Advance Electronics

LABORATORY MANUAL

Enrollment No.:_______________
Name of the student:_________________________________
Academic Year:______________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE RAJKOT
 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, RAJKOT
Electronics & Communication Engineering Department

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr/Miss ___________________________
Enrolment No. ______________ of B.E. (E.C.) SEM-III has
satisfactorily completed the term work of the subject 141101:
Advanced Electronics prescribed by Gujarat Technological
University during the academic term ________________.

Date: Faculty In-charge Head of Department

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Lab Name of Experiments Page Date of Assessment Faculty

performance Signature
1. To measure frequency
response of amplifier with
voltage divider biasing.
2. To measure frequency
response of two stages
cascaded RC coupled
amplifier.
3 To measure frequency
response of two stages
cascaded Direct coupled
amplifier.
4 To measure frequency
response of two stages
cascaded Transformer coupled
amplifier.
5 To Measure op-amp
parameters in dc as well as ac.
6 To find gain and Bandwidth of
Inverting and Non Inverting
Close loop Op-Amp.
7 Design Integrator and
Differentiator circuit using Op-
Amp.
8 Design Adder and Subtractor
circuit using Op-Amp.
9 To study of effect of voltage

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 shunt feedback on Voltage
divider bias amplifier.
10 To study of effect of voltage
series feedback on Voltage
divider bias amplifier.
11 To study of effect of Current
series feedback on self bias
amplifier.
12 To study of effect of Current
shunt feedback on Cascaded
amplifier.
13 To study Analog to Digital
Convertor circuit.

14 To study Digital to Analog

Convertor circuit.

15 To design RC phase shift

oscillator using transistor.

16 To design Colpitts oscillator

using transistor.

17 To design Hartely oscillator

using transistor.

18 Mini Project based on

Electronics applications.

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Experiment

1 Date:

AIM:
To measure frequency response of amplifier with voltage divider biasing.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain, input resistance and output resistance of amplifier.
(b) To measure bandwidth of amplifier. Comment about gain bandwidth product.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:
12V XSC1

Ext T rig
+
XFG1 Rc _
A B

R1 Cc2 + _ + _

Q1
Cc1

R2
Re Ce

Theory:
If the circuit component values in circuit diagram are specified, the quiescent point is
found as follows. Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the collector circuit yields
-Vcc + Ic(Rc + Re) + IBRe + Vce = 0

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If the drop in Re due to IB is neglected compared with that due to Ic, then this
relationship between Ic and VCE is straight line whose slope corresponds to RC+Re
and whose intercept at Ic = 0 is VCE = VCC. This load line is drawn on the collector
characteristics.
If the circuit to the left between the base B and ground terminals is replaced by its
thevenin equivalent then
VB = R2 Vcc / (R1 + R2) and RB = R1R2 / (R1 +R2)
Obviously, RB is the effective seen looking back from the base terminal. Kirchhoff’s
voltage law around the base circuit yields V = IBRB + VBE + (IB + IC)Re
In many cases transistor characteristics are not available but β is known. Then
calculation of the Q point may be carried out analytically as follows: In the active
region the collector current is given by
IC = βIB + (1+β)ICO
Capacitors which are affected at low frequency as well as high frequency are as
below:
Coupling and bypass Parasitic and load
capacitor capacitance
Low frequency Consider Open
Mid frequency Short Open
High frequency Short Consider

Theoretical lower cut off frequency can be given by

fL = 1 /(2π) = 1 / (2π (RB+hie)Cc)
Theoretical higher cut off frequency can be given by
FH = 1 /(2π) = 1 / (2π rπ (Cπ + C𝜇𝜇 ))
Unity gain frequency can be given by
Ft = hfe f3dB
Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance:
Theoretical Calculation:

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  The voltage gain of amplifier is Av = - (Rc ǁ RL) / re.
 Where re = 26(mv) / Ie.
 The amplifier input impedance is that of stage 1, Zin = R1ǁ R2 ǁ βre.
 And the output impedance of amplifier is that of stage 2, Zo = Rc ǁ ro.
Practical Values:
 The sine wave input is applied to the base of the first amplifier.
 Measure the voltage across each of resistor and from that finds the current
through them practically.
 Determine gain of overall circuit diagram.
 Determine input and output impedance by using shorting out input and
output portion.
Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect function generator and apply sinusoidal voltage in circuit diagram.
 Set the function generator output voltage to say Vs = ______ Volts.
 Increase the function generator output signal frequency from minimum say
10 Hz to a maximum signal frequency of 1MHz in decade steps
(10,20,30…..100,200,…..1000,2000…..10k,20k…….).
 Measure voltage for applied signal frequency.
 Calculate gain for the frequency.
 Plot the graph of frequency v/s gain in semi log paper.
 Find lower cut off freq and higher cut off frequency and determine
bandwidth.
 Now increase gain of overall circuit diagram and measure bandwidth for that
circuit and determine gain bandwidth product for these two cases.
Calculation and Observation Table:

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Vin = _________________________
Sr. Frequency Output Gain = Sr. Frequency Output Gain =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

2 Date:

AIM:
To measure frequency response of two stages cascaded RC coupled amplifier.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain, input resistance and output resistance of two stages cascaded
RC coupled amplifier.
(b) To measure bandwidth of two stages cascaded RC coupled amplifier. Comment
about gain bandwidth product.

Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:
12V
Ext T rig
+
_
XFG1 Rc1 Rc2 A B
_ _

R1 Cc2 R3 Cc3 + +

Q1 Q2
Cc1

RL
R2 R4
RE1 Ce1 RE2 Ce2

Theory:
This is most effective type of coupling because it is cheap and provides excellent
audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency. It is usually employed for voltage

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amplification. Figure shows two stages RC coupled amplifier. A coupling capacitor
Cc is used to connect the output of first stage to the base of second stage and so on.
As the coupling from one stage to the next is achieved by coupling capacitor
followed by connection to shunt resistor, so, such amplifiers are called Resistance-
capacitance coupled amplifier.
The resistance R1, R2 and RE1 form biasing and stabilization network. The emitter
bypass capacitor offers low reactance path to the signal. Without it voltage gain of
each stage would be lost. The coupling capacitor Cc transmits ac signal but block d.c.
This prevents d.c. interference of various stages and shifting of operating point.
When a.c. signal is applied to the base of transistor, it appears in the amplified form
across its collector load Rc. The amplified signal developed across Rc is given to the
base of next stage through coupling capacitor Cc. The second stage does further
amplification of the signal. In this way the cascaded stages amplify signal and
overall gain is considerably increased.
It may be mentioned here that total gain is less than the product of the gain of the
gains of individual stages it is because when second stage is made to follow the first
stage, the effective load resistance of first stage is reduced due to shunting effect of
input resistance of second stage.
The a.c. behaviour of amplifier is briefly explained below:
(1) At low frequency, the reactance of coupling capacitor is quiet high and hence
very small part of signal will pass from first stage to next stage. Moreover Ce can not
shunt the emitter resistance Re effectively because of large reactance at low
frequency. These two factors cause a failing of voltage gain at low frequency.
(2) At high frequency the reactance of Cc is very small and it behaves as short circuit.
This increases the loading effect of next stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain.
Moreover at high frequency capacitive reactance of base emitter junction is low
which increases the base current. This reduces the current amplification factor. Due
to these two reasons, the voltage gain drops off at high frequency.
(3) At mid frequency, the voltage gain of amplifier is constant. The effect of coupling
capacitor in this frequency range is such so to maintain a uniform voltage gain. Thus

