Flow Through Pipes PDF

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FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Definition of flow through pipes
A pipe is a closed conduit carrying a fluid under pressure. Fluid motion in a pipe is
subjected to a certain resistance. Such a resistance is assumed to be due to Friction. In
reality this is mainly due to the viscous property of the fluid.
Reynold’s Number (Re)

It is defined as the ratio of Inertia force of a flowing fluid and the Viscous force.
Re=(Inertia force/Viscous force) =( ρ V D/µ )
Classification of pipe flow:
Based on the values of Reynold’s number (Re), flow is classified as Follows:
Laminar flow or Viscous Flow
In such a flow the viscous forces are more predominent compared to inertia Forces.
Stream lines are practically parallel to each other or flow takes place In the form of
telescopic tubes. This type of flow occurs when Reynold’s number Re< 2000. In laminar
flow velocity increases gradually from zero at the boundary to Maximum at the center.
Laminar flow is regular and smooth and velocity at any point practically remains constant
in magnitude & direction. Therefore, the flow is also known as stream Line flow. There
will be no exchange of fluid particles from one layer to another. Thus there will be no
momentum transmission from one layer to another. Ex: Flow of thick oil in narrow
tubes, flow of Ground Water, Flow of Blood in blood vessels.
Transition flow:
In such a type of flow the stream lines get disturbed a little. This type of flow
occurs when 2000< Re < 4000.
Dye
Water Glass tube
Laminar flow Transition flow Turbulent flow
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Hydraulic Grade Line & Energy Grade Line

A Line joining the peizometric heads at various points in a flow is known as Hydraulic
Grade Line (HGL)
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
It is a line joining the elevation of total energy of a flow measured above a datum, i.e.
EGL Line lies above HGL by an amount V2/2g.
p V2
Z+ + .
γ 2g
Losses in Pipe Flow

Losses in pipe flow can be two types viz:-
a)Major Loss
b)Minor Loss
a)Major Loss: As the name itself indicates, this is the largest of the losses in a pipe. This
loss occurs due to friction only. Hence, it is known as head loss due to friction (hf)
b)Minor Loss: Minor losses in a pipe occurs due to change in magnitude or direction of
flow.
Minor losses are classified as (i) Entry Loss, (ii) Exit loss, (iii) Sudden expansion
loss (iv) Sudden contraction loss (v) Losses due to bends & pipe fittings.
Head Loss due to Friction
Consider the flow through a straight horizontal pipe of diameter D, Length L, between two sections (1) & (2)
as shown. Let P1 & P2 be the pressures at these sections. To is the shear stress acting along the pipe
boundary.

(1) (2)
p1 D p2
Flow (V)
L
(1) (2)
From II Law of Newton

Force = Mass x accn. But acceleration = 0, as there is no change in velocity, however the reason
that pipe diameter is uniform or same throughout.
∴ Σforces = 0
πD 2 πD 2
i.e. + P1 − P2− τ 0 xπDL
4 4
(P1 − P2 ) πD = τ 0πDL
2
4
4τ L
or (P1 − P2 ) = 0 − − − (1)
D
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with the centre line of the pipe as
datum & considering head loss due to friction hf,.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + 2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = Z 2  Pipe is horizontal
V1 = V2 
Pipe diameter is
same throughout
P1 − P2
∴ = h f − − − (2)
γ

Substituting eq (2) in eq.(1)
4τ 0 L h γD
h f xγ = orτ 0 = f − − − (3)
D 4l
From Experiments, Darcy Found that

f
τ0 = ρV 2 − − − (4)
8
f=Darcy’s friction factor (property of the pipe materials Mass density of the liquid.
V = velocity
Equations (3) & (4)
f h γD or 4 LfρV 2
ρV 2 = f hf =
8 4L 8γD
But,
γ
=g
ρ
 fLV 2 
∴ h f =   − − − (5)
 2 gD 
from Continuity equation

4Q
V=
πD 2
 8 fLQ 2 
∴ h f =  2 5  − − − (6)
 gh D 
& (5) & (6) are known as DARCY – WEISBACH Equation
Pipes in Series or Compound Pipe

D1, D2, D3, D4 are diameters.
L1, L2,L3, L4 are lengths of a number of Pipes connected in series
(hf)1, (hf)2, (hf)3 & (hf)4 are the head loss due to friction for each pipe.

Q
D1 D2 D4
L1 D3
L2 L4
The total head loss due to friction hf for the entire pipe system is given by
h f = hf1 + hf 2 + hf3 + hf 4
8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2 8 fL4Q 2

hf = + + +
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25 gπ 2 D35 gπ 2 D45
Pipes in Parallel
L = L1 = L2 = L3
D1 Q1
D2 Q2
Q Q
D3 Q3
D1, D2 and D3 are the pipe diameters. Length of each pipe is same, that is, L1=L2=L3
For pipes in parallel hf1=hf2=hf3 i.e
8 fL1Q1 2 8 fL2Q 2 2 8 fL3Q 3 2

= =
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25 gπ 2 D35
or
Q1 2 Q 2 2 Q 3 2
= = 5 − − − −(1)
D15 D25 D3
From continuity equation Q= Q +Q +Q --------(2)
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Equivalent pipe
Q
D1 D2 D3 == Q D
L1 L3 L= L1+L2+L3
In practice adopting pipes in series may not be feasible due to the fact that they may be of
unistandard size (ie. May not be comemercially available) and they experience other
minor losses. Hence, the entire system will be replaced by a single pipe of uniform
diameter D, but of the same length L=L1+ L2+ L3 such that the head loss due to friction
for both the pipes, viz equivalent pipe & the compound pipe are the same.For a
compound pipe or pipes in series.
h f = hf1 + hf 2 + hf3
8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2

hf = + + − − − (1)
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25 gπ 2 D35
for an equivalent pipe
8 fLQ 2
hf = − − − ( 2)
gπ 2 D15
Equating (1) & (2) and simplifying
L L L L
5
= 15 + 25 + 35
D D1 D2 D3
Or
1
 5
 L 

