Industrial Architecture

INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
NEED:
Adaptability and Flexibility

rapid market and technological changes constantly tend to render
many manufacturing plants economically and technically
obsolete;
Fire Safety
great economic losses are sustained every year through fire
destruction,and chemical and dust explosions; and
Labour Conflicts
The full potential of human contributions to industrial efficiency
and prosperity is not being attained, as judged by the frequency,
extent, and proliferation of labour conflicts.
Economic
change and
obsolescence, and
security of industrlal
assets from fire hazard
Technology Human
Production Worker motivation,
Process selection, and satisfaction, and
the physical layout of higher productivity
plant facilities and in industry.
services
THE SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
•Primary Industry - the extraction of raw materials,

extraction or raw materials does not usually require a building
•Secondary Industry- the manufacture of products

whether it is processing, fabricating or assembly, or all three
combined - which usually requires buildings. Industrial architecture
may therefore be considered to involve the provision of adequate
and appropriate physical facilities for the manufacturing aspect of
industrial production.
Tertiary Industry - the distribution of materials and products

The distribution industry merges into the commercial and business
operations of industrial enterprise
THE OBJECTIVE OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Economic - (a)to stay in business,

(b) to make money.
improved efficiency and higher productivity
Social - promoting social progress and strengthening the

economic foundations of human wellbeing, the
immediate social objectives concern the workers' comfort,
welfare and motivation.
THE ARCHITECTURAL OBJECTIVE OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Economic - Operational efficiency of plant facilities.
This calls for:(a) efficiency of the physical plant,
of labour, and of management.
(b) thwarting of obsolescence, and
(c )adequate security of life and property
Design - Pleasant physical environment. This requires:
the provision of adequate physical amenities for the workers.
physiological appropriateness within the plant environment.
the avoidance or abatement of obnoxious infusion into the environment.
the orderly development of physical facilities to provide proper scale, stimulus and
perception of work situation to workers.
the recognition of, and provision for other individual and group needs of workers.
Although little architectural development of a valuable philosophical content in
the industrial field occurred between the beginning of the Industrial Revolution
era in the eighteenth century and the dawn of the twentieth century,
great strictures have been taken in industrialized building techniques, especially
in the structural and constructional aspects, since the second World War.
Rapid progress in technological developments, the use of complex mechanization
in production systems, and the increasing demand for controlled atmosphere for
machines, equipment and products, and in some cases for people, have resulted in
the introduction and increasing use of artificially controlled environment, the
culmination of which is the notion of the "windowless factory."
PREVALENT TRENDS IN PLANT BUILDING
Principle of mass production technique

to the production system -the automobile industry,
the availability of spacious land in the suburban areas,
realization of rapidly changing conditions in industry,
the contemporary industrial - colossal size.
THE OBJECTIVE OF AN ENTERPRISE
•Economic Objective-
1. To stay in business
2. to make money.
•Social Objective-
1. promoting social progress and strengthening the
economic foundations of human well-being
2. workers' comfort, welfare and motivation
CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Industrial Revolution as, “a widespread replacement of

manual labor by machines that began in Britain in the
18th century.”
•People did not want to do their work manually for the
rest of their lives.
•Somewhere around 75% of the British made their money from
farming. In the winter when they couldn't farm they worked with
the wool from their sheep to make cloth.
This was called the cottage industry.
This was one thing that caused the Industrial Revolution.
BACKGROUND OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
•The Industrial Revolution began in England about 1760
•Radical changes at every level of civilization throughout the world
•growth of heavy industry brought a flood of new building materials

- cast iron, steel, and glass
•architects and engineers devised structures hitherto undreamed

of in function, size, and form.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
1. Started in Britain and spread throughout the world.
2. The industrial revolution was the transition to new manufacturing

processes. This transition included going from hand production
methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron
production processes
3. Improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam

power and development of machine tools
MAJOR INVENTIONS
The steam engine : invented by James Watt in 1785, whose proliferation into
newly built machine shop and iron foundries engendered an appropriate type
of building. Steam engine leads to invention of steam ship , steam locomotives.
Railway- a meaningful symbol of the new age which in turn had consequences for
architecture - stations, bridges, tunnels
The steam boat : an important means of transportation which in turn had

consequences for mass migration from across the globe.
Transportation system
Roads, railways and canals were built.
Canals- canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link major
manufacturing centres
Rail road - the construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns
MAJOR INVENTIONS
INVENTION OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Cast iron, an essentially brittle material, is approximately four times as resistant to

compression as stone.
Wrought iron, which is forty times as resistant to tension and bending as stone,
is only four times heavier. It can be form and molded into any shape.
Glass can be manufactured in larger sizes and volumes.
Solid structures could be replaced by skeleton structures, making it possible to erect

buildings of almost unrestricted height.
Buildings could be constructed into any shape and in short time.

MAJOR INVENTIONS
INVENTION OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Cast iron, an essentially brittle material, is approximately four times as resistant to

compression as stone.
Wrought iron, which is forty times as resistant to tension and bending as stone,
is only four times heavier. It can be form and molded into any shape.
Glass can be manufactured in larger sizes and volumes.
Solid structures could be replaced by skeleton structures, making it possible to erect

buildings of almost unrestricted height.
Buildings could be constructed into any shape and in short time.

