Slam, Lathdrinor, Labnoor, Infernoapple, Obklg, Koktash, Rigley, Donner60, Xiaoyu of
Yuxi, Minhminh284, GermanJoe, 岛, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Battlesnake1, 23sports, Ross Monroe, Djkei, Erkintarim, Gayratkilman,
Kamyarg, Delusion23, Rezabot, Lauren68, Widr, Lysozym, Hungarian new, SecularHumanist1789, Kutsuit, Helpful Pixie Bot, Novusuna,
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Wiki-Pharaoh, Lieutenant of Melkor, Balacke, BattyBot, StarryGrandma, Cyberbot II, Ali-al-Bakuvi, Khazar2, JYBot, Greczia, Mo-
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nature 899, Faizan, ‫بۇغرا‬, Rfeldstein, Aethelwolf Emsworth, Abrahamic Faiths, Amber61, Ancientsteppe, 哲里, Eagle3399, Finnuser-
top, Umbogumbo3, Mr.muffn, Global6457, Blackcohn, RenamedUser jaskldjslak9027, Dolatjan, Misran111, Krisxlowry, JaconaFrere,
Topkek, Monkbot, User without username, Filedelinkerbot, Teddyktchan, Steverci, Agaceri, Radyanskysoldativ, Peter238, Osgoem, Justi-
nadil, Xinjiang guy, Adûnâi, Antondimak, Bohemian Baltimore, Geruese, Snaitniom, Banderheits, Lux ex Tenebris, Cartakes, 就是高富
帥, AnimeMagic2112, Uigur Cämiyät, ChemicalyImbalanced, Coolabahapple, Tariknuman97, Alexander002, LL221W, Akimon~enwiki,
Unixe96, 92slim, GeneralizationsAreBad, KasparBot, Scionli, Namela123, Lijiefu, HomeEndInsertDelete, GreenC bot, Yoljigda, Kookie-
jamz, Ghfionpendpnc, TheBestTheBetter, Bender the Bot, DragoniteLeopard, LeoHsn and Anonymous: 786
11.2 Images 23

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• File:Chagatai_Khanate_(1490).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Chagatai_Khanate_%281490%
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Public domain Contributors: Dunhuang Mogao Caves. Scanned from Cave Temples of Dunhuang: Art and History on the Silk Road. Orig-
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Contributors:
• File based on the specification given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
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• File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain.
• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg
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Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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• File:Flag_of_Syria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public domain Con-
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• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
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• File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oʻzbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogʻi. The officially defined colours are Pantone
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• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
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• File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/
Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.
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• File:Islam_in_China.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Islam_in_China.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
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• File:KashgarNaan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/KashgarNaan.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Doron
• File:Khotan-fabrica-alfombras-d09.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/
Khotan-fabrica-alfombras-d09.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colegota
• File:Khotan-mercado-chicos-d01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Khotan-mercado-chicos-d01.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colegota
• File:Khotan-mezquita-d03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Khotan-mezquita-d03.jpg License: CC
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• File:Map_of_language_areas_of_Xinjiang.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Map_of_language_
areas_of_Xinjiang.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on [1]. Original artist: Postmann Michael (Michael Post-
mann).
24 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Turpan-bezeklik-pinturas-d02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/

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• File:Uighur_princes,_Bezeklik,_Cave_9,_c._8th-9th_century_AD,_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_
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work Original artist: Daderot
• File:Uyghur-Dopa-Maker.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Uyghur-Dopa-Maker.jpg License: CC
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• File:Uyghur-elders-sunday-market-Kashgar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/
Uyghur-elders-sunday-market-Kashgar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/90987386@
N05/8266396135/in/set-72157632234085940 Original artist: https://www.flickr.com/photos/90987386@N05/
• File:Uyghur-redhead.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Uyghur-redhead.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Gusjer from Aranjuez, Spain
• File:Uyghur_Meshrep.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Uyghur_Meshrep.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/travelingmipo/5086682054/ Original artist: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
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• File:Uyghur_blacksmiths_-_Yengisar_Flickr.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Uyghur_
blacksmiths_-_Yengisar_Flickr.webm License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/taylorandayumi/2532670213
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• File:Uyghur_girl_in_Turpan,_Xinjiang,_China_-_20050712.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/
Uyghur_girl_in_Turpan%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_-_20050712.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original
artist: FACT NEEDED at en.wikipedia
• File:Uyghur_polu_closeup.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Uyghur_polu_closeup.JPG License:
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• File:Uyghurche.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Uyghurche.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Amateur55
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Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
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created by Smurrayinchester
• File:Xinjiang_nationalities_by_prefecture_2000.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Xinjiang_
nationalities_by_prefecture_2000.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Zhongwen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Zhongwen.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?

11.3 Content license

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