D=
L L L 
 15 + 25 + 35 
 D1 D2 D3 

Problems
1) Find the diameter of a Galvanized iron pipe required to carry a flow of 40lps of water, if the loss of head
is not to exceed 5m per 1km. Length of pipe, Assume f=0.02.
Solution:-
D=?, Q=40lps = 40x10-3 m3/s
hf=5m, L=1km = 1000m. f=0.02
Darcy’s equation is
 8 fLQ 2 
∴D =  2 
 gπ h f 
1
 8 x0.02 x1000 x(40 x10−3 ) 2  5
∴D =  
 9.81xπ 2 x5 
D − 0.22m = 220mm
2) Two tanks are connected by a 500mm diameter 2500mm long pipe. Find the rate of
flow if the difference in water levels between the tanks is 20m. Take f=0.016. Neglect
minor losses.
Solution:-
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with (2) as datum & considering head
loss due to friction hf only,
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + h f − − − (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = 20m, Z2 = 0 (Datum); V1=V2 = 0 (tanks are very large)

p1=p2=0 (atmospheric pressure)
Therefore From (1)
20+0+0=0+0+0+hfOr, hf = 20m. But
8 fLQ 2
hf =
gπD 5
1
 20 x9.81xπ 2 x0.55  2
Q= 
 8 x0.016 x 2500 
Q = 0.4348m3 / sec = 434.8lps

3) Water is supplied to a town of 0.5million inhabitants from a reservoir 25km away and
the loss of head due to friction in the pipe line is measured as 25m. Calculate the size of
the supply main, if each inhabitant uses 200 litres of water per day and 65% of the daily
supply is pumped in 8 ½ hours. Take f=0.0195.
Solution:-
Number of inhabitants = 5million = 5,00,000
Length of pipe = 25km = 25,000m.
Hf = 25m, D=?
Per capita daily demand = 200litres.
Total daily demand = 5,00,000x200= 100x106 litres.
Daily supply = 65/100 x 100x106 = 65,000m3.
Supply rate
 65,000 
Q=  = 2.1248m / sec
3
 8.5 x60 x60 
 8 fLQ 2 
hf =  2 5 
 gπ D 
1
 8 x0.195 x 25,000 x(2.1248) 2  5
D= 
 9.81xπ 2 x 25 
D = 1.487 m
4) An existing pipe line 800m long consists of four sizes namely, 30cm for 175m, 25cm
dia for the next 200m, 20cm dia for the next 250m and 15cm for the remaining length.
Neglecting minor losses, find the diameter of the uniform pipe of 800m. Length to
replace the compound pipe.
Solution:-
L=800m
L1=175m D1=0.3m
L2=200m D2=0.25m
L3=250m D3=0.20m
L4=175m D4=0.15m
For an equivalent pipe
L  L1 L2 L3 L4 
= + + + 
D 5  D15 D25 D35 D45 

1
 5
 800 
∴D =  
  175 + 200 + 250 + 175  
  0.35 0.255 0.25 0.155  
D = Diameter of equivalent pipe = 0.189m less than or equal to 19cm.
5) Two reservoirs are connected by four pipes laid in parallel, their respective diameters
being d, 1.5d, 2.5d and 3.4d respectively. They are all of same length L & have the same
friction factors f. Find the discharge through the larger pipes, if the smallest one carries
45lps.
Solution:-
D1=d, D2 =1.5d, D3=2.5d, D4=3.4d
L1=L2=L3=L4= L.
f1=f2=f3=f4=f.
Q1=45x10-3m3/sec, Q2=? Q3=? Q4=?
For pipes in parallel hf1=hf2=hf3=hf4 ,i.e.
Q12 Q22 Q32 Q42

= = =
D15 D25 D35 D45
1
 1.5d 5 2
Q2 =  (
 x 45 x10
−3
) 2
 = 0.124m / sec
3
 d  
1
 2.5d 5

( ) 
2
−3 2
Q2 =   x 45 x10 = 0.4446m 3 / sec
 d  
1
 3.4d 5

( ) 
2
−3 2
Q2 =   x 45 x10 = 0.9592m 3 / sec
 d  

6) Two pipe lines of same length but with different diameters 50cm and 75cm are made
to carry the same quantity of flow at the same Reynold’s number. What is the ratio of
head loss due to friction in the two pipes?
Solution:-
D1=0.5m, D2 =0.75m
L1=L2Q1=Q2
(Re)1 = (Re)2,
ρ 2 D2V2
Reynold’s number Re=
µ
ρ1 D1V1 ρ 2 D2V2
∴ =
µ1 µ2
V1 D1 = V2 D2 (Θ ρ1 = ρ 2 ) (µ1 = µ 2 )
0.5V1 = 0.75V2 V1 = 1.5V2
fLV 2
From Darcy’s equation hf =
2 gD
hf1 D2 V12
∴ = x
hf 2 D1 V22
2
0.75  1.5V2 
= x  = 3.375
0.5  V2 
7) A 30cm diameter main is required for a town water supply. As pipes over 27.5cm
diameter are not readily available, it was decided to lay two parallel pipes of same
diameter. Find the diameter of the parallel pipes which will have the combined discharge
equal to the single pipe. Adopt same friction factor for all the pipes.
Solution:-
 Q 
2
 8 fL  
  2   − − − (2)
 8 fLQ 2  hf =  
 gπ D 
2 5
h f =  2 5  − − − (1)
 gπ D   