MAJOR BUILDINGS
• The Iron Bridge
Brooklyn Bridge, Brooklyn, New York 1869-1883
Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, England 1836-
1864
Tower Bridge London
•The Iron Bridge-
-Tower Bridge London,
- Brooklyn Bridge New York
•The Iron Rail Road Station
Central Railroad Station, New Castle England,1846-55
St. Pancras Station, London
TOWER•The Iron LONDON,
BRIDGE, Market Place
1886-1894, SIR HORACE JONES
Covered Market , Berlin 1865-1868
City Market Hall, Paris
Galleria Vittoro Emmanuel II, Milan
•The Iron Commercial Buildings
Mchier Factory, Noisel-sur-marne
Bradbury Building, Los Angles, California
Commodities Exchange, Amsterdam
•The Iron Cultural and Religious Buildings
Paris Opera, Paris, Charles Garnier
Museum of Natural History, England
Corn Exchange, Leads Cuthbert Brodic
•The Iron Exhibition Buildings
MAJOR BUILDINGS
• The Iron Rail Road Station
Central Railroad Station, New Castle on tyne,
England,1846-55
St. Pancras Station, London
MAJOR BUILDINGS
• The Iron Market Place
Covered Market , Berlin 1865-1868
City Market Hall, Paris
Galleria Vittoro Emmanuel II, Milan
MAJOR BUILDINGS
• The Iron Commercial Building
Mchier Factory, Noisel-sur-marne
Bradbury Building, Los Angles, California
Commodities Exchange, Amsterdam
MAJOR BUILDINGS
• The Iron Cultural Building
Paris Opera, Paris, Charles Garnier
Museum of Natural History, England
Corn Exchange, Leads Cuthbert Brodick
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. PROCESS OF CHANGE IN INDUSTRY
lnstability in the economy causes instability in the individual firms. A period of rapid
growth means that most firms must increase production, employ more workers,
obtain new capital and facilities, and increase sales. A period of contraction means
that most firms must curtail expenditures, decrease production, and lay off workers.
While such changes are commonly associated with booms and depressions,
they are actually occurring all the time.
New products, new methods, and new ideas appear continually; the competition
they foster and the failures they use are both a part of the never-ending process
of change.
Types of Layout:
▪Concentrated
▪Fragmented
Long-range Planning
Because of this process of change, dynamic economic planning which anticipates future
conditions becomes important in manufacturing management. Today there is a trend for
management planning to become more long-range in character. Increasing population and
rising standards of living mean that there will be a greater demand for products in the
future. Long-range requirements for buildings, equipment and manpower must therefore
be established. Another factor which makes long-range planning necessary is that most
manufacturing industries require large capital outlays. Automation and increasing labour
costs tend to make it profitable to increase capital expenditures still further.
Recovery of these costs must be spread over a long period of time and it is therefore
Necessary to plan far ahead.
Specialization or Flexibility ?
One factor which requires careful long-range planning is the vital question of whether an
industrial enterprise should have specialized or flexible physical facilities, or the right balance
of both.
Many companies are at a serious competitive disadvantage today merely because their
facilities are so highly specialized. To keep pace with technological progress which has
substantially improved competitive products, they find that they must spend unusually
large sums of money for building and layout changes. More astute facilities planning in the
past would have saved them much of that expense.
Admittedly, there are some industries which can operate successfully only with the use of
highly specialized facilities.Petroleum refining and cement manufacturing are typical
examples in which the possibility of designing truly flexible facilities is limited and is
accepted largely as a characteristic of the industry.
The problem of facilities planning, therefore appears to have no definite solutions.
The degree of flexibility that is ideal for one product-situation may be totally inadequate or
ineffectual to another. Each problem would have to be individually studied to determine the
effects of flexibility and specialization on the current and long-term profit position. This
requires obviously that marketing research findings should be carefully analysed during the
design programming stage. For example: if the sale of a product depends on its price, which
leaves a very small profit margin, it may be imperative to plan highly specialized facilities so
that manufacturing costs can be kept to the absolute minimum. Here the need for the lowest
possible current operating cast may be so vital that designing flexible facilities is out of
the question.
Often, however, the spread between manufacturing costs and selling price will
permit some loss of current efficiency in expectation of greater long-term gains from
flexibility. If the higher manufacturing costs do not seriously affect the current competitive
position of the company, long-term profits may be greatly enhanced by designing highly
flexible facilities.
Moreover, an industry for fine chemicals, electronics, electrical appliances, or

pharmaceuticals, that is plagued with constant changes in products and process and also
with rapid expansion possibilities, will probably thwart the adverse effect of change by
designing flexible buildings which would be adaptable to changing requirements.
If we assume a state where all the
components are contained within a
single body, we might equally assume that there
would develop, at some time, possible areas of
conflict or friction which may result in consequent
incapacitation, see figure at (a).There would, of
course, be some form of relationship among the
components resulting in different degrees of
cohesion, size groupings, independence, inter-
dependence and internai activity. If the various main
components which may now be differentiated are set
free in space, it is possible that the phenomenon of
change will be more easily absorbed. The economic
advantage of flexibility within, and expandability of
each major component in the system may more
readily be obtained.
Summary:
There is a constant process of change in industry.
It affects all of the aspects of industrial enterprise, and demands that business
administrators must constantly be planning ahead to forestall the economic
disadvantages which it may bring. Industrial managers must plan ahead for
various types of change, not the least of which is the effect of change on
plant facilities. The ability to make changes in a plant, process, or product
when required certainly has a great economic advantage. But this advantage
is not likely to be realized if the required flexibility or expansion of any main
part of the system cannot be made without great loss, conflict, or disturbance
to the efficient running of the plant.
A tentative suggestion is made that by fragmenting what would have

been a huge mass of a plant in such a way that the main component
parts are isolated one from another, as far as it is possible, but without
endangering the integrity of the system, the economic advantages of
flexi-bility and expandability will be obtained.
2. PROCESS OF OBSOLESCENCE ANDDISPOSAL IN
INDUSTRY
Closely related to the phenomenon of change, and in fact prompted by it, is the
problem of plant obsolescence. Only when management executives consciously try
to visualize the future of the product and the processing equipment, and the effects
which these have on plant buildings or equipment layout, can they hope to foresee
and offset the effects of product obsolescence on plant facilities.
In this respect, market research should provide suitable answers to the following
type of questions:
How often will the raw materials, makeup, and other aspects of the product change ?
What will be the nature and extent of those changes?
What effect will they have on equipment layout and building structure ?
What strong or new substitute products are appearing in other related
industries
Today, many companies are making important plant planning and design decisions
without adequately considering what might happen to the product or its process
in the future.
2. PROCESS OF OBSOLESCENCE ANDDISPOSAL IN INDUSTRY
Closely related to the phenomenon of change, and in fact prompted by it, is the
problem of plant obsolescence. Only when management executives consciously try
to visualize the future of the product and the processing equipment, and the effects
which these have on plant buildings or equipment layout, can they hope to foresee
and offset the effects of product obsolescence on plant facilities.
In this respect, market research should provide suitable answers to the following
type of questions:
How often will the raw materials, makeup, and other aspects of the product change ?
What will be the nature and extent of those changes?
What effect will they have on equipment layout and building structure ?
What strong or new substitute products are appearing in other related
industries
Today, many companies are making important plant planning and design decisions
without adequately considering what might happen to the product or its process
in the future.
2. PROCESS OF DISPOSAL IN INDUSTRY
The product's history and its current market position, and the research and
development program of a company should indicate possible answers to these types
of questions.
Almost as important as trying to make the actual prediction, however, is the constant
awareness that changing technology and changing markets may some day force the
company to make new and different product or even abandon the plant for a new
site.
Possibility of Plant Disposal
Important as the issue of flexibility is in thwarting product obsolescence, it does not