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as frequency increases, reactance of Cc decreases which tends to increase gain.
However at the same time, lower reactance means higher loading of first stage and
hence lower gain. These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in uniform
gain at mid-frequency.
Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance:
 Both transistors have the identical voltage divider circuit and the same
component values; therefore, the dc bias for each transistor is essentially the
same.
Theoretical Calculation:
 The voltage gain of first stage is Av1 = - (Rc1 ǁ (R3 ǁ R4 ǁ βre)) / re.
 The voltage gain of second stage is Av2 = - (Rc ǁ RL) / re.
 Where re = 26(mv) / Ie.
 Overall circuit gain is the product of the amplifier gain of each stage.
 The amplifier input impedance is that of stage 1, Zin = R1ǁ R2 ǁ βre.
 And the output impedance of amplifier is that of stage 2, Zo = Rc ǁ ro.
Practical Values:
 The sine wave input is applied to the base of the first amplifier.
 Measure the voltage across each of resistor and from that finds the current
through them practically.
 Determine gain of overall circuit diagram.
 Determine input and output impedance by using multi meter.
Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect function generator and apply sinusoidal voltage in circuit diagram.
 Set the function generator output voltage to say Vs = ______ Volts.
 Increase the function generator output signal frequency from minimum say
10 Hz to a maximum signal frequency of 1MHz in decade steps
(10,20,30…..100,200,…..1000,2000…..10k,20k…….).
 Measure voltage for applied signal frequency.
 Calculate gain for the frequency.

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  Plot the graph of frequency v/s gain in semi log paper.
 Find lower cut off freq and higher cut off frequency and determine
bandwidth.
 Now increase gain of overall circuit diagram and measure bandwidth for that
circuit and determine gain bandwidth product for these two cases.

Calculation and Observation Table:

Vin = _________________________

Sr. Frequency Output Gain = Sr. Frequency Output Gain =

No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

3 Date:

AIM:
To measure frequency response of two stages cascaded Direct coupled amplifier.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain of two stages coupled amplifier.
(b) To measure bandwidth of amplifier. Comment about gain bandwidth product.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:
In many applications a system must amplify either dc or a very low frequency input
voltage. For example, a measurement of outside temperature would show a nearly
sinusoidal variation with a positive peak in the early afternoon and a negative peak
in the early morning. A voltage waveform representing this variation would have a
frequency of about 11.6µHz. At a frequency this low, coupling capacitors would
prevent any of the waveform from passing through the amplifier. Therefore, direct-
coupled amplifiers are used.
Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance:
 Both transistors have the identical voltage divider circuit and the same
component values; therefore, the dc bias for each transistor is essentially the
same.
Theoretical Calculation:
 The voltage gain of first stage is Av1 = - (Rc1 ǁ (R3 ǁ R4 ǁ βre)) / re.
 The voltage gain of second stage is Av2 = - (Rc ǁ RL) / re.
 Where re = 26(mv) / Ie.
 Overall circuit gain is the product of the amplifier gain of each stage.
 The amplifier input impedance is that of stage 1, Zin = R1ǁ R2 ǁ βre.
 And the output impedance of amplifier is that of stage 2, Zo = Rc ǁ ro.
Practical Values:
 The sine wave input is applied to the base of the first amplifier.
 Measure the voltage across each of resistor and from that finds the current
through them practically.
 Determine gain of overall circuit diagram.
 Determine input and output impedance by using multi meter.
Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect function generator and apply sinusoidal voltage in circuit diagram.
 Set the function generator output voltage to say Vs = ______ Volts.

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  Increase the function generator output signal frequency from minimum say
10 Hz to a maximum signal frequency of 1MHz in decade steps
(10,20,30…..100,200,…..1000,2000…..10k,20k…….).
 Measure voltage for applied signal frequency.
 Calculate gain for the frequency.
 Plot the graph of frequency v/s gain in semi log paper.
 Find lower cut off freq and higher cut off frequency and determine
bandwidth.
 Now increase gain of overall circuit diagram and measure bandwidth for that
circuit and determine gain bandwidth product for these two cases.

Calculation and Observation Table:

Vin = _________________________
Sr. Frequency Output Gain = Sr. Frequency Output Gain =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

4 Date:

AIM:
To measure frequency response of two stages cascaded Transformer coupled
amplifier.

Objective:
(a) To measure gain of two stages coupled amplifier.
(b) To measure bandwidth of amplifier. Comment about gain bandwidth product.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors, transformer.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory :
Besides blocking dc, an important advantage of using a t forcer for inter stage
coupling is that the turns ratio can be designed to achieve impedance matching and
therefore to maximize power transfer between stages. Recall that the turns ratio of a
transformer is defined by

Turns ratio = Np/Ns = Vp/Vs

where Np, Ns = numher of turns in the primary and secondary windings,

respectively
Vp,Vs = primary and secondary voltages ,respectively

Figure shows a transformer whose primary is driven by a signal source vl having

resistance r, and whose secondary has a load resistance TL connected across it.

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Assuming an ideal transformer (zero winding resistance and no power loss), it is
easy to show that the resistance rin looking into the primary winding is

rin = (Np/Ns)2 rL

To achieve maximum power transfer from the source to the load in Figure, it is
necessary (by the maximum power transfer theorem) that the resistance rin, seen by
the signal source be equal to the source resistance r1. Thus, from equation , we
require

r1= rin = (Np/Ns)2 rL

Solving the equation for Np/Ns, we find the turns ratio necessary to achieve
maximum power transfer:

Np/Ns = (r1/ rL)1/2

In multistage transistor amplifiers, the signal source driving the primary winding is
often a common-emitter stage having a large output resistance, and the load
resistance may be the much smaller value equal to the input resistance of the next
stage. In that case, the ratio r1/ rL, is greater than 1 and therefore, by equation, the
turns ratio Np/NS is greater than 1. As a consequence. the coupling transformer is
typically a step-down transformer, meaning the secondary voltage is less than the
primary voltage.

Commercially available transformers are often specified in terms of their impedance

ratios rather than their turns ratios. In these cases, the turns ratio can be determined
using equation, i.e., by taking the square root of the specified impedance ratio.
Figure shows a two-stage transformer-coupled amplifier. Note that there is no
resistor in the collector circuit of either transistor, so the primary of each transformer
is driven from a source (a collector) having relatively large resistance. The secondary
winding of the interstage transformer is connected directly to the base of Qt. The 4.7-
kΩ base biasing resistor is bypassed with a capacitor, so all of the ac voltage
developed in the secondary winding appears from the vase of Q2 to ground. Note
that both Sides of the 15-k Ω resistor arc at ac ground. With the arrangement shown,
the Q2 bias resistors do not reduce the ac input resistance to the second stage, and

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the transformer does not short the dc bias current to ground. The 1.25- kΩ load is
transformer-coupled to the output of Q2. Note that the loads shown completely
isolated from the rest of the circuit, in the sense that it does not share a common
ground reference with Q1 and Q2 (although it could, if desired). This is another
advantage of transformer coupling: individual amplifier stages and loads can be
isolated from each other when desired or necessary. In fact, isolation transformers
having 1:1 turns ratios are sometimes used specifically for that purpose.