Equating
 Q 
2
 8 fL   
 8 fLQ 2   2 
 2 5  = 2 5 
 gπ D   gπ D 
 
1 1
∴ =
D1 4 D 5
5
1
or
 0.2755  5
D= 
 4 
D = 0.205m ≥ 0.275m
8) Two reservoirs are connected by two parallel pipes. Their diameter are 300mm &
350mm and lengths are 3.15km and 3.5km respectively of the respective values of
coefficient of friction are 0.0216 and 0.0325. What will be the discharge from the larger
pipe, if the smaller one carries 285lps?
Solution:-
D1=300mm=0.3m, D2=-.350m
L1=3150m L2=3500m
F1=0.0216 f2=0.0325
Q1=0.285m3/sec Q2=?
 8 f1 L1Q12   8 f 2 L2Q2 2 
For parallel pipes hf =  2 5 
= 2 5 
 gπ D1   gπ D2 
1
 f1 L1Q12 D25  2
∴ Q2 =  5 
 f 2 L2 D1 
1
 0.0216 x3150 x0.2852 x0.355  2
∴ Q2 =  
 0.0325 x3500 x0.35 
Q2 = 0.324m 3 / sec

9) Consider two pipes of same lengths and having same roughness coefficient, but with
the diameter of one pipe being twice the other. Determine (I) the ratio of discharges
through these pipes, if the head loss due to friction for both the pipes is the same. (ii) the
ratio of the head loss due to friction, when both the pipes carry the same discharge.
Solution:-
f1=f2 D1=2D2 L1=L2
(i)Given hf1=hf2 Q1/Q2=?
From Darcy’s equation
 8 fLQ 2 
hf =  2 5 
 gπ D 
8 f1 L1Q12 8 f 2 L2Q22
∴ =
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25
5 5
Q1  D1  2  2 D2  2
=   =   = 5.656
Q2  D2   D2 
(ii) Given Q1/Q2, hf1/hf2=?

5 5
hf1 8 f1 L1Q22  D2   D2 
= =  =  = 0.03125
hf 2 gπ 2 D15  D1   2 D2 
10) Two sharp ended pipes are 50mm & 105mm diameters and 200m length are
connected in parallel between two reservoirs which have a water level difference of 15m.
If the coefficient of friction for each pipes of 0.0215. Calculate the rate of flow in each
pipe and also diameter of a single pipe 200m long which would give the same discharge,
if it were substituted for the Original two pipes.
Solution
D1=0.015m, D2=0.105m, L1=L2=200m
H=15m, f1=f2=0.0215,
a) Q1=?, Q2=?
(b) D=?, when Q=Q1+Q2
a) For parallel pipes  8 f1 L1Q12   8 f 2 L2Q2 2 

hf =  2 5 
= 2 5 
 g π D1   g π D2 

1
15 x9.81xh 2 x0.055  2 −3 3
Q1 =   = 3.63 x10 m / sec
 8 x 0 . 0215 x 200 
1
15 x9.81xh 2 x0.1055  2
Q1 =   = 0.023 m / sec
2 3
 8 x0.0215 x 200 
( −3
)
b) Q = Q1 + Q2 = 3.63 x10 + 0.0232 = 0.02684m / sec
2
8 fLQ 2
hf =
gπ 2 D 5
1
 8 x0.0215 x 200 x(0.02684 )2  5
∴D =  
 9.81xπ 2 x15 
∴ D = 0.1112m = 11.12cm
11) Two pipes with diameters 2D and D are first connected in parallel and when a
discharge Q passes the head loss is H1, when the same pipes are Connected in series for
the same discharge the loss of head is H2. Find the relationship between H1 and H2.
Neglect minor losses. Both the pipes are of same length and have the same friction
factors.
Solution
H1 = head loss due to friction = hf = hf2i.e.
 8 fLQ12   8 fLQ2 2 
hf =  2 hf 2 = 2 5
− − − (1)
5
 gπ ( 2 D )   gπ ( D ) 
Q1 + Q2 = Q − − − (2)
1
5.66Q2 + Q2 = Q ∴ Q2 = Q
6.66
2
 1 
8 fL Q 2
∴ H1 =  6.66  = 8 fLx 0.02256Q − − − (3)
gπ 2 D 5 gπ 2 D 5

Case(iii)
 8 fLQ 2  8 fLQ 2
hf =  2 5  +
 gπ D  gπ (2 D)
2 5
8 fLQ 2  1 1 
∴ H2 =  + 
gπ 2 D 5  1 25 
1.0312 x8 xflQ 2
H2 = − − − (4)
gπ 2 D 5
H1 0.02256 x8 xflQ 2 gπ 2 D 5
∴ = x
H2 gπ 2 D 5 1.0312 x8 flQ 2
H1 0.02256
= = 0.021876
H 2 1.0312
Or
H2
= 45.71
H1
12) Two reservoirs are connected by a 3km long 250mm diameter. The difference in
water levels being 10m. Calculate the discharge in lpm, if f=0.03. Also find the
percentage increase in discharge if for the last 600m a second Pipe of the same diameter
is laid parallel to the first.
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with (2) as datum and
considering head loss due to friction hf
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + 1 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
10 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + h f ∴ h f = 10m
8 fLQ 2
hf =
gπ 2 D 5

1
 9.81xπ 2 x(0.25)5 x10  2
∴Q =  
 8 x0.03 x3000 
∴ Q = 0.03624m 3 / sec
Case (ii)
h f = hf1 + hf 2 orhf 3
8 x0.03  2400Q12 600(Q1 / 2 ) 

2
10 =  + 
9.81xπ 2  0.255 0.255 
10 = 6472.66Q12
Q1 = 0.0393m 3 / sec
Change in discharge = ∆Q = (Q1 − Q )