solve the great economic problem of plant disposal in the event of complete plant
obsolescence. Even discounting complete business failure, a company will find it
advantageous to have a readily saleable plant for various reasons.
Should the company outgrow present plant facilities, the best course of action might
be to construct a new plant. Should the company have to use raw materials, it might
be desirable to relocate a plant nearer the source of supply. Should there be a major
shift in market geographically, the company might find it advisable to move the plant
closer to the market.
Summary:
The problem of obsolescence is normally prompted by the constant process of

change. While flexibility may be built into the plant to thwart obsolescence and
economic loss in many instances, there are still some situations that inevitably lead
to complete product or plant obsolescence.
The importance that is attached to a company's ability to quickly and profitably

dispose of its plant facilities in case of obsolescence will determine the extent to
which the principle of plant fragmentation will be applicable at the design stage.
3. SECURITY OF INDUSTRIAL ASSETS FROM FIRE HAZARDS
Apart from the considerations of change and obsolescence, another

potential economic problem to which a fundamental solution should be
provided is the security risk of fire hazard. Each day, great havoc is being
wrought by the outbreak of fire in industrial premises.
The largest fire loss in the history of American industry occurred on

August 12, 1953, when the General Motors Hydramatic Transmissions
plant at Livonia, Michigan, burned to the ground. In a matter of fourteen
hours. three lives were lost and property estimated to be worth $40 million
was damaged. General Motors has one of the best safety records in the
United States and this plant had been provided with modern fire-fighting
equipment.
In the United Kingdom, the picture is very rouch the same. The direct loss
from fire has been estimated to amount each year to about L25 million,
arising from about 45,000 building fires.
Before an appropriate architectural solution to the problem of fire is considered,

present available building design and construction measures will be examined.
The design and structural aspects of fire protection, including restriction of spread of
fire, means of escape, and access for fire-fighting, involve the whole field of building
- site planning, internal planning and the form and materials of construction.
Site Planning
In the siting of industrial buildings in relation to fire protection, three factors :
Access roads for fire-fighting appliances.
Distance between adjacent properties to reduce spread between buildings.
Access from roads and open spaces into the buildings.

Site Planning
In the siting of industrial buildings in relation to fire protection, three factors :
Access roads for fire-fighting appliances- Existing practice requires that adequate
access roads should be provided around the building for the efficient operation of
fire appliances. The architect must ensure that the access to his buildings will be
adequate for the fire-fighting appliances in the locality.
Distance between adjacent properties to reduce spread between buildings-.

The siting of buildings in relation to one another also play an important part in
reducing fire spread. By-laws specify minimum distances
Access from roads and open spaces into the buildings. Apart from road access
for fire-fighting appliances, there should be adequate access into the building or
building complex for fire-fighting operations. Unless hydrants are provided within the
building, an important criterion in relation to access and siting will be the fire cover
provided by a fire appliance. With the pressure likely to be available, the maximum
effective throw from a fire-fighting nozzle may be about 75 ft. This therefore imposes
a limitation on the size and plan shape of the building
With the pressure likely to be available, the maximum effective throw from a
fire-fighting nozzle may be about 75 ft. This therefore imposes a limitation on
the size and plan shape of the building
Existing practice also requires that the fire resistance of the various structural
elements of a building should, ideally, be sufficient-To resist the effects of the fire load
without collapse under the structural load. The periods of fire resistance appropriate
to various fire loads are:
Fire load (B.t.u/sq. ft.) Fire Resistance (Hours)
Less than 100,000(low) 1
100,000 - 200,000(moderate) 2
200,000 - 400,000(high) 4
These standards allow for a complete burn-out of the combustible contents of the
building. For small buildings lower standards of fire resistance are considered
adequate because fire fighting can be expected to control the fire more easily.
In a single-storey building, no specific standard of fire resistance is required by by-law,
except in relation to the risk of spread of fire. To adjacent premises. Nevertheless, the
industrial management may consider, in its own interest, whether fire protection is
economically justified in its particular case.
Existing practice also requires that the fire resistance of the various structural
elements of a building should, ideally, be sufficient-To resist the effects of the fire load
without collapse under the structural load. The periods of fire resistance appropriate
to various fire loads are:
Fire load (B.t.u/sq. ft.) Fire Resistance (Hours)
Less than 100,000(low) 1
100,000 - 200,000(moderate) 2
200,000 - 400,000(high) 4
These standards allow for a complete burn-out of the combustible contents of the
building. For small buildings lower standards of fire resistance are considered
adequate because fire fighting can be expected to control the fire more easily.
In a single-storey building, no specific standard of fire resistance is required by by-law,
except in relation to the risk of spread of fire. To adjacent premises. Nevertheless, the
industrial management may consider, in its own interest, whether fire protection is
economically justified in its particular case.
In steel-framed single-storey structures the columns can usually be protected without
much difficulty. The large-span steel trusses are more difficult to deal with; sprayed
coatings of asbestos or some other fire resistant materials provide one of the more
convenient methods of protection. The initial cost of protecting steel work by means
of concrete or a sprayed coating may be largely offset by saving the maintenance cost
of painting.
The decision whether to protect all structural steel work will also be influenced by the
other forms of fire protection available, and the economic justification.
Since the fire resistance of building materials and structural
elements does not ensure the security of the contents within the building structure,
but merely prevents the collapse of the structure, an additional measure, in the form
of internal planning devices to confine the spread of fire should be considered.
lnternal Planning
It is obvious that the smaller the region within which an outbreak of fire is initially
confined, the less will be thechance of it developing into a major fire. It is usually
claimed that in many types of industry, there are sound reasons for large undivided
But this is not always so, and often, undue importance is attached to open planning.
Division should be the first consideration in relation to fire protection, even to the extent
Of providing a separate building for the storage of combustible materials and for high-hazard
processes.
The normal practice, usually demanded by insurance companies, is the use of walls of
adequate fire resistance which extend from ground to roof to divide a building into parts
or divisions. The effectiveness of this practice largely depends on the fire-tightness of the
joint with the under-side of the roof, and around ducts and service pipes, doorways and
conveyors. In most cases, what is usually regarded as adequate fire separation by
compartmenting a building in this way, is a fire wall that has little ability to resist fire or contain it.
lnternal Planning
processes.
lnternal Planning
processes.
The notion of designing for security against extensive damage or destruction by fire,
flood, bombing, explosions, and similar hazards, suggests a form of fragmentation of a
system into main components in such a way that an accident in any one of them would
not so easily affect other components.
The concept of separating the main
component elements of a plant system
to provide intrinsic physical fire
separation can be applied prac-tically in
different ways. Figures 20 and 21
indicate two of the various possibilities
where the main parts are separated in
space. In this way, the extent of damage
and loss will likely be minimized. The
greatest security will result where, in
addition to physical separation, the con-
necting parts which are obvious
weaknesses in these system, are treated
with fire restricting elements or
structures.
SUMMARY
Existing site planning regulations, fire resistance of structural elements and
internal planning devices prove a substantial measure of safe-guard; but they are
not adequate. When great fires occur, although the structures may not collapse,
contents within them are destroyed.
A possible solution may well be the fragmentation of the plant system into
main component parts which can be separated in space without lowering the
operational efficiency of the system as a functioning entity. The extent of this
fragmentation and separation will greatly depend on the extent of security risk
involved in particular industrial cases.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Manufacturing Processes
The Architects
It is not the duty of the architect to take over the technical responsibilities of the industrial engineer in the
selection of a manufacturing process. But it should be his duty to carefully understand and appreciate the
economic, technical, and operational objectives of the industrial managers and engineers., With this
understanding, the architect should be in a position to make valuable suggestions .
Manufacturing Processes
Technically, the purpose of a manufacturing process is to attain one of the following objectives:
•To shape the materiel inputs as nearly as possible to the final desired form and dimensions, in order to save
materials, machine time, and labour.
•To join components into assemblies that possess the required

