LESSON 2 Potential difference is said “ A potential

Analysing the relationship difference across......"

The potential difference is measured by a
between electric current voltmeter and it must be connected in parallel
and potential difference with the component which we want to find the
potential difference between the component.
For example, if we want to measure the
Current, I difference across a bulb :
Current ,I is the rate of flow of charge, Q

Current = Charge
Time

Or I=Q
t

The unit of current, I , is Ampere (A)

1A= 1 C s-1
Current is said “ A current flows through......."
The current is measured by an ammeter and it
must be connected in series with the
component which we want to find the current Example 1
through the component. A battery is switched on for a few moments. In that
For example, if we want to measure the current time 40 C pass through the battery and they carry
through a bulb : away 240 J of electrical energy . What is the
potential difference across the battery?

Example 2
Potential difference (Voltage) , V A current of 8 A flowing through an electric heater for
An electric circuit must have a cell or some 50 minutes convert 5.76 X 10 6 J of electrical energy
source of electrical energy ,if there is to be a into heat energy.
current. The energy to move the electrons or to Calculate
produce current we call “ voltage or potential (a) the total charge circulated through the heater
difference” (b) the potential difference across the heater
The potential difference across a conductor is
work (energy) to carry a unit charge

Potential difference = work = energy

charge charge
V=E
Or
Q
The unit of potential difference, V = Volt(V)
1 V = 1 J C-1

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The relationship between potential difference ,V The experiment is repeated 5 times for with different
and current, I in a metal conductor – Ohm’s Law value of, I, by adjusting the rheostat
Tabulate the data:
The relationship between voltage, V and current ,I in I
a metal conductor is discovered by George Ohm is V
called as Ohm’s law. Analysis the data:
Ohm’s law state” The potential across a metal Plot the graph V against I
conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through the conductor , provided that its
temperature remains constant.

The Ohmic conductors and non-Ohmic conductor

Conductors which obey the Ohm’s law is called
Ohmic conductors.

Or V  I , if T remains constant

The experiment to investigate the relationship

between the potential difference ,V and the
current, I in a metal conductor
Hypothesis:
The potential difference across a metal conductor
increases as the current in the metal conductor
increases.
Aim of the experiment :
To investigate the relationship between the potential
difference ,V and current, I in a metal conductor
Variables in the experiment:
Manipulated variable: the current
Responding variable: the potential difference
Fixed variable: temperature
List of apparatus and materials:
Ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, conductor wire,
connection wires ,dry cells and switch.
Arrangement of the apparatus:

Resistance, R
Based on the Ohm’s law,
VI
The procedure of the experiment which include V=kI
the method of controlling the manipulated k=V
variable and the method of measuring the I
responding variable. k is replaced by R
The switch is closed. Hence definition of resistance is ;
The reading of the voltmeter ,V and the ammeter, I is
recorded.

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Resistance is the ratio of the potential difference to (c) The type of the material of the conductor
the current.
Or Resistance = Potential difference Different material of the conductors have the
Current different resistance .
Or
R = V
I

The S.I. unit is Ohm ()

1  = 1 V A-1
For good conducting material such as silver and
cooper have low resistance.
For good insulating material such as rubber has
high resistance.

(d) Temperature
For metal conductors such as cooper ,iron , the
resistance is increases linearly to the temperature.
For alloys such as constantan and nichrome
the temperature not affected the resistance.
For semiconductor materials such silicon and
germanium an also termistor the resistance
decreases when its temperature is decreased.
Note : For a metal conductor ,if the temperature and
the other physical properties are remain unchanged ,
the resistance of the conductor not depend on the
current ,I and the potential difference, V.

The factors affect the resistance of a conductor

(a) The length of the conductor( l)
The resistance is directly proportional to the
Length of the conductor Resistivity , ρ
(RI) R  I and R  1
A
R l  R=ρl
A A

ρ = RA
l
(b) The cross-sectional area of the conductor (A)
The resistance is inversely proportional As ρ increases , R increases.
to the cross-sectional area of the conductor
(R 1 )
A
S.W.G ( Standard Wire Gauge ) of a conductor
wire
When the number of S.W.G. higher the thickness of
the wire decreases .

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The experiment to investigate the relationship Types of resistor
between the resistance and the length of a metal Fixed resistor :
conductor Common materials is used in fixed resistor are alloys
Hypothesis: such as nichrome and constantan.
The resistance of metal conductor increases as the
length increases
Aim of the experiment :
Rheostat :
To investigate the relationship between the resistance
This has a coil resistance wire wound a ceramic
and the length of a metal conductor.
tube. A sliding contact ca be moved to any position
Variables in the experiment:
along the coil. This changes the length of the wire and
Manipulated variable: the length of the metal
as a result the resistance changes.
conductor
Responding variable: the resistance
Fixed variable: temperature, the cross-sectional area
and type of material
Potentiometer
List of apparatus and materials:
As voltage divider. When the length increases , the
Ammeter, voltmeter, conductor wire, connection wires
resistance increases and as the result the potential
,dry cells, metre rule and switch.
differences (voltage) increases .
Arrangement of the apparatus:

Thermistor :
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes
with temperature. Its decrease in resistance as the
temperature rises.