Circuit Diagram and Connections:

Performance:-

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Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance:
 Both transistors have the identical voltage divider circuit and the same
component values; therefore, the dc bias for each transistor is essentially the
same.
Practical Values:
 The sine wave input is applied to the base of the first amplifier.
 Measure the voltage across each of resistor and from that finds the current
through them practically.
 Determine gain of overall circuit diagram.
 Determine input and output impedance by using multi meter.
Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect function generator and apply sinusoidal voltage in circuit diagram.
 Set the function generator output voltage to say Vs = ______ Volts.
 Increase the function generator output signal frequency from minimum say
10 Hz to a maximum signal frequency of 1MHz in decade steps
(10,20,30…..100,200,…..1000,2000…..10k,20k…….).
 Measure voltage for applied signal frequency.
 Calculate gain for the frequency.
 Plot the graph of frequency v/s gain in semi log paper.
 Find lower cut off freq and higher cut off frequency and determine
bandwidth.
 Now increase gain of overall circuit diagram and measure bandwidth for that
circuit and determine gain bandwidth product for these two cases.

Calculation and Observation Table:

Vin = _____________________
Sr. Frequency Output Gain = Sr. Frequency Output Gain =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

5 Date:

AIM:
To Measure op-amp parameters in dc as well as ac.

Objective:
To measure the following parameters of op-amp:
1. Input offset voltage 2. Input offset current 3. Input bias current
4. Common mode rejection ratio(CMRR) 5. Slew rate.
Apparatus:
• Op-amp, Resistors, Capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagrams:

10nF

10kΩ R2
VEE 10kΩ
-15V VEE
4 U1
-15V
2 4 U1
6 2
3 Vo
R1 6
1kΩ 7 1 5 LM741H 3 Vo
VCC 7 1 5 LM741H
15V VCC
15V

(a) To measure offset voltage (b) To measure bias current

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 100kΩ
VEE
-15V
4 U1
R1
2
-15V 100Ω 6
4 U1 Vo
R2 3
2 R3 7 1 5 LM741H
6 100Ω 10Ω
3 Vo VCC
15V
7 1 5 LM741H
VCC
15V

(c) To measure slew rate (d) To measure CMRR

Theory:
Input bias current, IB:- The inverting and non inverting terminals of an Op-Amp are
two base terminals of the transistors of a differential amplifier. In an ideal Op-Amp
no current flows through these terminals. However a small amount of current flows
through these terminals which is of the order mA.
Input bias current, IB = (IB1 + IB2)/2 where IB1andIB2 are the base bias current of
the Op-Amp.
Input offset current, IO:- The bias current IB1 & IB2 will not be equal in an Op-Amp.
Input offset current is defined as the algebraic difference between the current into
the inverting and not inverting terminals.
Input offset current, IO = |IB1 − IB2 |
Input offset voltage, VO:- Even if the input voltage to an Op-Amp is zero, output
voltage may not be zero. This is because of the circuit imbalances inside the Op
Amp. In order to compensate this, a small voltage should be applied between the
terminals. Input offset voltage is defined as the voltage that must be applied between
the input terminals of an Op-Amp to nullify the output voltage. Typical and
maximum values of input offset voltage are 2mV and 6mV .

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CMRR:- It is the ratio of differential mode gain to common mode gain. If a signal is
applied common to both, the output of Op-Amp signal will be alternated. CMRR is
usually expressed in dB. When an input signal is applied, common to both inputs
common mode voltage gain Ac = Vo/Vi. Differential mode gain Ad = Rf/Ri. Then
CMRR is given by the expression:
CMRR = 20 log (Ad / AC) in dB
Slew rate:- Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage. It is the
measure of fastness of Op-Amp. It is expressed in V/μs. The internal output
capacitance prevents sudden rate of output voltage for a sing input. If the slope
requirements of the output voltage of the Op-Amp is greater than the slew rate then
distortion occur.
Procedure:
1. To find input offset voltage:- Setup the circuit and measure the output voltage.
Input offset voltage can be measured using the expression, Vio = VoRi/(Rf + Ri).
Where Vo = output voltage and Vio = input offset voltage.
Check the Op-Amp to find input offset voltage. Setup the circuit and measure the
output voltage. Input offset voltage is given as
V = VoRi / (Rf + Ri)
2. To find input bias current and input offset current:- Setup the circuit and measure
the output voltage using the expression Vo = IB1R and Vo = IB2R. IB1orIB2 can be
calculated.
Then input offset current =IB1 − IB2.
Input bias current = (IB1 + IB2) / 2
3. To find slew rate:- Setup the circuit. Apply a square wave input of 1V,1KHz. Vary
input frequency and observe the output. Increase the frequency until the output gets
disturbed. Calculate slew rate by measuring the slope of the output wave.

Results:
The following parameter of op-amp is measured

1. Input offset voltage = _______________mV

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 2. Input offset current = ________________ μV

3. Input bias current = ________________ μA

4. Slew rate = ____________________ V/μs

5. CMRR = ______________________ dB

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

6 Date:

AIM: To find gain and Bandwidth of Inverting and Non Inverting Close loop Op-
Amp.
Objective:
1. To measure the gain of inverting and non-inverting op-amp amplifier.
2. To find bandwidth of inverting and non- inverting op-amp amplifier.
Apparatus:
• Op-amp, Resistors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory :
Most of the analog systems of today are constructed using opamp as the building
block. These ICs argumented by a few external discrete components, either singly or
in combination are used in a variety of applications, both linear and non-linear.
Negative and positive feedback principles are applied too to derive a number of
circuits. Volumes can be written on the applications of opamps. In the interest of
brevity and keeping in view our objectives, select experiments are listed. However
we leave it to the user's imagination, the innumerous applications that are possible
with opamps.

Non Inverting Amplifier :

The circuit of Fig is representative of the non-inverting amplifier. It represents the

case of series - parallel (sp) negative feedback. The input voltage drives the non-
inverting terminal. Feedback is applied to the inverting terminal. A portion of the
output signal is fed back. The feedback network determines the overall closed-loop
transfer function. As before, the feedback network can be a voltage divider and with
precision resistors, it can be accurate and stable. Therefore the closed loop gain will
be highly stable.

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In this case also, the voltage at inverting input is the same as that at non-inverting
input, since Vd is still zero for A tending to infinity. Therefore Vi the voltage from
inverting terminal to ground is equal to the input signal voltage Vi. VI represents the
feedback voltage. Since Vi is not equal to zero, it implies the non-inverting circuit
has no virtual ground at either of its input terminals.

We shall now derive the gain expression for the non-inverting circuit.

Vi = I1RS = Vo (Rs / Rf + Rs) Also V1 = Vi

Vi = Vo (Rs / Rf + Rs)

or Vo/Vi=Rf+Rs/Rs=1+Rf/Rs

This is the closed loop gain expression for the non-inverting circuit. It is always
greater than or equal to unity and is determined by Rf and Re. Rf and Rs form the
voltage divider i.e. the feedback network. The ratio Vo / Vi is positive and hence the
output has the same phase as the input signal. Remember, the key to analysis of non-
inverting circuit is 1 . When the opamp is operating linearly with feedback, the two
input terminals are at equal potential. 2. No current flows into either input of the
amplifier.

Noninverting amplifier for AC analysis.

Circuit Diagram and Connections:

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Performance:-
Procedure:
1. Use either the 741 or the TL061 op-amp as the amplifier under test (AUT). Make

the connections as shown in Fig 4.3.2.

2. Apply a sinusoidal signal of 0.5Vp-p at 1 KHz. Measure the voltage at node A (Vi)
and B (Vo) w.r.t. ground using the Electronic Multimeter. Also monitor the
waveform at nodes A and B using an oscilloscope.
3. Verify that the output signal is not inverted and is 11 times the input signal. Do
not allow the output to saturate.

Inverting Amplifier :
The circuit of Fig. is representative of the general class of inverting circuits. This is
the case of parallel-parallel (pp) negative feedback. The input voltage drives the
inverting terminal of the amplifier and the non-inverting terminal is grounded. The
amplified and inverted output signal is then applied to the inverting .input. Hence
the feedback is negative.