functional qualities, or
•To improve the properties of the materials inputs, for instance, by heat treatment, or by addition of other
materials to form alloys or coatings
Manufacturing production process consists of a sequence of operations that transform materials

from a given to a desired form. This transformati on may be by assembly, by integration, by
disintegration or by a combina-tion of these three together. The transformation process may be
carried out by a continuous-process, a repetitive-process, an intermittent-process
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

Usually Involves
chemicals
TRANSFORMATION FABRICATION ASSEMBLY
Changing of Changing the Adding

DISINTEGRATION INTEGRATION CONTINUOUS material by form of the materials in
successive material the solid state
Separation into Bringing Transformation operations into a to the first
components together of Disintegration different component
materials Integration characteristics Metalworking piece
Distilling, forming a Fabrication ,woodworking
Refinery product not Assembly Ceramics,frozen Telephones,c
found in foods omputers,aut
nature Basic Iron and omobiles
Steel,
Plastics,artific Aluminium
ial rubber Refining
Continuous-Process lndustry
A continuous-process industry is usually made up of operations that involve chemical
reactions.
The nature of the operations is such that a rigid control of flow systems must be adopted
since a sequence of operations must be performed before another can commence.
Usually the process can be a disintegration into components as in distilling and oil refinery;
an integration as in cement, heavy chemicals and sugar; or a combination of disintegration
and integration as in basic iron and steel, and aluminium refining. Production is normally
continuous for twenty-four hours per day.
One of the main architectural design problems in this type of industry is that of successfully
integrating building with the gigantic equipment and machines that often cannot be housed
because of their size and complexity, but which must be expressed as clean, functional
external elements. Naturally, the aesthetic and functional solution of this problem cannot
be specified, slnce technology and systems are constantly changing, but must be left to the
sense of order of the architect and the engineers concerned.
Repetitive-Process Industry
A repetitive process industry is usually one in which the product is processed in lots. A variety of operations
may be involved, but the nature of the operation is such that flow cannot be rigidly controlled as in the
continuous-process industry.
The product moves through the process in specified quantities called lots. Each item in the lot follows
successfully through the same operations as the previous items. If lots of the same or similar items follow
one another wlth regularity through the process, the situation becomes similar to the continuous-process
type of industry, except that the production is seldom carried on twenty-four hours per day.
An illustration is a mass-production plant producing automobile engines with standardized parts. Today, this
type of industrial process is used to manufacture numerous products such as telephones, television sets and
tubes, refrigerators and electronic equipment.
This type of production process creates two distinct problems - human and aesthetic. On the human side,
because jobs have been broken down "scientifically" into their most elementary components, there is over-
specialization and consequently over-simplification of jobs which in most cases become very elementary
routine functions. This situation undoubtedly has certain advantages, such as requiring less skilled people
and shorter training time. In many cases, however, the process has been carried to such extremes that jobs
have little inherent interest or challenge; operations are reduced to the simplest possible repetitive level and
the worker makes nothing he can identify as a product of his own
What then is the true meaning and scope of industrial architecture ? The art of
building construction, of providing only shelter for the manufacturing process ?
Besides, when one considers the second problem -that of visual chaos - which most
production processes, especially the repretitive-process type produce, one feels more
convinced that the architect should be involved at the problem-analysis and
production process selection level of the planning stage so that he might know how
best human, functional, technical, and aesthetic requirements could be reconciled,
and a more hurnane order restored to the conveyor-tangle and mechanistic chaos.
Intermittent Process Industry
An intermittent-process industry is one that processes items of products when and as ordered.
It is sometimes called a job-lot industry. Here a small lot of items may be ordered by a customer
to be made to his specifications. Once the lot is completed, it is likely that the item will never be
manufactured again, since it is normally concerned with special projects, models, prototypes,
special machinery or equipment to perform specialized and specific tasks, or components to
provide replacement for parts in existing machines. Examples are large turbo-generators, large
boilers, processing equipment, special electronic equipment, shipbuilding, printing and
publishing.
In this type of industry, flexibility of operations is of the utmost importance. The process layout
principle applies very well to this type of industry. In this type of industry, flexibility of
operations is of the utmost importance.
Combination-Process Industry
A combination-process industry is one that combines varlous degrees of disintegration,
integration, fabrication and assembly. Examples are: basic iron and steel, phamaceutical, and
aluminium refining industries. In practice, for a given industry, some form of combination
process is normally required to solve its particular manufacturing problems.
However, the use of combination processes is frequently adopted from a purely quantitative
analysis. For instance, to obtain a compromise solution on the type and degree of combination
to be used in a specific instance, the distances travelled in feet by each type of process flow are
compared, and adjustments made for a combination solution.
This approach appears to be a good weapon that can be utilized to further reconcile or
integrate qualitative merits with quantitative demands, even if the result may seem initially
more expensive, The important fact to realize in this respect is that the total efficiency of plant
production system - men and machines - is what matters.
With the possibilities inherent in a combination process, the concept of fragmentation, once
accepted as advantageous, should not be difficult to effect for varieties of manufacturing
situations.
Two Examples of
Schematic
Process Outlines.
Two Examples of
Schematic
Process Outlines.
Schematic Diagram
of An Ice-cream
Process
.
Selection of Process
The quantitative criteria for selection of a production process have been mainly technological
and economic. Some of the qualitative aspects of a manufacturing facility which are best
resolved at the process-planning and selection stage, but are usually not given adequate
attention
•The problem of nuisance characteristics of some machines in terms of effluent disposal; fumes,
smoke and air pollution; noise and vibration; and intrusion into the landscape (where this is an
important consideration);
• The quality of a process or its flexibility to facilitate physical design against fire hazard or plant
disposal in case of obsolescence
•The relation of production process to human considerations and the consequent minimization
of labour relations problems.
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF A PLANT’S FACILITIES
Selection of a production process is primarily based on quantitative operational
efficiency criteria, the ultimate objective being that of low current operating cast.
Important as this approach is, however, it does not take into consideration many
important qualitative factors which also contribute in some measure to the prosperity
of an enterprise - matters like the nuisance characeristics of some equipment and
machines (noise, vibration, atmospheric pollution, and effluent disposal) which are directly
attributable to the type of production process adopted; regard for process flexibility to facilitate
design against fire, explosive and other hazards or plant disposal in case of obsolescence; and
possible better integration of workers into the production process to minimize labour conflicts
Adequate attention is not generally given to the problem of technological change on the proper
functioning of the plants' elements, both individually and collectively.
Technological progress implies change; but change is not a spontaneous phenomenon. It is