= (0.0393 − 0.03624 )
∆Q = 3.066 x10 −3 m 3 / sec
∆Q
% increase in discharge = x100
Q1
3.066 x10 −3
= x100 = 8.46%
0.03624

MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES

Minor losses in a pipe flow can be either due to change in magnitude or direction of flow.
They can be due to one or more of the following reasons.
i)Entry loss
ii)Exit loss
iii)Sudden expansion loss
iv)Sudden contraction loss
v)Losses due to pipe bends and fittings
vi)Losses due to obstruction in pipe.
Equation for head loss due to sudden enlargement or expansion of a pipe

Consider the sudden expansion of flow between the two section (1) (1)& (2) (2) as
shown.
P1 & P2 are the pressure acting at (1) (1) and (2) (2), while V1 and V2 are the velocities.
From experiments, it is proved that pressure P1 acts on the area (a2 – a1) i.e. at the point
of sudden expansion.
From II Law of Newton Force = Mass x Acceleration.
Consider LHS of eq(1)

∑ forces = + p a 1 1 − p2 a2 + p1 (a2 − a1 ) − − − (i )
or , ∑ forces = a2 ( p1 − p2 ) − − − (ii )
Consider RHS of eq(1)

Mass x acceleration = x vol x change in velocity /time
ρ =volume/time x change in velocity
ρxQx(V1 − V2 ) − − − (iii )
Substitution (ii) & (iii) in eq(i)

a2 ( p1 − p2 ) = pQ(V1 − V2 )
or
( p1 − p2 ) = ρV2 (V1 − V2 )
Both sides by (sp.weight)
 p − p2  V2 (V1 − V2 )
∴  1  = − − − (iv)
 γ  g

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) with the centre line of the pipe as
datum and considering head loss due to sudden expansion hLonly.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = Z 2C  pipeishorizontal
 p − p2  V12 − V22
∴  1  = = hL
 γ  2g
hL =
(
2V2 (V1 − V2 ) + V12 − V22 )
2g
2V1V2 − 2V22 + V12 − V22

hL =
2g
2V22 − 2V1V2 + V12 − V22

hL =
2g
V22 + V12 − 2V1V2

hL =
2g
hL =
(V1 − V2 )
2
2g
In Eq(V) hL is expressed in meters similarly, power (P) lost due to sudden expansion is
P = γQh f − − − (vi)
Equations for other minor losses

V22
Sudden contraction loss hL = 0.5
2g

Loss due to entrance and exit
0.5V 2
hL entry =
2g
V2
hL exit =
2g
Loss due to bends & fittings

K=coefficient
KV 2
hL =
2g
Problems
1) A 25cm diameter, 2km long horizontal pipe is connected to a water tank. The pipe
discharges freely into atmosphere on the downstream side. The head over the centre line
of the pipe is 32.5m, f=0.0185. Considering the discharge through the pipe
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) and (B) with (B) as datum & considering all
losses.
PA VA2 p v2
ZA + + = Z B + B + B + entryloss + frictionloss + exitloss
γ 2g γ 2g
V 2 0.5V 2 fLV 2 V 2
32.5 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + + + +
2g 2g 2 gD 2 g
V2  0.0185 X 2000 
32.5 = 1 + 0.5 + + 1
2g  0.25 
32.5 = 7.67V 2
V = 2.06m / s πD 2 2
πx 0.25 4 x 2.06 = 0.101m 3 / sec
Q=
4
Q = 101lps

2) The discharge through a pipe is 225lps. Find the loss of head when the pipe is
suddenly enlarged from 150mm to 250mm diameter.
Solution :
D1=0.15m, D2 = 0.25m Q=225lps = 225m3/sec
Head loss due to sudden expansion is
hL =
(V − V21 )
2g
 4Q 4Q  1
=  2 − X
2 
 πD1 πD2  2 g
2
16Q 2  1 1 
=  2 − 2 
2 
2 gπ  D1 D2 
2
16 x0.2252  1 1 
= 2 
− 
2 x9.81xπ  0.15 0.252 
2
hL = 3.385m
3) The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 350lps. The diameter of the pipe
is suddenly enlarge from 200mm to 500mm. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is
15N/cm2. Determine (i) loss of head due to sudden enlargement. (ii) pressure intensity in
the larger pipe (iii) power lost due to enlargement.
Solution
Q=350lps=0.35m3/s
D1=0.2m, D2=0.5m, P1=15N/cm2hL=?, p2=?, P=?
From continuity equation
4Q 4 x0.35
V2 = = = 1.78m / s
πD22 πx0.52
hL =
(V1 − V2 ) = (11.14 − 1.78)2 = 4.463mofwater
2g 2 x9.81
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) (1) and (2) (2) with the central line of
the pipe as datum and considering head loss due to sudden expansion hL only.

p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = Z 2 = 0( pipehorizontal )
150 11.14 2 p 1.782

0+ + = 0+ 2 + + 4.463
9.81 19.62 9.81 19.62
p2 = 166.68kN / m 2 = 16.67 N / cm 2
P = γQhL
= 9.81x0.35 x 4.463
P = 15.32kW
4) At a sudden enlargement of an horizontal pipe from 100 to 150mm, diameter, the

hydraulic grade line raises by 8mm. Calculate the discharge through the pipe system.
Solution
hL =
(V1 − V2 )
2
− − − (1)
2g
 p   p 
Given,  Z 2 + 2  −  Z1 + 1  = 8 x10 −3 m − − − (2)
 γ   γ 
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with the central line of the pipe as
datum and neglecting minor losses (hL) due to sudden expansion.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
 p2   p1  V22 − V12 
 Z 2 +  −  Z1 +  + + hL  = 0
 γ   γ  2g 