The procedure of the experiment which include Light dependent resistor (LDR)
the method of controlling the manipulated The resistance of LDR changes depends on the
variable and the method of measuring the brightness of light falling on it. As the brightness of
responding variable. light falling on it increases the resistance decreases.
The length of the conductor wire is measured by a
ruler = l
The switch is closed.
The reading of the voltmeter ,V and the ammeter, I is
recorded.
The resistance is calculated , R = V
I
The experiment is repeated 5 times for with different Superconductor
length of the wire Superconductor is a metal conductor decreases when
Tabulate the data: its temperature decreases.
I The resistance decreases with temperature but the
R resistance suddenly becomes zero when it is cooled
Analysis the data: below a certain temperature called the critical
Plot the graph R against l temperature, tc

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 4 Which graph obeys the Ohm’s law?

These materials offer no resistance to flow of current

and act as perfect conductors with zero resistiviy.
Once the current is set up in these materials, its need
no applied voltage to persist flowing without any loss..
The example of superconductor materials are
aluminium (Tc= 1.2 K), Plumbum (Tc= 7.2 K), Niobium
(Tc= 9.3 K), Nb3Sn (Tc= 18 K) , Nb3Ge (Tc= 23 K) and 5 The graph shows the relationship between
YBa2Cu3O2 (Tc= 100 K). potential difference , V and current , I for an
Its used in transportation, medicine ,industry and electrolyte.
army .

TUTORIAL 2
1 The potential across two points in a metal
conductor is 1 Volt if

A a current of 1 A flows in a metal conductor

1 second
B a power of 1 W is generated when 1 C
Which of the following is true?
charge flows
C an energy of 1 J is used to flow 1 C of
A The potential difference is directly
charge
proportional to the current
D an energy of 1 J is used to flow 1 A of
B The electrolyte obeys the Ohm’s law
current
C The current does not flows in the
electrolyte when the potential difference
2 When lighting strikes between two charged
lower than 1.5 V
cloud , 16 C charge flows from the cloud to the
Earth and transferred 6.4 x 106 kJ. What is the
6 Which graph shows the relationship between
potential difference across the cloud and the
potential difference ,V and current, I for a torch
Earth?
light bulb?
A 6.4 x 10 8 V B 8.0 x 107 V
C 4.0 x 108 V D 2.0 x 107 V
E 1.0 x 108 V

3 The potential difference across a bulb is 4.0 V

and 36 C charge flows in the bulb. What is the
energy is dissipated in the bulb?

A 0.1 A B 5.2 J
C 9.0 J D 126 J
E 144 J

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7 Which of the following factor is not affect the
resistance of a metal conductor?

A the length of the conductor

B the thickness of the conductor
C the type of material of the conductor
D the current flows through the conductor

8 The resistance of a conductor increases as

What is the resistance of the wire?.
A the temperature decreases
B the length decreases
A 500  B 1000 
C the thickness decreases
C 2000  D 4000 
E 8000 

9 Which circuit could be used to find the 12 Which of the following V-I graph shows the
resistance of the resistance? resistance increasing as the current rises?

13 Which of the following has the highest

resistance?

Length / cm S.W.G
A 100 32
B 100 20
C 50 32
10 An electronic device labelled 12V , 2A. What is D 50 20
the resistance of the device?
14 The figure shows an electric circuit consists a
A 0.67 B 6.0  cooper wire , jockey ,ammeter, voltmeter and
C 4.0  D 14.0  dry cell.
E 24.0 

11 The graph shows the results of an experiment

to measure the resistance of a wire.

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 When the jockey is touched at a length 0.5m on
the cooper wire , the reading of ammeter and
voltmeter are 4A and 12 V respectively.
What is the reading of the ammeter when the
jockey is touched at a length 0.2m on the cooper
wire?

A 3A B 10 A
C 12 A D 24 A
E 36 A What is the name of point P?

14 A piece of wire has diameter d and resistance A Absolute temperature

R. When diameter of the wire is 2d , what is the B Basic temperature
resistance of the wire. C Critical temperature
D Virtual temperature
A R B R
4 2 18 The following graph shows a graph current, I
against potential difference, V represent three
C R D 2R conductors P, Q and R.

E 4R

15 Which of the following changes to wire will

double its resistance?

Cross-sectional area Length

A Double Double
B Double No change
C No change Halve
D Halve No change

16 Which of the following is the symbol of a

thermistor?

(a) Which conductor obeys the Ohm’s

Law?

.........................................................

(b) (i) Which conductor has the

highest resistance when the
current increases?

.................................................
17 The graph resistance – temperature represents (ii) Give a reason for your answer
a graph for a superconductor material. in b(ii).

…………………………………….

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(c) Calculate the resistance of the (b) The resistivity , , of the wire is given by
conductor Q.  = 4.3 X 10-5 m

where m is the gradient of the graph.

Calculate the value of .
 = ………………………….m.

(c) (i) From the graph, state the value of

L when V = 1.5V
Show on the graph how you
determine the value of L.
19 The graph the potential difference, V against
the length , L is the result of the experiment to …………………………………………
determine the resistivity, , and the
resistance ,R of a wire. …………………………………………

(ii) The resistance , R, is given by

R = L
A

If the cross-sectional area, A of the

wire is 1.0 X 10-7 m2 and using the
value of  from (b), calculate the
value of R when V = 1.5V.

(a) Based on the graph in the figure above,

(i) what happen when L increases?

……………………………………………

……………………………………………
(ii) determine the value of the potential (d) State one precaution that should be taken
difference , V, when the length during this experiment.
L = 0 cm.
Show on the graph , how you …………………………………………………
determine V
…………………………………………………

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