cumulative. The design implication is a state of intrinsic adaptability where maximum flexibility
of internai structure, and expandability of constituent elements are both attainable without
jeopardy to the efficient operation of the elements in the organization, individually or
collectively.
How this situation can be satisfied by the physical layout of plant facilities is the
subject matter of this chapter. First the pattern of functional relationships which
normally exists among a plant's physical elements will be examined. Then, an
appropriate architectural arrangement which satisfies operational and circulational
efficiency will be suggested. Emphasis will then be shifted to the production and
services aspects of the physical layout pattern. In essence, the main objective will be
the arrange-ment of industrial physical facilities to promote economie and technical
efficiency as well as to fulfil other considerations
The Main Elements of a Manufacturing Plant
ln effect, the four distinct elements to be found in any manufacturing plant are:
1.Administration - those functions that serve the entire plant, consisting mostly of
"general” office areas and related activities. Depending on the size and complexity of
an organization, the administrative element could be composed of up to about five
sub-elements - executive, general administration and reception, accounting, marketing
and research, and engineering and research functions.
2. Production - those functions that primarily serve the production system or

organization. This consists, essentially of four sub-elements: pre-process (receiving and
storage), actual process (transformation process), post-process (warehousing and
shipping), and ancillary functions (engineering control, supervision, tool crib and tool
room, materials handling equipment room).
The Main Elements of a Manufacturing Plant(contd.)
3.Welfare - those services and facilities that are provided and operated primarily for
serving or handling the needs of employees. This consists of about four sub-elements:
First-aid or medical facilities, recreational and eating facilities, sanitary and other
ancillary facilities.
4.Utilities - those physical services that are primarily concerned with production
needs. This includes mechanical and electrical service equipment, fire protection
systems, ancillary facilities (water tower or reservoir, vehicle storage, maintenance
shops, plant protection systems.)
The content, size and complexity of each of these major elements provided in any
given manufacturing enterprise will naturally depend on the nature, size and
complexity of that enterprise.
1.Administrative element could be composed of up to about five sub-elements -
executive, general administration and reception, accounting, marketing and research,
and engineering and research functions.
B. General Section & Reception
A. Executive Function
a. Personnel
President
General
Vice Presidents
Employment
General Manager
Training
Credit Union
C. Marketing and Research
Safety
Sales
b. General
Advertising
File Room & Records
Marketing
Conference Room
Promotion Research
Reception Room
Purchasing
D. Accounting
General
Cost
Payroll
Credit
E. Engineering & Research
a.Product Engineering c. Production Control
Research Planning
Development Routing
Design Scheduling
Drafting Despatching
Testing & Experimental Traffic
b. Industrial Engineering Plant Layout d. Quality Control
Materials Handling Methods Receiving, In Process
Standards e. Plant Engineering
Packaging General
Process Engineering Maintenance
Tool Design
E. Engineering & Research
a.Product Engineering c. Production Control
Research Planning
Development Routing
Design Scheduling
Drafting Despatching
Testing & Experimental Traffic
b. Industrial Engineering Plant Layout d. Quality Control
Materials Handling Methods Receiving, In Process
Standards e. Plant Engineering
Packaging General
Process Engineering Maintenance
Tool Design
3.Welfare - those services and facilities that are provided and operated primarily for
serving or handling the needs of employees. This consists of about four sub-elements:
First-aid or medical facilities, recreational and eating facilities, sanitary and other
ancillary facilities
A. Health and Medical B. Recreational Facilities C. Sanitary Facilties

Facilities Food Services Showers
Kitchen Locker
Dining Toilets
Vending Machines
Smoking &Games Rooms
Lounge Area D.Ancillary Facility
Outside Recreational Fire Escapes
Drinking Fountains
Time Clock
Bulletin Boards
Telephone Booths
Parking Spaces
4.Utilities - those physical services that are primarily concerned with production
needs. This includes mechanical and electrical service equipment, fire protection
systems, ancillary facilities (water tower or reservoir, vehicle storage, maintenance
shops, plant protection systems.)
A. Mechanical Services B. Electrical Services C. Fire Protection