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Rf is the feedback resistor and Rs is the input resistor. Using Miller's theorem, the
feedback resistor can be split into its input and output components as in Fig.
Since the input impedance Zin and gain A of the op-amp is infinite, Zin (pp) tends to
zeros This means no current flows into the op-amp input terminals. All the current
flows through the Miller input component.

Also Vo=A.Vd=A(Iin Rf/A)=IinRf

Hence all the input current flows through the feedback resistor Rf of Fig. Therefore
Vo is the voltage across the feedback resistor. Further Vd = 0 since Vd = Vo / A and
A is infinite. This implies the potential difference between the input terminals is
zero. And this is forced by the negative feedback around the amplifier. Hence the
inverting terminal has the same potential as the non inverting terminal. And since
the non-inverting terminal is grounded, the inverting terminal is at `virtual' ground.
We refer to the inverting input as virtual, because it not truly at ground potential. It
does not sink the input current. Rather all the input current flows through the
feedback resistor because of Miller effect. The virtual ground concept simplifies the
analysis of inverting op-amp circuits. Remember, the key to analysis of inverting
circuit is as follows:

The potential difference between the input terminals of the op-amp is zero i.e. the
inverting input is at ground potential or at `virtual' ground. The current into each
input terminal is zero i.e. all the input current flows through the feedback resistor.
We shall now derive the gain expression for the inverting circuit. From Fig.

Iin = ( Vi — Vd ) / Rs

Iin = If from the above discussion

If=(Vd—Vo)/Rf
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(Vi—Vd)/Rs= (Vd—Vo)/Rf-------(4.2.1)

Also Vo=AVd orVd =Vo/A.

For A tending to ac, Vd tends to zero.

Equation (4.2.1) becomes

Vi / Rs = —Vo / Rf

Or Vo/Vi=—Rf/Rs-------(4.2.2)

This is the closed loop gain expression of the inverting op-amp. It is negative
because of phase inversion from output to input. Further it depends only on the ratio
of Rf / Rs. By using precision resistors, this radio can be made highly accurate and
stable. The stability of this determines the closed loop stability. Hence the
performance of the opamp is virtually independent bf its internal parameters. The
input impedance is Rs. Based on equation (4.2.2) we can readily obtain an analog
inverter, a scale changer, a phase shifter and an adder. Note that Rf and Rs can be
replaced with impedances too. Inverting amplifier for AC analysis.
Circuit Diagram and Connections:

Performance:-
Procedure:
1. Use either the 741 or the TL061 opamp as the amplifier under test (AUT). Make the
connections as shown in Fig
2. Apply a sinusoidal signal of 0.5 V p-p at 1 KHz. Measure the voltage at node A
(Vi) and B (Vo) w.r.t ground using the Electronic Multimeter. Also monitor the
waveform at nodes A and B using an oscilloscope.

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3. Verify that the output signal is inverted and is 10 times the input signal. Do not
allow the output to saturate.

Observations :

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

7 Date:

AIM:
Design Integrator and Differentiator circuit using Op-Amp.
Objective:
To measure the input and output waveforms for Integrator and Differentiator circuit
using Op-Amp.
Apparatus:
• Op-amp, Resistors, Capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
Integrator:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage
waveform is known as integrator or integrator amplifier. Such a circuit is obtained
by using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback resister Rf is
replaced by a capacitor Cf.
The expression for the output voltage Vo can be obtained by writing Kirchhoff’s
current equation at node V2:
i1 = Ib+if
Since IB is negligibly small,
i1 ≈ if
Recall that the relationship between current through and voltage across the capacitor
is

Therefore,
However, V1= V2 ≈ 0 because A is very large. Therefore,

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The output voltage can be obtained by integrating both the sides with respect to
time:

Therefore,

Where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output
voltage Vo at time t= 0 seconds. fb is the frequency at which the gain is 0 dB and is
given by

Both the stability and the low frequency roll off problems can be corrected by the
addition of the resister RF as shown in the practical integrator of figure 5.2. The term
stability refers to a constant gain as frequency of an input signal is varied over a
certain range. Also, low frequency roll off refers to the rate of decrease in gain at
lower frequencies. In the figure 5.1, f is some relative operating frequency , and for
frequencies f to fa to gain RF/R1 is constant .The gain limiting frequency fa is given
by ,

Generally, the value of fa and in turn R1Cf and RFCF values should be selected such
that fa<fb .For example, if fa = fb/10, then RF=10R1 .In fact, the input signal will be
integrated properly if the time period of the signal is larger than or equal to RFCF.
That is, T ≥ RFCF Where,

The integrator is most commonly used in analog computer and analog–to– digital
(ADC) and signal–wave shaping circuits.

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 Ideal integrator circuit

Practical integrator circuit

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit as given in the figure.
• Give the square, triangular and sinusoidal wave as input to the circuit as
given in the figure.
• Calculate the value of fa and fb.
• Verify the output waveform for a given input wave.
• Draw the output waveform with a proper scale in a graph.
• Draw the frequency response characteristics for differentiator circuit.

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Differentiator:
As its name implies, the circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation; that
is, the output waveform is the derivative of the input waveform. The differentiator may be
constructed from a basic inverting amplifier if an input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor
C1. The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from Kirchhoff’s current equation
written at the node V2 as follows:
iC = iV + iF
Since IB ≈ 0,
iC =iF
C1d/dt (Vin-V2) = (V2-V1)/RF
But V1=V2= 0 V, because A is very large. Therefore
C1 d (Vin)/dt = -Vo/RF
Or
Vo= - R1C1 (dVin/dt)
Thus the input Vo is equal to RfC1 times the negative instantaneous rate of
change of the input voltage Vin with time .since the differentiator performs the
reverse of the integrator’s function a cosine wave will produce a sine wave
output, or a triangular input will produce square wave output. However, the
differentiator of figure 4.1 will not do this because it has some practical problems.
The gain of the circuit (RF/XC1) increases with increase in frequency at the rate
of 20db/decade. This makes the unstable. Also the input impedance XC1
decrease with increase in frequency which makes the circuit is susceptible to high
frequency noise. When amplified, this noise can completely overwrite the
differentiated output signal. The frequency response of basic differentiator is
shown in figure 4.1. In this figure fa is the frequency at which the gain is 0dB and
is given by fa = 1/2ΠRFC1
Also fc is the unity gain bandwidth of the op-am and f is some relative operating
frequency. Both the stability and the high frequency noise problem can be
corrected by the addition of two components R1 and CF shown in the figure. This
circuit is practical differentiator the frequency response of which is shown in
figure by dashed line. From frequency f to fb the gain increase is 20db/decade.
However after fb the gain decreases at 20db/decade. This 40db/decade change
in the gain caused by the R1C1 and RFCF combinations. The gain limiting
frequency fb given by fb=1/2ΠR1C1
Where R1C1 = RFCF. Thus R1C1 and RFCF have to reduce significantly the effect
of high frequency input amplifier noise and offsets. Above all R1C1 and RFCF
make the more stable by preventing the increase in the gain with frequency.
Generally the value of fb and the in turn R1C1 and RFCF value should be
selected such that
fa <fb <fc
fa=1/2ΠRFC1
fb=1/2π RFCF
fc=unity gain bandwidth

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 The input signal will be differentiated properly if the time period T of the input
signal is larger than or equal to RfC1 that is.
T ≥ RfC1

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit as given in the figure.
• Give the square, triangular and sinusoidal waveform as an input to the circuit as given in
the figure.
• Calculate the value of fa and fb from equation.
• Verify the output waveform for a given input waveform.
• Draw the output waveform with a proper scale in a graph.
• Draw the frequency response characteristics for differentiator circuit.