πx0.12 πx0.152
V1 = xV2
4 4
V1 = 2.25V2
 V 2 − (2.25V2 ) (2.25V2 − V2 ) 
2 2
∴ 8 x10 −3 + 2 + =0
 2 x 9 . 81 2 x 9 . 81 
8 x10 −3 − 0.1274V22 = 0
1
 8 x10 −3  2
V2 =   = 0.25m / s
 0.1274 
Discharge
πD22 πx0.152
Q= V2 = x0.25
4 4
= 4.428 x10 −3 m 3 / s
Q = 4.425lps
5) Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe line which is 125mm diameter for the first 10m
and 200mm in diameter for the remaining 25m. The entrance and exit are sharp and the
change of section is sudden. The water surface in the upper reservoir is 7.5m above that
in the lower reservoir. Determine the rate of flow, assuming f=0.001 for each of the
types.
Solution
πx0.1252 πx0.2 2
V1 = V2
4 4
∴V1 = 2.56V2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) in both the reservoirs with the water in
the lower reservoir as datum and considering all losses

pA VA2 p V2
ZA + + = Z B + B + B + entryloss + frictionloss + sudden exp ansionloss
γ 2g γ 2g
 0.5V12 fL1V12 (V1 − V2 ) 

2
7.5 + 0 + 0} = 0 + 0 + 0 + + + 
 2g 2g 2g 
7.5 + 0 + 0} = 
( )
 0.5 2.5V12 0.01x10 x(2.56V2 )2 (2.56V2 − V )2 V22 
+ + + 
 2 g 2 g 2 g 2g 
V22
7.5 = {3.2768 + 5.243 + 2.434 + 1}
19.62
∴V2 = (21.16 )2 = 4.6m / s

1
πx0.2 2 
Q= x 4.6 = 0.1445m 2 / sec
 4 
FLOW MEASUREMENTS
Flow Through Orifices
An orifice is an opening of any cross section, at the bottom or on the side walls of a
container or vessel, through which the fluid is discharged. If the geometric characteristics
of the orifice plus the properties of the fluid are known, then the orifice can be used to
measure the flow rates.
Classification of orifices
Based on shape circular Based on size Based on shape Based

triangular rectangular Small orifice of the u/s edge on flow
(when the Sharp edge Free
head over the Bell mouth Subme
orifice is more
than five
times its size
I.e. H>5d,
Large orifice

Flow through an orifice

As the fluid passes through the orifice under a head H, the stream lines converge and
therefore the jet contracts. The stream lines which converge are mostly those from near
the walls and they do so because stream lines cannot make right angled bend in motion.
This phenomenon occurs just down stream of the orifice, and such a section where the
area of cross section of the jet is minimum is know as VENA CONTRACTA.
The pressure at Vena Contracta is assumed to be atmospheric and the velocity is assumed
to be the same across the section since the stream lines will be parallel and equally
spaced. Downstream of Vena contracta the jet expands and bends down. Figure shows
the details of free flow through a vertical orifice.
Applying Bernoulli's equation between (B) & (C) with the horizontal through BC as
datum and neglecting losses (hL)
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1
Z1 = Z 2 ; = H, V1 = 0, V2 = V
γ
V2
∴H + 0+ 0 = 0+ 0+ +0
2g
orV = 2 gH − − − (1) Theoretical velocity
Velocity V in Eq(1) is known as TORRICELLI’S VELOCITY.

Hydraulic Coefficients of an orifice
i)Coefficient of discharge (Cd): It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge (Qact) to the
theoretical discharge (Qth)
Q 
∴ Cd =  act 
 Qth 
Value of Cd varies in the range of 0.61 to 0.65

ii) Coefficient of Velocity (Cv): It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity (Vact) to the
theoretical velocity (Vth).

V 
∴ CV =  act 
 Vth 
Value of Cv varies in the range of 0.95 to 0.99
Coefficient of Contraction (Cc): It is defined as the ratio of the area of cross section of
the jet at Vena of cross section of the jet at Vena Contracta (ac) to the area of the orifice
(a).
a 
∴ CC =  c 
a
Value of Cc will be generally more than 0.62.
Relationship between the Hydraulic Coefficients of an orifice

Actual discharge Qact = ac x Vact
Theoretical discharge Qth = a x Vth
Qth a Vth
∴ act = c x act
Q a V
Or
Cd = Cc xCc
Equation for energy loss through an orifice

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the liquid surface (A) and the centre of jet and
Vena Contracta (C) and considering losses (hL).
pA VA2 p V2
ZA + + = Z C + C + C + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p A = pB = 0(atmosphere)

ZA = H,
p A = pB = 0(actualvelocity )
VA = 0,
Va 2
∴H + 0+ 0 = 0+ 0+ + hL
2g
Va 2
hL = ( H − )
2g
ButVa = CV 2 gH
Torricellis equation
hL = ( H − HxCV )
2
hL = H (1 − CV )
2
Equation for Coefficient of Velocity (CV) (Trajectory method)

Consider a point P on the centre line of the jet, such that its horizontal and vertical
coordinates are x and y respectively.
By definition, velocity
x Or x
Va = t=
t Va
Since, the jet falls through a vertical distance y under the action of gravity during this
time (t)
1
Or
gt 2  2y 2
y= t =   − − − (2)
2  g 
Equating equations (1) & (2)

1
x  2y  2
= 
Va  g 
But
Va = CV 2 gH
1
x  2y 2
=  
CV 2 gH  g 
1
x g2
CV = 1 1 1
x 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
2 g H 2 y
x
CV =
2 Hy
Or
 x2 
CV =  
 4 yH 