Heating Facilities Electrical Substation Extinguishers Hoses
Ventilating Equipment Electrical Distribution Equipment
Air-Conditioning Sprinkler Valves
Equipment
Power Generating Equipment
D.Ancillary Facility
Telephone
Maintenance Shops
Equipment Room
Scrap Collection Area
Air Compressors
Vehicle Storage Systems
Plant Protection
Elevators & Stairways
It is the duty of the architect to assist industrial managers to prepare a comprehensive
list of the various items desirable for any particular enterprise under consideration. A
practising industrial architect needs to compile a list, of all the items found desirable in
industrial buildings of all types and categorized for easy reference. After a
comprehensive list has been prepared, the important problem will be the complete
organization of items into an efficient circulation pattern to give a preliminary
understanding of desirable relationship of main elements.
Relationship of Main Elements

Theoretically, the circulation pattern that occurs among the main elements of
Administration (A), Production (P), Welfare (W) and Utilities (U) is a simple one.
Because of the nature of their functions and compositions, a two-way circulation
relationships between A,P, W and U
In many small and simple industrial organizations, a very simple space relationship
evolves from this pattern. But not all industrial plants have such a simple nature.
Consequently, the complex nature of large organizations has brought about analytic
design systems to portray true functlonal relationship pattern. The more common
methods devised by industrial engineers are flow chart, "from-to" chart, and activity
relationship charts. All of these are used for preliminary space relationship
It is the duty of the architect to assist industrial managers to prepare a comprehensive
list of the various items desirable for any particular enterprise under consideration. A
practising industrial architect needs to compile a list, of all the items found desirable in
industrial buildings of all types and categorized for easy reference. After a
comprehensive list has been prepared, the important problem will be the complete
organization of items into an efficient circulation pattern to give a preliminary
understanding of desirable relationship of main elements.
Relationship of Main Elements

Theoretically, the circulation pattern that occurs among the main elements of
Administration (A), Production (P), Welfare (W) and Utilities (U) is a simple one.
Because of the nature of their functions and compositions, a two-way circulation
relationships between A,P, W and U
In many small and simple industrial organizations, a very simple space relationship
evolves from this pattern. But not all industrial plants have such a simple nature.
Consequently, the complex nature of large organizations has brought about analytic
design systems to portray true functlonal relationship pattern. The more common
methods devised by industrial engineers are flow chart, "from-to" chart, and activity
relationship charts. All of these are used for preliminary space relationship
Activity relationship diagram as developed by Richard Muther.
In this, the pattern of activity relationships is portrayed in a graphic form
by the use of connecting lines or bands of varying widths or thicknesses
between different activities
The resultant type of preliminary relationship pattern (figures 29 and 30) are
logical arrangements of activities purely from an initial operational point of view.
These work, and pose no immediate operational problems.
It is when the cumulative effect of change demands flexibility and expansion
that they become complex.
The resultant type of preliminary relationship pattern (figures 29 and 30) are
logical arrangements of activities purely from an initial operational point of view.
These work, and pose no immediate operational problems.
It is when the cumulative effect of change demands flexibility and expansion
that they become complex.
Figures 31 and 32 are diagrams of
existing examples that show the
logical relationship pattern when the
activity relationship diagram or some
other method that adopts the same
approach, is used with little discretion.
In both cases, flexibility of internal
arrangement of the production
element is impossible in the true
sense of the word, because of the
fixed locations of major elements. For,
flexibility does not consist only in large
spaces, but essentially in the
independence of each element to
adjust without obstructing or being
obstructed by other elements, and
without diminishing the efficiency of
the whole complex.
The most obvious aspect of this pattern of arrangement is the decentralization
and articulation of the major activity areas, as opposed to the centra1ization
concept of the previous ones. With decentralization, each area can be reorganized
internally or expanded externally, (usually in more than two directions), without
jeopardizing or impairing the efficiency of the other areas, or of the total complex
as an entity. Because of the inherent qualities possible in the decentralized and
articulated disposition of major activity areas, an assumption shall now be put
forward that where major activity areas such as administration, production,
research and development (where this is relevant), welfare, and utilities all as
already described, are differentiated and articulated in an orderly manner, a
better architectural design solution will result which fosters operational efficiency
in terms of flexibility and expandability. This assumption however needs to be
qualified. It has to be indicated that none of the component elements is of such a
size or complexity that it loses the capacity to respond to change, and thereby
becomes an obstruction to the operational efficiency of the entire plant-complex.
Figures 37 and 38 illustrate two of the possible variations of the application of this
concept to production element. In each example, the production system is
differentiated and fragmented into main component activities. These components
are set free in space in order that they may be able to respond individually or
collectively to technological change. This separation affords the possibility for each
component to expand horizontally or vertically without hindrance to other
components, and also, without detracting from the quality of the visual form
Application to Servicing Function
A further application of this concept can
be made to provide technical flexibility to the
servicing function. Traditionally, mechanical and
electrical power and services for the operation
of the production function are provided on
suspension devices on the plant roof or ceiling.
Common examples are the electrical busbar,
steam pipes, gas cables, and other service
systems. The development of modern machines
and equipment and consequently the great
variety of service lines required for their proper
operation have increased the complexity of the
technical environment in the production
system.
Just as the main component activities are
decentralized , to provide flexibility, the service
f unction too should be separated from other.
Activities and located in separate zones like
basements, basement corridors or floor
channels, with convenient connection outlets.
With this arrangement, maximum adaptability
of the service function is likely to result. Figure
41 illustrates a practical example of this
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS
PHYSICAL WORKING CONDITIONS AND MOTIVATION
The physical environment in which a man works plays a critical part in determining
his work behaviour and his efficiency in the production system. l It may be too
cold or too hot for him to operate his equipment; too dark to see objects and
details clearly; too noisy for vocal communication or to hear signals; or too dull,
dirty and drab to excite his interest, thereby depressing him. The task of the
architect and the human engineering consultant therefore, includes defining and
creating the best possible environment for the industrial worker.
For a long time, the entire scope of worker satisfaction in industrial plants has
been assumed to be adequately satisfied by the provision of appropriate physical
working conditions. It is usually thought that if the atmospheric condition is right,
lighting and ventilation adequate, colour well used, noise adequately muffled or
prevented, and washrooms, lockers, cafeteria, and so forth, are provided,
industrial workers will not have much to grumble about except financial
incentives. Today, the architect and his consultants know a great deal about, and
have adequate
In most industrial working places today, the physical working conditions are good:
desirable temperature, humidity, and ventilation are adequately provided;
lighting and colour are good; noise is being greatly abated; rest periods and
coffee breaks are allowed. Thus the presence of good working conditions in most
plants and offices today is taken for granted and has therefore little, if any
motivating force.
Since our architectural objective is to assist industry to fight some of its problems
and provide suitable conditions for increasing its productivity, it now becomes
absolutely important that we should extend our understanding of human needs
and how they can be satisfied more completely. Let us examine the nature of
human needs.
Human Need-hierachy and Motivation
Although workers themselves may not be aware of different kinds and levels of
needs, their needs may be considered organized in a series of five levels or a hierachy
of importance: physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-fulfilment. Really, these
levels are not separate steps, but are interdependent and overlapping, each higher-
need level emerging before the lower needs have been satisfied completely.
Physiological and safety needs shall be considered under physiological; love as a
social need; and esteem and self-fulfilment as egoistic needs.
Physiological Needs:
These involve basic essentials such as air, food, water, shelter, protection against
danger, injury, threat, and deprivation. These necessities must be at least partially
fulfilled before a person gives much thought to other needs. They are usually met
mainly through money, security on the job, and appropriate physical working
conditions. As these needs are satisfied, a man is inclined to place increasing
emphasis on social and egoistic needs.
No brief for the design of industrial buildings can be regarded as adequate and
comprehensive which does not take a good account of factors like temperature and
humidity, lighting, colour, ventilation, noise, safety measures, washrooms, lockers and
cafeteria.
The attention of plant designers must therefore be extended to other levels of human
motivation - social and egoistic -which, if activated may lead to workers' satisfaction and
better perfor-mance.
SOCIAL NEEDS
When man's physiological needs are satisfied and he is no longer
fearful about his physical welfare, his social needs become important motivators of his
behaviour - needs for belonging, for association, for acceptance by his fellows, for giving and
receiving friendship and love. Social needs of a worker can only be satisfied by contact with
other employees. lndustrial management knows today of the existence of these needs, but it
often assumes quite wrongly that they represent a threat to the organization. Many studies
have demonstrated that the tightly knit, cohesive work group may, under proper conditions, be
far more effective than an equal number of separate individuals in achieving organizational
goals.
Yet management, fearing group hostility to its own objectives, often goes to considerable
lengths to control and direct human efforts in ways that are inimical to the nature
gregariousness of human beings.
When man's physiological needs are
satisfied and he is no longer fearful about his
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS physical welfare, his social needs become
important motivators of his behaviour - needs
for belonging, for association, for acceptance
by his fellows, for giving and receiving
friendship and love. Social needs of a worker
can only be satisfied by contact with other
employees. lndustrial management knows
today of the existence of these needs, but it
often assumes quite wrongly that they
represent a threat to the organization. Many
studies have demonstrated that the tightly
knit, cohesive work group may, under proper
conditions, be far more effective than an equal
number of separate individuals in achieving
organizational goals.
Yet management, fearing group hostility to its
own objectives, often goes to considerable
lengths to control and direct human efforts in
ways that are inimical to the nature
gregariousness of human beings.
When man's social needs are thwarted, he behaves in ways which tend
to defeat organizational objectives. He becomes resistant, antagonistic, uncooperative.
Work is a social experience, and most workers can fulfil their social need through
membership in small work group. An individual employee can belong to several informal
groups task or functional group; friend-ship clique, composed of employees who have a liking
for each other; 5 and interest group of employees who share a cornmon economic goal
and seek to gain some objective relating to the larger organization.
Clustering of workers-on-the-job all have these characteristics. The sum of a group of