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

8 Date:

AIM: Design Adder and Subtractor circuit using Op-Amp.

Objective:
To design an adder and subtractor circuit using waveforms and to observe
waveforms for Integrator and Differentiator circuit using Op-Amp.
Apparatus:
• Op-amp, Resistors, Capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
Adder:
Op-amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input
signal such as circuit is called a summing amplifier or summer. We can obtain either
inverting or non-inverting summer. The circuit diagram shows a two input inverting
summing amplifier. It has two input voltages V1 and V2, two input resistors R1, R2
and a feedback resistor Rf. Assuming that op-amp is in ideal conditions and input
bias current is assumed to be zero, the non-inverting terminal is connected with the
ground so ground potential at non inverting terminal.
By taking nodal equations,
V1/R1+V2/R2+Vo/Rf =0
Vo= - [(Rf /R1) V1 + (Rf /R2) V2]
And here R1= R2= Rf= 1kΩ
Vo= - (V1+V2)
Thus output is inverted and sum of input.

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Subtractor:
Op-amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is subtraction or difference
between two applied voltages. That circuit is called differential or subtractor
amplifier. It has two input V1 and V2. V1 is applied to inverting terminal using
resistor R1 and V2 is applied to non-inverting terminal using R2. Here Rf is feedback
resistor and R3 is connected to non-inverting terminal. For subtractor application Rf
= R3 and R1= R2. (Here R3=Rcomp)
From nodal equation
Vo = (-Rf/R1) V1 + (Rf/R1) V2
Vo = Rf/ R1 (V2 – V1)
For gain=1, Rf = R1 = 1kΩ
So, Vo = V2 – V1

Procedure:
Adder

Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagrams.

Apply input voltage V1=2V and V2=2V.

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By using multimeter measure the dc output voltage at the output terminal.

Subtractor

Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagrams.

Apply input voltage V1=2V and V2=2V.

By using multimeter measure the dc output voltage at the output terminal.

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Negative Feedback
If some percentage of an amplifier's output signal is connected to the input, so that
the amplifier amplifies part of its own output signal, we have what is known
as feedback. Feedback comes in two varieties: positive (also called regenerative),
and negative (also called degenerative). Positive feedback reinforces the direction of
an amplifier's output voltage change, while negative feedback does just the opposite.
A familiar example of feedback happens in public-address (“PA”) systems where
someone holds the microphone too close to a speaker: a high-pitched “whine” or
“howl” ensues, because the audio amplifier system is detecting and amplifying its
own noise. Specifically, this is an example of positive or regenerative feedback, as
any sound detected by the microphone is amplified and turned into a louder sound
by the speaker, which is then detected by the microphone again; and so on . . . the
result being a noise of steadily increasing volume until the system becomes
“saturated” and cannot produce any more volume.
Different topologies of feedback with their analysis
Characteristics Voltage Current Current Voltage
series Series shunt Shunt
β = Xf /Xo Vf /Vo Vf /Io If / Io If / Vo
A = Xo / Xi Av = Vo/Vi Gm = Io / Vi Ai = Io / Ii Rm = Vo / Ii
D = 1+Aβ D = 1+Avβ D = 1+Gmβ D = 1+Aiβ D = 1+Rmβ
Af Av /D Gm /D Ai /D Rm /D
Rif Ri * D Ri * D Ri / D Ri / D
Rof Ro / D Ro * D Ro * D Ro / D

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Experiment

9 Date:

AIM:
To study of effect of voltage shunt feedback on Voltage divider bias amplifier.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain, bandwidth, input resistance and output resistance without
feedback.
(b) To measure all parameters with feedback and comment about the feedback.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:

Voltage shunt feedback

An amplifier circuit equipped with some amount of negative feedback is not only
more stable, but it distorts the input waveform less and is generally capable of
amplifying a wider range of frequencies. The trade off for these advantages (there
just has to be a disadvantage to negative feedback, right?) is decreased gain. If a
portion of an amplifier's output signal is “fed back” to the input to oppose any
changes in the output, it will require a greater input signal amplitude to drive the
amplifier's output to the same amplitude as before. This constitutes a decreased gain.
However, the advantages of stability, lower distortion, and greater bandwidth are
worth the trade off in reduced gain for many applications.
Case 1: without feedback
The amplifier configuration shown here is a common-emitter, with a resistor bias
network formed by R1 and R2. The capacitor couples Vinput to the amplifier so that
the signal source doesn't have a DC voltage imposed on it by the R1/R2 divider
network. Like all common-emitter amplifiers, this one inverts the input signal as it is
amplified. In other words, a positive-going input voltage causes the output voltage
to decrease, or move toward negative, and vice versa.
Case 2: With feedback
The resistances of R1, R2, R3, and Rf function together as a signal-mixing network so
that the voltage seen at the base of the transistor (with respect to ground) is a

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weighted average of the input voltage and the feedback voltage, resulting in signal
of reduced amplitude going into the transistor. So, the amplifier circuit will have
reduced voltage gain, but improved linearity (reduced distortion) and increased
bandwidth.
The output voltage Vo is much greater than the input voltage Vi and is 180° out of
phase with Vi. Hence
If = (Vi – Vo) / RF = -Vo/RF = βVo.
Where β = -1/RF. Since the feedback current is proportional to the output voltage.
Note that transresistance equals the negative of feedback resistance from output to
input of the transistor and is stable if RF is a stable resistance.
Both input and output resistance to be low because of voltage shunt feedback.
It means Rif = Rin / (1+Aβ) and Rof = Ro / (1+Aβ)
The voltage gain with feedback is
Avf = Vo /Vs = Vo/IsR3 = 1/ βRs = -RF/R3
The Transresistance with feedback is
Af = Vo/Is = AIi / (Ii +If) = AIi / (Ii + βVo) = AIi / (Ii + βAIi)
Af = A / (1+Aβ)
Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain with various feedback resistors:
 Connect 2Vp-p, 2 KHz Sine wave signal at the input of circuit of amplifier
shown in figure and observe the same on Oscilloscope CH I.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT1) peak to peak. Also
measure input and output resistance using multimeter.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain, input impedance and output impedance without
feedback (AV1) (Without feedback resistor).
 Vary the potentiometer RF and calculate feedback factor β
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT2) peak to peak.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain with feedback (AVF).

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  Compare the gain obtained by the feedback and without feedback.
 Vary the potentiometer RF and follow above procedure.
Task (b) Measurement of input impedance:
 Connect a decade resistance box (DRB) between input voltage source and base
of transistor (Series connection)
 Connect a.c. voltmeter (0 – 100 mV) across biasing resistor R2.
 Vary the value of DRB such that the ac voltmeter reads the voltage half of the
input signal
 Note down the resistance of DRB, which is input impedance.
Task (c) Measurement of output impedance:
 Measure the output voltage when the amplifier is operating in mid-band
frequency with load resistance connected (Vload).
 Measure the output voltage when amplifier is operating in mid-band frequency
without load resistance connected (Vno-load).
 Substitute these values in the formula
Vload − Vno −load
Zo = ∗ 100%
Vload
Task (d) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect 2Vp-p, 20Hz Sine wave signal at the input (between points Vin and
ground) of amplifier and observe the same on oscilloscope CH 1.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH 2.
 Increase the input frequency from lowest value and observe the output
waveform amplitude on Oscilloscope.
 Calculate gain in dB and plot a semi log graph between AV (dB) and
Frequency.
 Measure frequency range for which the output wave amplitude is 3dB down
the maximum amplitude on graph (this will give two values of frequency fL
and fH, the lower 3dB frequency and higher 3dB frequency respectively)
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier without feedback.