Problems
1. The head of water over the centre of an orifice 30mm diameter is 1.5m. If the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.613, Calculate the actual discharge.
Solution:
d=30mm = 3x10-3
H=1.5m
Cd=0.613
Qact
Cd = ;
Qth
Qact = Cd xQth = Cd xa 2 gH
(30 x10 −3 )
x(2 x9.81x1.5)2
1
= 0.613 xπx
4
Qact = 2.35 x10 −3 m 3 / s
Qact = 2.35lps
2. Compensation water is to be discharge by two circular orifices under a constant head

of 1.0m, measured from the centre of the orifices. What diameter will be required to give
a discharge of 20x103 m3 per day? Assume Cd for each notch as 0.615.
Solution: d=? H=1m. Qtotal = 20x103 m3/day Cd=0.615.
1 1
Qact = x 20 x103 x
2 24 x60 x60
= 0.1157 m 3 / s
we know
Qact = Cd a 2 gH

πxd 2
0.1157 = 0.615 x x 2 x9.81x1
4
d = 0.2325m = 232.5mm
3. A jet of water issuing from an orifice 25mm diameter under a constant head of 1.5m
falls 0.915m vertically before it strikes the ground at a distance of 2.288m measured
horizontally from the Vena Contracta. The discharge was found to be 102lpm. Determine
the hydraulics coefficients of the orifice and the head due to resistance.
Solution: d=25mm=25x10-3H=1.5m, y=0.915m, x=2.288m
Qact=102lpm = 102/60 = 1.7lps = 1.7x10-3m3/sec, Cd=?, Cc=?, hL=?
x2 2.2882
CV = = = 0.976
4 yH 4 x0.915 x1.5
Qact  1.7 x10 −3 x 4 

Cd = =  = 0.638
( )
Qth πx 25 x10 −3 2 x 2 x9.81x1.5 
Cd  0.638 
Cd = CC xCV ∴ CC = =  = 0.999
Cv  0.976 
(
headlosshL = H 1 − Cv
2
)
= 1.5(1 − 0.976 )
2
hL = 0.0712m = 71.2mm
4. The head of water over a 100mm diameter orifice is 5m. The water coming out of the
orifice is collected in a circular tank 2m diameter. The time taken to collect 45cm of
water is measured as 30secs. Also the coordinates of the jet at a point from Vena Contract
are 100cm horizontal and 5.2cm vertical. Calculate the hydraulic coefficients of the
orifice.
Solution:
D=100mm=0.1m, H=5m
Qact = Area of collecting tankxheight of water collected / time
πx 2 2 0.45
= x = 0.0471m 3 / s
4 30

X=100cm = 1m, y=5.2cm = 0.052m

Cd=?, Cv=?, Cc=?
Qact  0.0471x 4 
Cd = =   = 0.605
Qth  πx0.1 2 x9.81x5 
2
C 0.605
CC = d = = 0.618
C
 x 
V 2 0 . 98  12 
Cv =   = 
  = 0.98

 4 yH   4 x0.052 x5 
5. The coordinates of a point on the jet issuing from a vertical orifice are 0.4m & 0.003m.
Neglecting air resistance, determine the velocity of the jet and the height of water above
the orifice in the tank.
Solution.
X=0.4m, y=0.3m, V=? H=?
Assume
CV = 1
We know
x2
CV =
4 yH
4 yHxG 2 = x 2
x2  0.4 2  H=1.33m
∴H = =  
4 yxG 2  4 x0.03 x12 
V = G 2 gH = 1x 2 x9.81x1.33 = 5.115m / s

6. A vertical orifice is fitted 0.2m above the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth
of 2m. If G=0.98. What is the vertical distance from the orifice of a point on the jet 0.6m
away from the Vena Contracta?
Solution
Head over the orifice H=(2-0.2)=1.8m
CV=0.98, y=?, x=0.6m
x2
CV =
4 yH
0.6 2
or , (0.98) =
2
4 xyx1.8
 0.6 2 

y=  = 0.052m = 52mm
2 
 4 x1 . 8 x 0 . 98 
7. A closed tank contains water to a height of 2m above a sharp edged orifice 1.5cm
diameter, made in the bottom of the tank. If the discharge through the orifice is to be 4lps.
Workout the pressure at which air should be pumped into the tank above water. Take
Cd=0.6.
Solution
Q=4lps = 4x10-3m3/s
D=1.5x10-2m, Cd=0.6
PA=?
γ air = 11.772 N / m 3 = 11.772 x10 −3 kN / m 3
Total head over the orifice

 p 
H =  h + A 
 γ 
Qact = Cd a 2 gH
−3
= 0.6 xπx
(1.5x10 ) −2 2

x 2 x9.81x 2 +
PA 
−3 
4 x10
4  11.772 x10 
PA = 0.83kN / m 2 (Gauge)

8. A closed tank contains 3m depth of water and an air space at 15kpa pressure. A 5cm
diameter orifice at the bottom of the tank discharge water to the tank B containing
pressurized air at 25kpa. If Cd = 0.61 for the orifice. Calculate the discharge of water
from tank A.
Solution
d=5cm = 5x10-2m Cd=0.61.
 p − pB   (15 − 25) 
H = h + A  = 3 + 
 γ   9.81 
H=1.9806m
πx0.052
Qact = Cd a 2 gH = 0.61x x 2 x9.81x1.9806
4
Qact = 7.47 x10 −3 m 3 / s = 7.47lps
9. A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The upper orifice is 4m
below the water surface and the lower one 6m below the water surface. If the value of Cv
for each orifice is 0.98, find the point of intersection of the two jets.
Solution.
x2
CV =
4 yH
Given Cv is same for both the orifices