individuals is something more than the total of the constituents; it is a new organization,
because most of the members obtain satisfaction in gaining acceptance as a part of the group,
and the group itself wields an influence on its members. The informal working group
is therefore the main source of social control in an industrial organization.
But the effectiveness of a group in playing this social control role depends on its size,
cohesiveness and goals.
Size of the Work Group

It is an ancient sociological generalization that size of immediate work group is negatively
correlated with productivity, or job satisfaction, or regular attendance, or industrial peace -
other factors being equal. This is due in part to the greater likelihood that primary relations
(relations that are intimate, personal, inclusive and experienced as spontaneous) are more
likely to develop in small groups than in large groups. It is due in part also to the fact that the
worker in the smaller group is likely to have more knowledge of the relations between effort
and earnings, and this seems to increase his incentive to work.
Although small work groups may have greater potential for employee performance and
increased productivity, whether or not the potential is realized depends in large measure
on the cohesiveness and the goals of the group.
Cohesiveness of the Work Group
A cohesive work group is one whose members will stick closely to group norms,whatever
they are. A cohesive group is likely to exhibit greater team work, gain greater social
satisfaction from working together, have higher morale, and less absenteeism than agroup
which lacks cohesion.
A cohesive work group has greater potential for motivating employees to better
performance, or to poorer performance depending on the group goals.
Goals of the Work Group
The potential in a small, cohesive work group can be used to support
Managements goals or to sabotage them.
A work group may be cohesive in maintaining low production standards, resistance to
change, and hostility toward supervision and/or other groups; or in denying membership to
new corners, and demanding strict conformity of its membership. On the other hand, a
cohesive work group may have high work standards, accept technological change, be
friendly to other groups, co-operate with supervision, and have minimum unwritten codes
on conformity for membership.
"Where there exist informal organizations or groups with effective control over their
members, if management wishes to change certain behavior, its attack must be made
through the group and not the individual.
To assure a positive benefit to the organization from group cohesivess, therefore, it
appears that management must take necessary steps to provide the basic conditions of
equity and supportiveness. In other words, management should providea favourable
environment for the development of cohesive groups.
Overview of design fields and elements of a
workplace
Corridors, Stairwells, Intermediary Spaces
Corridors or “evacuation routes” are mostly narrow, claustrophobic and dimly lit. They
‘force’ people to rush through them without stopping for a moment. There is no
impetus to pause and spontaneously exchange a thought or an idea with a colleague.
Varying sunlight and ever-changing shadows induce a calming effect on humans.
Moreover, the feeling of being a part of a whole facilitates spontaneous contacts i.e.,
by signaling one another with the wave of a hand or by calling- out.
3 2
1 2
3 3
2 1 4 4
1
spatial linking of work areas location, shape and furnishings for