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  Connect feedback resistor Rf.
 Follow above procedure. This will give a plot between AVF (dB) and
Frequency.
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier with feedback.
 Compare the frequency response and Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier
with & without feedback.
Calculation and Observation Table:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance with
various feedback resistors:
Vin = _________________________
Practical Measurement Theoretical Calculation
Feedback Output Gain Input output Gain Input Output
Factor Voltage Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance
-1 / RF

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Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
Vin = _________________________
Without feedback With feedback
β = ________
Sr. Frequency Output Av = Frequency Output Avf =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

10 Date:

AIM:
To study of effect of voltage series feedback on Voltage divider bias amplifier.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain, bandwidth, input resistance and output resistance without
feedback.
(b) To measure all parameters with feedback and comment about the feedback.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:
A = Vo / Vi
Vs Vi Vo RL

Vf B = Vf / Vo

Voltage series feedback

Circuit shows the voltage series feedback connection with a part of the output
voltage fed back in series with the input signal, resulting in an overall gain
reduction. If there is no feedback (Vf = 0), the voltage gain of the amplifier stage is

A = Vo / Vs = Vo / Vi

If a feedback signal Vf, is connected in series with the input, then

Vi = Vs – Vf

Since Vo = AVi = A(Vs - Vf) = AVs – Avf = AVs – A(βVo)

Then (1+Aβ)Vo = AVs

So overall voltage gain with feedback is

Af = Vo/Vs =A / (1+Aβ) ..…….. (1)

In the given circuit feedback from output is connected at emitter of the first stage
through a feedback capacitor and resistance, capacitor is just a coupling capacitor
but resistance is providing the amount of the feedback, means the voltage appeared
at the emitter of first stage. Here the emitter voltage VE1 depends upon the output
voltage variation because of the feedback resistance RF, voltage (VE1) is RE.
VOUT / (RE + RF).

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 Here gain is directly proportional to the feedback resistance. With using feedback
gain is decrease. The feedback factor is,
β = RE / (RE+RF) …..……(2)

Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain with various feedback resistors:
 Connect 2Vp-p, 2 KHz Sine wave signal at the input of circuit of amplifier
shown in figure and observe the same on Oscilloscope CH I.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT1) peak to peak. Also
measure input and output resistance using multimeter.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain, input impedance and output impedance without
feedback (AV1) (Without feedback resistor).
 Vary the potentiometer RF and calculate feedback factor β
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT2) peak to peak.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain with feedback (AVF).
 Compare the gain obtained by the feedback and without feedback.
 Vary the potentiometer RF and follow above procedure.
Task (b) Measurement of input impedance:
 Connect a decade resistance box (DRB) between input voltage source and base
of transistor (Series connection)
 Connect a.c. voltmeter (0 – 100 mV) across biasing resistor R2.
 Vary the value of DRB such that the ac voltmeter reads the voltage half of the
input signal
 Note down the resistance of DRB, which is input impedance.
Task (c) Measurement of output impedance:
 Measure the output voltage when the amplifier is operating in mid-band
frequency with load resistance connected (Vload).
 Measure the output voltage when amplifier is operating in mid-band frequency
without load resistance connected (Vno-load).

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  Substitute these values in the formula
Vload − Vno −load
Zo = ∗ 100%
Vload
Task (d) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect 2Vp-p, 20Hz Sine wave signal at the input (between points Vin and
ground) of amplifier and observe the same on oscilloscope CH 1.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH 2.
 Increase the input frequency from lowest value and observe the output
waveform amplitude on Oscilloscope.
 Calculate gain in dB and plot a semi log graph between AV (dB) and
Frequency.
 Measure frequency range for which the output wave amplitude is 3dB down
the maximum amplitude on graph (this will give two values of frequency fL
and fH, the lower 3dB frequency and higher 3dB frequency respectively)
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier without feedback.
 Keep the potentiometer RF at 3.3K and calculate feedback factor β using
Equation 2.
 Connect the patch chord between ‘A’ and ‘B’.
 Follow above procedure. This will give a plot between AVF (dB) and
Frequency.
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier with feedback.
 Compare the frequency response and Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier
with & without feedback.

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 Calculation and Observation Table:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance with
various feedback resistors:
Vin = _________________________
Practical Measurement Theoretical Calculation
Feedback Output Gain Input output Gain Input Output
Factor Voltage Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance

Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:

Vin = _________________________
Without feedback With feedback
β = ________
Sr. Frequency Output Av = Frequency Output Avf =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

11 Date:

AIM:
To study of effect of Current series feedback on self bias amplifier.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain, bandwidth, input resistance and output resistance without
feedback.
(b) To measure all parameters with feedback and comment about the feedback.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:

Current series feedback

This Feedback technique is to sample the output current and return a proportional
voltage in series with the input.
Circuit diagram shows single transistor amplifier stage. Since emitter of this stage
has an unbypassed emitter, it effectively has current series feedback. The current
through resistor RE results in feedback voltage that opposes source signal applied so
that output voltage Vo is reduced. To remove the current series feedback the emitter
resistor must be either removed or bypassed by capacitor.
Case 1: Without feedback
Transconductance A = Io/Vi = - Ibhfe / (Ibhie + RE) = -hfe / (hie + RE)
Feedback factor β = Vf / Io = -IoRE/Io = -RE
Input impedance Zin = RB ǁ (hie + RE) ≈ (hie + RE)
Output impedance Zo = Rc
Case 2: With feedback
Af = Io/Vs = A/(1+Aβ) ≈ - hfe / (hie + hfeRE)
Input impedance Zinf = Zin(1+Aβ) ≈ (hie + hfeRE)
Output impedance Zof = Zo(1+Aβ) = Rc(1+ (hfeRE / hie) )
Voltage gain with feedback is Avf = Vo /Vs =IoRc/Vs = Af Rc = - hfeRc / (hie + RE)

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 Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain with various feedback resistors:
 Connect Sine wave signal at the input of circuit of amplifier shown in figure
and observe the same on Oscilloscope CH I.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT1) peak to peak. Also
measure input and output resistance using multimeter.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain, input impedance and output impedance without
feedback (AV1) (Without feedback resistor).
 Vary the potentiometer RF and calculate feedback factor β
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT2) peak to peak.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain with feedback (AVF).
 Compare the gain obtained by the feedback and without feedback.
Task (b) Measurement of input impedance:
 Connect a decade resistance box (DRB) between input voltage source and base
of transistor (Series connection)
 Connect a.c. voltmeter (0 – 100 mV) across biasing resistor R2.
 Vary the value of DRB such that the ac voltmeter reads the voltage half of the
input signal
 Note down the resistance of DRB, which is input impedance.
Task (c) Measurement of output impedance:
 Measure the output voltage when the amplifier is operating in mid-band
frequency with load resistance connected (Vload).
 Measure the output voltage when amplifier is operating in mid-band frequency
without load resistance connected (Vno-load).
 Substitute these values in the formula
Vload − Vno −load
Zo = ∗ 100%
Vload

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Task (d) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect Sine wave signal at the input (between points Vin and ground) of
amplifier and observe the same on oscilloscope CH 1.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH 2.
 Increase the input frequency from lowest value and observe the output
waveform amplitude on Oscilloscope.
 Calculate gain in dB and plot a semi log graph between AV (dB) and
Frequency.
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier without feedback.
 Connect RF at emitter and ground terminal.
 Follow above procedure. This will give a plot between AVF (dB) and
Frequency.
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier with feedback.
 Compare the frequency response and Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier
with & without feedback.
Calculation and Observation Table:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance with
various feedback resistors:
Vin = _________________________
Practical Measurement Theoretical Calculation
Feedback Output Gain Input output Gain Input output
Factor Voltage Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance

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Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
Vin = _________________________
Without feedback With feedback
β = ________
Sr. Frequency Output Av = Frequency Output Avf =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

12 Date:

AIM:
To study of effect of Current shunt feedback on Cascaded amplifier.
Objective:
(a) To measure gain, bandwidth, input resistance and output resistance without
feedback.
(b) To measure all parameters with feedback and comment about the feedback.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:

Current shunt feedback

Circuit diagram shows current shunt feedback network with two transistors. In
this circuit Vi2 is much larger than Vi1 because of voltage gain of Q1. Vi2 is 180°
out of phase with Vi1. Because of emitter follower action, Ve2 is only slightly
smaller than Vi2, and these voltages are in phase. Hence Ve2 is larger in magnitude
than Vi1 and is 180° out of phase with Vi1. If input signal increases so that Is
increases, If also increases, and Ii = Is – If is smaller than it would be if there were
no feedback.