2
x1 x22
=
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
x12 x2
= ( x1 − x2 )
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
∴ 4 y1 = 6 y2 ory1 = 1.5 y2 − − − (1)

from figure
y1 = y2 + (6 − 4 )
y1 = y2 + 2 − − − (2)
Substituting eq(1) in eq(2) and simplifying
1.5 y2 = y2 + 2
0.5 y2 = 2
∴ y 2 = 4m
Again
x22
CV = gives
4 y2 H 2
x22
0.98 = (points of intersection of the jets from
4 x 4 x6 the Vena contracts)
∴ x2 = 9.6m
10. Two orifices have been provided in the side of the tank, one near the bottom and the
other near the top. Show that the jets from these two orifices will intersect a plane
through the base at the same distance from the tank if the head on the upper orifice is
equal to the height of the lower orifice above the base. Assume Cv to be the same for
both the orifices.
Solution.
To show that x1=x2 when H1=y2from figure y1=[y2+(H2-H1)---(1)
x12 x22 Or
Given, C V 1 = CV2 ∴ =
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
Or
4 y1 H1 = 4 y2 H 2
[ y2 + ( H 2 − H1 ) H1 = y2 H 2 ]

y2 H1 + H1 H 2 − H12 = y2 H 2
H12 − H1 H 2 + y2 ( H 2 − H1 ) = 0
substituting
H1 = y2 ; y22 − H 2 y2 + y2 ( H 2 − y2 ) = 0
∴0 = 0
Problems on Orifices
A 4cm dia orifice in the vertical side of a tank discharges water. The water surface in the
tank is at a constant level of 2m above the centre of the orifice. If the head loss in the
orifice is 0.2m and coefficient of contraction can be assumed to be 0.63. Calculate (I) the
values of coefficient of velocity & coefficient of discharge, (ii) Discharge through the
orifice and (iii) Location of the point of impact of the jet on the horizontal plane located
0.5m below the centre of the orifice.
Solution
V = 2 gH = 2 x9.81x 2
V = 6.264m / s
Head loss
 Va 2 
hL =  H − 
 2 g 
 Va 2 
0.2 =  2 − 
 2 x9.81 
Or
Va = 5.943m / s

Coefficient of Velocity
Va 5.943
Cv = = = 0.943
V 6.246
Coefficient of discharge
Cd = Cv xCC = 0.949 x0.63
Cd = 0.598
(ii) Discharge through the orifice
Qact = Cd a 2 gH
π
= 0.598 x x0.04 2 x 2 x9.81x 2
4
= 4.707 x10 −3 m / s = 4.71lps
(iii) Coefficient of velocity
x2
Cv =
4 yH
4 yHCV = x 2
∴x = 4 x0.5 x 2(0.949) 2
x = 1.898m
An orifice has to be placed in the side of a tank so that the jet will be at a maximum
horizontal distance at the level of its base. If the depth of the liquid int the tank is D, what
is the position of the orifice? Show that the jets from the two orifices in the side of the
tank will intersect at the level of the base if the head on the on the upper orifice is equal
to the height of the orifice above the base.
Solution:

Orifice
h
Jet
D y
----- ------------------
By definition, Velocity V=x/t
∴= Vt
But
V = 2 gH
and
1 2
y= gt
2
2
1  x 
∴(D − H ) = g 
2  2 gH 

x 2 = 4 H (D − H ) Or
x = 4H (D − H )
For x to be maximum
dx
=0
dH

4( D − 2 H ) = 0
∴H = D / 2
We know, x=Vt,
V = 2gH1
1 2
y + H2 = gt
2
2
1  x 
= g 
2  2 gH1 

FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Definition of flow through pipes
A pipe is a closed conduit carrying a fluid under pressure. Fluid motion in a pipe
is subjected to a certain resistance. Such a resistance is assumed to be due to
Friction. In reality this is mainly due to the viscous property of the fluid.
Reynold’s Number (Re)
It is defined as the ratio of Inertia force of a flowing fluid and the Viscous force.
Re=(Inertia force/Viscous force) =( ρ V D/µ )
Classification of pipe flow:
Based on the values of Reynold’s number (Re), flow is classified as
Follows:
Laminar flow or Viscous Flow
In such a flow the viscous forces are more predominent compared to inertia
Forces. Stream lines are practically parallel to each other or flow takes place
In the form of telescopic tubes.
This type of flow occurs when Reynold’s number Re< 2000.
In laminar flow velocity increases gradually from zero at the boundary to
Maximum at the center.
Laminar flow is regular and smooth and velocity at any point practically remains
constant in magnitude & direction. Therefore, the flow is also known as stream
Line flow.
There will be no exchange of fluid particles from one layer to another.
Thus there will be no momentum transmission from one layer to another.
Ex: Flow of thick oil in narrow tubes, flow of Ground Water, Flow of
Blood in blood vessels.
Transition flow:
In such a type of flow the stream lines get disturbed a little.
This type of flow occurs when 2000< Re < 4000.
Turbulent Flow: This is the most common type of flow that occurs in nature( flow in rivers, pipes).
This flow will be random,erratic,unpredictable. Thus motion of fluid particles result in eddy currents
& they mix up. Streamlines are totally disturbed or cross each other.
The velocity changes in direction and magnitude from point to point.
There will be transfer of momentum between the particles as they are continuously colliding with
each other.
There will be considerable loss of energy in this type of flow.
This type of flow cannot be truly mathematically analysed and any analysis is possible by stastical
evaluation.
For this type of flow in a pipe R e > 4000.
(REYNOLD’S EXPERIMENT:Refer Fig.(1)
Hydraulic Grade Line & Energy Grade Line

A Line joining the peizometric heads at various points in a flow is known as Hydraulic
Grade Line (HGL)
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
It is a line joining the elevation of total energy of a flow measured above a datum, i.e.
p V2
Z+ + .
γ 2g
EGL Line lies above HGL by an amount V2/2g.(Refer Fig.(2))
Losses in Pipe Flow