1.Corridor area common areas
2.stairwells between floors •halllevel
3. stairway halls •gallerylevel •halllevel
4.attractive visual link •servicesector •gallerylevel
•officearea •servicesector
1.variable room shapes •officearea
2.variable/transparent room 1.bright, airy,attractive
boundaries 2.changeableviews
3.building structure favors 3.leisureflair
communication spaces 4.green areas,plants
The standard dimensions need not have to be used for corridors, nor do staircase
landings always have to be the smallest possible space that permits only
maneuvering. “Casual” encounters can be planned by creating larger spaces that
encourage temporary lingering. Depending on needs, coffee corners or copying
stations can be allocated to these spaces. Studies by Ebadi and Utterback [Eba84] and
Bismarck andHeld [Bis98] show that 80 % of all innovative ideas originate through
direct personal contact andthat informal communication promotes collaboration at
the workplace. Architecture which facilitates communication can be highly rewarding.
In office buildings, the relation between the shape of the building and the depth
of the rooms is obviously dependent on the working style.
open offices are aimed at strengthening collaborative work. Unfortunately, open

offices are often not preferred because telephone conversations, discussions and
people moving around generally make it difficult to concentrate on work.
combi-offices-individual offices are established in a large area, partitioned by

transparent and possibly mobile dividers with bigger work areas arranged in front of
them. Employees can then concentrate and work alone or spontaneously work as
part of a group.
Finally, the business club idea is increasingly gaining followers. Similar to the model of
business centers found in airports, train stations and hotels, temporary workplaces
are established in enterprises for individuals or workgroups who wish to withdraw
Location, Shape and Furnishings of Common Areas
It seems logical to place seminar and training rooms at the junction or along the
production areas. Venetian blinds or slatted window coverings make it possible to
change the views inside or outside in a variety of ways. Discussion or meeting areas
can also be located .Musty break-out and/or change-rooms in the basement should
be a thing of the past, replaced by bright, airy, attractive possibilities
. A cafeteria or canteen located on an upper level, such as a roof terrace with leisurely
flair, beckons workers to visit them outside of the main meal times and thus exchange
information with one another.
1 2
location, shape and furnishings for

common areas
•halllevel
•gallerylevel
•servicesector
•officearea
1.bright, airy,attractive
2.changeableviews
3.leisureflair
4.green areas,plants
Lighting
Humans absorb 80–90 % of their information visually. Light influences our levels of
motivation and our sense of well-being. Varying light intensity and atmosphere impacts
how organisms are stimulated.
It is also proven that changes of the sunlight reduce the error rate in production. The
distribution of light in rooms, especially in case of a deep building, can be optimized with
systems that re- direct light. Based on their structural configurations as well as their
significance for the changeability of a factory, we will now turn our attention to a more
detailed discussion of light related design elements i.e., daylight, natural lighting, artificial
lighting, and redirecting light.
When we talk about suitably lighting a workplace we are primarily concerned with
ensuring consistent illumination and luminous efficacy. Illuminating a space evenly
prevents shadows and glare. The consistency of the light distribution measured on the
work level is dependent on the distance from the opening in the roof, whereas the size
and type of windows determines the quality and consistency of the luminous efficacy.
Furthermore, the relation of the available interior daylight level to the external light level
when there is a cloudy sky is determined by means of the daylight factor DF
Lighting
Daylight factor is defined as
DF=interiorillumination(lx)/external illumination (lx) under a cloudy sky condition.
For each of the spaces in the diagram, the sum of daylight openings is assumed to be
1/6th of the floor space. This parameter is referred to as the ‘window factor’ WF and
defined as WF = window area/floorspace.

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INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE

Adaptability and Flexibility

•Primary Industry - the extraction of raw materials,

•Secondary Industry- the manufacture of products

Tertiary Industry - the distribution of materials and products

Economic - (a)to stay in business,

Social - promoting social progress and strengthening the

the provision of adequate physical amenities for the workers.

physiological appropriateness within the plant environment.

the avoidance or abatement of obnoxious infusion into the environment.

PREVALENT TRENDS IN PLANT BUILDING

Principle of mass production technique

Industrial Revolution as, “a widespread replacement of

•The Industrial Revolution began in England about 1760

•Radical changes at every level of civilization throughout the world

•growth of heavy industry brought a flood of new building materials

•architects and engineers devised structures hitherto undreamed

1. Started in Britain and spread throughout the world.

2. The industrial revolution was the transition to new manufacturing

3. Improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam

The steam boat : an important means of transportation which in turn had

Cast iron, an essentially brittle material, is approximately four times as resistant to

Glass can be manufactured in larger sizes and volumes.

Solid structures could be replaced by skeleton structures, making it possible to erect

Buildings could be constructed into any shape and in short time.

Cast iron, an essentially brittle material, is approximately four times as resistant to

Glass can be manufactured in larger sizes and volumes.

Solid structures could be replaced by skeleton structures, making it possible to erect

Buildings could be constructed into any shape and in short time.

Moreover, an industry for fine chemicals, electronics, electrical appliances, or

A tentative suggestion is made that by fragmenting what would have

Important as the issue of flexibility is in thwarting product obsolescence, it does not

The problem of obsolescence is normally prompted by the constant process of

The importance that is attached to a company's ability to quickly and profitably

Apart from the considerations of change and obsolescence, another

The largest fire loss in the history of American industry occurred on

Before an appropriate architectural solution to the problem of fire is considered,

In the siting of industrial buildings in relation to fire protection, three factors :

Access roads for fire-fighting appliances.

Distance between adjacent properties to reduce spread between buildings.

Access from roads and open spaces into the buildings.

Distance between adjacent properties to reduce spread between buildings-.

•To join components into assemblies that possess the required

Manufacturing production process consists of a sequence of operations that transform materials

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

Changing of Changing the Adding

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

Intermittent Process Industry

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

CONTINUOUS COMBINATION REPITITIVE INTERMITTENT

Technological progress implies change; but change is not a spontaneous phenomenon. It is

2. Production - those functions that primarily serve the production system or

A. Health and Medical B. Recreational Facilities C. Sanitary Facilties