Now Ve2 >>Vi1, So neglecting the base current of Q2 compared with collector
current,

If = (Vi1 – Ve2 ) / RF ≈ - Ve2 / RF = ((Io - If)RE2) / RF

Or If = RE2 Io /(RF +RE2) =βIo

Since feedback current is proportional to output current, this circuit is an example

of current shunt feedback. So current gain is given by

Aif = Io / Is ≈ 1/ β = (RF +RE2)/RE2

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 Procedure:
Task (a) Measurement of gain with various feedback resistors:
 Connect Sine wave signal at the input of circuit of amplifier shown in figure
and observe the same on Oscilloscope CH I.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT1) peak to peak. Also
measure input and output resistance using multimeter.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain, input impedance and output impedance without
feedback (AV1) (Without feedback resistor).
 Vary the potentiometer RF and calculate feedback factor β
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH II and note output voltage (VOUT2) peak to peak.
 Calculate the Voltage Gain with feedback (AVF).
 Compare the gain obtained by the feedback and without feedback.
Task (b) Measurement of input impedance:
 Connect a decade resistance box (DRB) between input voltage source and base
of transistor (Series connection)
 Connect a.c. voltmeter (0 – 100 mV) across biasing resistor R2.
 Vary the value of DRB such that the ac voltmeter reads the voltage half of the
input signal
 Note down the resistance of DRB, which is input impedance.
Task (c) Measurement of output impedance:
 Measure the output voltage when the amplifier is operating in mid-band
frequency with load resistance connected (Vload).
 Measure the output voltage when amplifier is operating in mid-band frequency
without load resistance connected (Vno-load).
 Substitute these values in the formula
Vload − Vno −load
Zo = ∗ 100%
Vload

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Task (d) frequency response Characteristics:
 Connect Sine wave signal at the input (between points Vin and ground) of
amplifier and observe the same on oscilloscope CH 1.
 Observe the output waveform between points Vout and ground on
Oscilloscope CH 2.
 Increase the input frequency from lowest value and observe the output
waveform amplitude on Oscilloscope.
 Calculate gain in dB and plot a semi log graph between AV (dB) and
Frequency.
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier without feedback.
 Connect RF at emitter of second transistor and base of first transistor.
 Follow above procedure. This will give a plot between AVF (dB) and
Frequency.
 Calculate Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier with feedback.
 Compare the frequency response and Bandwidth of RC-Coupled Amplifier
with & without feedback.
Calculation and Observation Table:
Task (a) Measurement of gain, input impedance and output impedance with
various feedback resistors:
Vin = _________________________
Practical Measurement Theoretical Calculation
Feedback Output Gain Input output Gain Input Output
Factor Voltage Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance

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Task (b) frequency response Characteristics:
Vin = _________________________
Without feedback With feedback
β = ________
Sr. Frequency Output Av = Frequency Output Avf =
No. (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi) (Hz) Voltage, 20log(Vo/Vi)
Vo (V) (dB) Vo (V) (dB)

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

13 Date:

AIM:
To Design circuit to convert an analog voltage to its digital equivalent.

Objective:
To convert analog voltage to its digital equivalent
Apparatus:
• Op-amp (LM 324), Resistors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagrams:
5V

10kΩ
4 U1A
3 C3
1
2 U4A
11 LM324P
U5B
7400N
10kΩ
100kΩ U2B 7400N U7D Do
4
50% 5 C2
Key=A
7 7400N
6 U6C
11 LM324P
10kΩ 7400N
U3C D1
Vin 4
10 C1
8
9
11 LM324P Do = C3 +C2C1
10kΩ D1 = C2

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Theory:
In this configuration number of comparator required to design this circuit : 2n-1
Where n is desired number of bits
C1, C2 and C3 = comparator output
D0 and D1 = Encoder output
Procedure:
Connect +5V to pin 4 terminal of Op-amp.
Connect ground to pin 11 terminal of Op-amp.
Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
Varify the digital output for different analog voltages

Calculation and Observation Table:

Sr. No Analog I/p Vin C3 C2 C1 D1 D0

1 0 to V/4
2 V/4 to V/2
3 V/2 to 3V/4
4 3V/4 to V

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

14 Date:

AIM:
To Design circuit to convert a Digital voltage to its Analog equivalent.

Objective:
To convert analog voltage to its digital equivalent
Apparatus:
• Op-amp (LM 324), Resistors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.
• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes

Theory :
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a
binary number. A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an
analog voltage or current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this

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Together, they are often used in digital systems to provide complete interface with
analog sensors and output devices for control systems such as those used in
automotive engine controls.

This DAC circuit, otherwise known as the binary-weighted-input DAC, is a variation

on the inverting summer op-amp circuit. If you recall, the classic inverting summer
circuit is an operational amplifier using negative feedback for controlled gain, with
several voltage inputs and one voltage output. The output voltage is the inverted
(opposite polarity) sum of all input voltages

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For a simple inverting summer circuit, all resistors must be of equal value. If any of
the input resistors were different, the input voltages would have different degrees of
effect on the output, and the output voltage would not be a true sum. Let's consider,
however, intentionally setting the input resistors at different values. Suppose we
were to set the input resistor values at multiple powers of two: R, 2R, and 4R, instead
of all the same value R:

We can adjust resistors values in this circuit to obtain output voltages directly
corresponding to the binary input. For example, by making the feedback resistor 800
Ω instead of 1 kΩ, the DAC will output -1 volt for the binary input 001, -4 volts for
the binary input 100, -7 volts for the binary input 111, and so on.

If we wish to expand the resolution of this DAC (add more bits to the input), all we
need to do is add more input resistors, holding to the same power-of-two sequence
of values:

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Calculation and Observation Table:

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

15 Date:

AIM:
To design RC phase shift oscillator using transistor.

Objective:
To measure different frequency, this is generated by circuit of RC phase shift
oscillator by varying component value of circuit.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:
12V
Cc
Ext T rig
RC +

2.2kΩ
_
1uF A B
RB1 _ _

47kΩ C1 C2 C3 + +

Q1 10nF R1 10nF R2 10nF

4.7kΩ 4.7kΩ

BC547A
R3
RB2
RE Cc1 4.7kΩ
10kΩ
680Ω 22uF

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Theory:
A phase shift oscillator is a simple sine wave electronic oscillator. It contains an
inverting amplifier and a feedback filter which shifts the phase of amplifier output
by 180° at oscillation frequency.
The filter produces a phase shift that increases with frequency. It must have
maximum phase shift of considerably greater than 180° at high frequency.
One of the simplest implementations for this type of oscillator uses a transistor
amplifier, three capacitors and three resistors as shown in circuit diagram
Frequency of oscillator can be given as fo = 1/2πRC√6
Procedure:
 Connect circuit diagram as shown in figure
 Set the component value such that loop gain of this circuit is 1.
 Calculate theoretical frequency which is generated by this circuit.
 Show the output waveform on oscilloscope.
 Compare theoretical frequency with practical frequency.
 Change component value follow above procedure.
Calculation and Observation Table:
Sr. Design parameter Theoretical Practical
No. Frequency Frequency
R1 C1 R2 C2 R3 C3

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

16 Date:

AIM:
To design Colpitts oscillator using transistor.

