Functional Elements of an

Instrument
• Primary Sensing Element – PSE
 Senses the parameter
• Variable Conversion Element – VCE
 Converts the measured parameter into suitable
parameter
• Variable Modification Element – VME
 Modifies the converted parameter into suitable form
• Data Transmission Element – DTE
 Transmits the parameter over a distance

Basic Elements
• Data Presentation Element – DPE
 Presents the parameter in presentable form
• Data Storage / Playback Element – DSE
 Stores the measured values 1
Measured Primary Variable Variable
Medium Sensing Conversio Manipulatio
Element n Element n Element

Measured
Quantity Data
Transmission
All the functions Data Element
necessary for a Storage/
description of any Playbac
k Data
instrument Element Presentation
Element
Functional Elements
of an Instrument

Basic Elements
Observe
r

2
Primary Sensing Element
• First element - receives energy from the measured
medium
 Instrument always loads the system.
• In contact with the medium (Not always)
• Output of PSE is some variable proportional to
measured quantity.
 Voltage/displacement/Temp./pressure etc.(sensors)
 Thermocouple where e.m.f. generated (in milli-volts)
depends on temperature difference
 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical
strain

Basic Elements
 Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
• Ideally PSE gives output in same unit as measured
quantity
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Variable Conversion Element
• Converts output variable of PSE in to more suitable
variable, retaining the information from PSE
• Converts the physical form
 Pressure – Force - Displacement
• Usually converted to electric signal
 Current (AC / DC)
 Voltage (AC / DC)
 Digital Signal
• Common examples

Basic Elements
 Potentiometer – Displacement to voltage
 Whitestone Bridge – Resistance to voltage
• Change in the units of input and output signals
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Variable Modification / Manipulation
Element
• Modifies / Manipulates the Variable without loosing
information
• Includes
 Magnification
 Linearization
 Noise filtration
 Separation of desired signal
• Modifies the signal to the form more suitable for
presentation
• Can also be called as Signal Conditioning
 Analogue to Digital Conversion Suitable for computer

Basic Elements
• Computers are now more common (Microprocessors)
• Input and output units are same.

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Computer Aided Manipulation
• Vastly improved signal conditioning
• Combines presentation elements also
• Simplifying Data
 Linearization
 Scaling
• Improvement of Accuracy
 Calibration
 Using different relations wrt other signals
• Combining different signals
 Using mathematical relation between two signals to give
desired output
 Volume flow rate & density will give mass flow rate
Extracting Data

Basic Elements
•
 Analysis gives data hidden in the signal obtained from
transducer
 Frequency Analysis
 Chromatograph
• Dynamic Measurement 6
Data Transmission Element

• When functional elements of an instrument are actually

Basic Elements
• No change in units or form

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Data Presenting Element
• Measured quantity is communicated to human beings
for monitoring, control or analysis
• Presents data in the form that it can be sensed by
observer.
• Pointer moving on scale, Pen recorder, Optical flat, Bip
or Audio file, Temperature-sens, Vibration,
Alphanumeric Display etc.
• Mostly output is in desired units
 Scale is calibrated to display actual quantity

Basic Elements
 Digital readout to give actual quantity
 Audio, temperature, vibration signals give warnings or
qualitative values
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 Data Storage Element
• Records data - Recorded data can be called back for
comparison / diagnosis / Analysis.
• Charts , Magnetic tapes, electrical signals stored in
digital memory as in computers etc.
• May contain additional information regarding time,
process, details of measured quantity.

Basic Elements
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Important Features
• All elements may be present some may not be.
• Some parts may perform multiple functions.
• These may not be physically separate systems.
• The sequence of elements may also change.
• Some elements may be present at two
locations.
• Breaking in individual element helps in

Basic Elements
 Understanding the working of instrument
 Preparing Mathematical Model
 Isolating the issues for improvement
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 Alternate Scheme

Primary Signal Signal Data

Input Output
True Measured
Value Value

Basic Elements
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 Piston
Fluid Piston Piston Spring
Rod
Pressure (P S (V C (V C
(D T
(input) E) E) E)
E)

Pressure

Force
Force
Motion

Linkage
(V M E)

Motion

Pointer &
Scale
(D P E)

Basic Elements
Observer
Pressure Gage (Readout)
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 Fluid Bulb Bulb Tubing Bourdon
Tempera- (P S (V C (D T Tube
ture E) E) E) (V C E)
(input)

Temperature

Pressure
Motion

Linkage
& Gear
(V M E)
Motion

Pointer &
Scale
(D P E)

Basic Elements
Observer
Pressure Thermometer (Readout)
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 Rotating Cam Cam & Micro-
& CABLE
Shaft Lever switch
Lever DTE
(input) VCE VCE
PSE

Rotation

Pulse
Oscillation
Pulse

Solenoid
& Plunger
(V C E)
Displacement

Mechanical Counter
VCE, VCM &D P E

Basic Elements
Observer
Digital Revolution Counter (Readout)
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