Objective:
To measure different frequency, this is generated by circuit of Colpitts oscillator by
varying component value of circuit.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, Inductor, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:
12V
Cc2 Ext T rig
RC +

2.2kΩ
_
B
RB1 22uF C2 +
A
_ + _

47kΩ 10uF
L1
Q1 10mH
Cc1 C1
10uF
22uF
BC547A
RB2
RE Ce
10kΩ
680Ω 22uF

Theory:
The Colpitt’s oscillator is designed for generation of high frequency sinusoidal
oscillations (radio frequencies ranging from 10KHz to 100MHz). They are widely

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used in commercial signal generators up to 100MHz. Colpitt's oscillator is same as
Hartley oscillator except for one difference. Instead of using a tapped inductance,
Colpitt's oscillator uses a tapped capacitance. The circuit diagram of Colpitt’s
oscillator using BJT is shown in circuit. It consists of an R-C coupled amplifier using
an n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. RB1 and RB2 are two resistors which form a
voltage divider bias to the transistor. A resistor RE is connected in the circuit which
stabilizes the circuit against temperature variations. A capacitor Ce is connected in
parallel with RE, acts as a bypass capacitor and provides a low reactive path to the
amplified ac signal. The coupling capacitor CC blocks dc and provides an ac path
from the collector to the tank circuit. The feedback network (tank circuit) consists of
two capacitors C1 and C2 (in series) which placed across a common inductor L. The
centre of the two capacitors is tapped (grounded). The feedback network (C1, C2 and
L) determines the frequency of oscillation of the oscillator. The two series capacitors
C1 and C2 form the potential divider led for providing the feedback voltage. The
voltage developed across the capacitor C1 provides regenerative feedback which is
essential for sustained oscillations.
When the collector supply voltage Vcc is switched on, collector current starts rising
and charges the capacitors C1 and C2. When these capacitors are fully charged, they
discharge through coil L setting up damped harmonic oscillations in the tank circuit.
The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces an a.c. voltages across C1, C2.
The oscillations across C1 are applied to base emitter junction of the transistor and
appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit and overcomes the losses
occurring in the tank circuit.
The feedback voltage ( across the capacitor C1) is 180° out of phase with the output
voltage ( across the capacitor C2), as the centre of the two capacitors is grounded. A
phase shift of 180° is produced by the feedback network and a further phase shift of
180° between the output and input voltage is produced by the CE transistor. Hence,
the total phase shift is 360° or 0°, which is essential for sustained oscillations, as per,
the Barkhausen criterion. So we get continuous undamped oscillations.
The frequency of oscillation of the oscillator

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 1
𝑓𝑓 =
2𝜋𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
Where L = self inductance of coil
C = Capacitance of condenser.
C = C1C2 /(C1+C2)
Procedure:
 Connect circuit diagram as shown in figure
 Set the component value such that loop gain of this circuit is greater than 1.
 Calculate theoretical frequency which is generated by this circuit.
 Show the output waveform on oscilloscope.
 Compare theoretical frequency with practical frequency.
 The experiment is repeated by changing L or C1 or C2 or all. The readings are
noted in the table given.
Calculation and Observation Table:
Sr. Design Parameter Theoretical Practical
No. Frequency Frequency
C1 C2 L

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Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

17 Date:

AIM:
To design Hartley oscillator using transistor.

Objective:
To measure different frequency, this is generated by circuit of Hartley oscillator by
varying component value of circuit.
Apparatus:
• Transistors, Resistors, Inductor, capacitors.
• Variable Power supply, Function generator, CRO.

• Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:
12V
Cc2 Ext T rig
RC +

2.2kΩ
_
B
RB1 22uF L1 +
A
_ + _

47kΩ 10mH
C
Q1 10uF
Cc1 L2
10mH
22uF
BC547A
RB2
RE Ce
10kΩ
680Ω 22uF

Theory:
The Hartley oscillator is designed for generation of sinusoidal oscillations in the R.F
range (20 KHz - 30 MHz). It is very popular and used in radio receivers as a local
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oscillator. The circuit diagram of Hartley oscillator (parallel or shunt-fed) using BJT
is shown in circuit. It consists of an R-C coupled amplifier using an n-p-n transistor
in CE configuration. RB1 and RB2 are two resistors which form a voltage divider
bias to the transistor. A resistor RE is connected in the circuit which stabilizes the
circuit against temperature variations. A capacitor Ce is connected in parallel with
RE, acts as a bypass capacitor and provides a low reactive path to the amplified ac
signal. The coupling capacitor Cc blocks dc and provides an ac path from the
collector to the tank circuit. The L-C feedback network (tank circuit) consists of two
inductors L1, and L2 (in series) which are placed across a common capacitor C and
the centre of the two inductors is tapped. The feedback network (L1, L2 and C)
determines the frequency of oscillation of the oscillator.
When the collector supply voltage Vcc is switched on, collector current starts rising
and charges the capacitor C. When this capacitor is fully charged, it discharges
through coils L1 and L2, setting up damped harmonic oscillations in the tank circuit.
The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces an a.c. voltage across L1 which is
applied to the base emitter junction of the transistor and appears in the amplified
form in the collector circuit. Feedback of energy from output (collector emitter
circuit) to input (base-emitter circuit is) accomplished through auto transformer
action. The output of the amplifier is applied across the inductor L1, and the voltage
across L2 forms the feedback voltage. The coil L1, is inductively coupled to coil L2,
and the combination acts as an auto-transformer. This energy supplied to the tank
circuit overcomes the losses occurring in it. Consequently the oscillations are
sustained in the circuit. The energy supplied to the tank circuit is in phase with the
generated oscillations. The phase difference between the voltages across L1 and that
across L2 is always 180° because the centre of the two is grounded. A further phase
of 180° is introduced between the input and output voltages by the transistor itself.
Thus the total phase shift becomes 360 (or zero), thereby making the feedback
positive or regenerative which is essential for oscillations, So continuous undamped
oscillations are obtained.

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The frequency of oscillation of the oscillator
1
𝑓𝑓 =
2𝜋𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
Where L = L1+L2 = Resultant inductance of series combination
C = Capacitance of condenser.
Procedure:
 Connect circuit diagram as shown in figure
 Set the component value such that loop gain of this circuit is greater than 1.
 Calculate theoretical frequency which is generated by this circuit.
 Show the output waveform on oscilloscope.
 Compare theoretical frequency with practical frequency.
 Change component value follow above procedure.
Calculation and Observation Table:
Sr. Design Parameter Theoretical Practical
No. Frequency Frequency
L1 L2 C

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Experiment

18 Date:

MINI PROJECT

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 Faculty Signature

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 Reference
This manual is intended for use with the following textbook.
1. Jacob Millman, Christos Halkias and Chetan Parikh
Integrated Electronics
Tata McGraw – Hill.
2. Robert L. Boylested, Louis Nashelsky
Electronics Devices and Circuit theory
Prentice – Hall India.

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