Losses in pipe flow can be two types viz:-
a)Major Loss

b)Minor Loss
a)Major Loss: As the name itself indicates, this is the largest of the losses in a pipe. This loss
occurs due to friction only. Hence, it is known as head loss due to friction (hf)
b)Minor Loss: Minor losses in a pipe occurs due to change in magnitude or direction of flow.
Minor losses are classified as (i) Entry Loss, (ii) Exit loss, (iii) Sudden expansion loss (iv)
Sudden contraction loss (v) Losses due to bends & pipe fittings.
Head Loss due to Friction (DARCY-WEISBACH Equation)

Consider the flow through a straight horizontal pipe of diameter D, Length L, between two sections (1) & (2)
as shown in fig.(3). Let P1 & P2 be the pressures at these sections. τ o is the shear stress acting along the
pipe boundary.
From II Law of Newton
Force = Mass x accn. But acceleration = 0, as there is no change in velocity,
however the reason that pipe diameter is uniform or same throughout.
∴ Σforces = 0
πD 2 πD 2
i.e. + P1 − P2 − τ 0 xπDL
4 4
(P1 − P2 ) πD = τ 0πDL
2
4
4τ L
or (P1 − P2 ) = 0 − − − (1)
D
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with the centre line of the pipe
as datum & considering head loss due to friction hf,.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + 2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = Z 2 Pipe is horizontal
V1 = V2  Pipe diameter is same throughout
P −P
∴ 1 2 = h f − − − (2)
γ
Substituting eq (2) in eq.(1)
4τ L h f γD
h f xγ = 0 orτ 0 = − − − (3)
D 4l
From Experiments, Darcy Found that
f
τ0 = ρV 2 − − − (4)
8
f=Darcy’s friction factor (property of the pipe materials
Mass density of the liquid.
V = velocity
Equations (3) & (4)
f h γD
ρV 2 = f
8 4L
4 LfρV 2
or , h f =
8γD

γ
=g
ρ
But,
 fLV 2 
∴ h f =   − − − (5)
 2 gD 
4Q
from Continuity equation V =
πD 2
 8 fLQ 2 
∴ h f =  2 5  − − − (6)
 gh D 
& (5) & (6) are known as DARCY – WEISBACH Equation
Pipes in Series or Compound Pipe
D1, D2, D3, D4 are diameters.(fig.4)
L1, L2,L3, L4 are lengths of a number of Pipes connected in series
(hf)1, (hf)2, (hf)3 & (hf)4 are the head loss due to friction for each pipe.
The total head loss due to friction hf for the entire pipe system is given by
h f = hf1 + hf 2 + hf 3 + hf 4
8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2 8 fL4Q 2
hf = + + +
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25 gπ 2 D35 gπ 2 D45
Pipes in parallel
D1, D2 and D3 are the pipe diameters.(Fig.5)
Length of each pipe is same, that is, L1=L2=L3
For pipes in parallel hf1=hf2=hf3
i.e
8 fL1Q1 2 8 fL2Q 2 2 8 fL3Q 3 2
= =
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25 gπ 2 D35
or
Q1 2 Q 2 2 Q 3 2
= = 5 − − − −(1)
D15 D25 D3
From continuity equation Q= Q1+Q2+Q3--------(2)

Equivalent pipe
In practice adopting pipes in series may not be feasible due to the fact that
they may be of unistandard size (ie. May not be comemercially available)
and they experience other minor losses. Hence, the entire system will be
replaced by a single pipe of uniform diameter D, but of the same length
L=L1+ L2+ L3 such that the head loss due to friction for both the pipes, viz
equivalent pipe & the compound pipe are the same (Fig.6).
For a compound pipe or pipes in series
h f = hf1 + hf 2 + hf 3
8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2
hf = + + − − − (1)
gπ 2 D15 gπ 2 D25 gπ 2 D35

8 fLQ 2
for an equivalent pipe h f = − − − (2)
gπ 2 D15
L L L L
Equating (1) & (2) and simplifying 5 = 15 + 25 + 35
D D1 D2 D3
1
 5
 L 
or D= 
 L15 + L25 + L35 
 D1 D2 D3 
PROBLEMS
1) Find the diameter of a Galvanized iron pipe required to carry a flow of 40lps of water, if the loss
of head is not to exceed 5m per 1km. Length of pipe, Assume f=0.02.
Solution:-
D=?, Q=40lps = 40x10-3 m3/s
hf=5m, L=1km = 1000m. f=0.02
8 fLQ 2
Darcy’s equation is hf =
gπD 5
 8 fLQ 2 
∴D =  2 
 gπ h f 
1
 8 x0.02 x1000 x(40 x10 )  −3 2 5
∴D =  
 9.81xπ 2 x5 
D = 0.22m = 220mm
2) Two tanks are connected by a 500mm diameter 2500mm long pipe. Find the rate of flow if the
difference in water levels between the tanks is 20m. Take f=0.016. Neglect minor losses.
Solution:-
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with (2) as datum & considering head loss due to
friction hf only, (Fig.7).
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + h f − − − (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = 20m, Z2 = 0 (Datum); V1=V2 = 0 (tanks are very large)
p1=p2=0 (atmospheric pressure)
Therefore From (1)
20+0+0=0+0+0+hfOr, hf = 20m.
8 fLQ 2
But hf =
gπD 5

1
 20 x9.81xπ 2 x0.55  2
Q= 
 8 x0.016 x 2500 
Q = 0.4348m 3 / sec = 434.8lps
3) Water is supplied to a town of 0.5million inhabitants from a reservoir 25km away and the loss
of head due to friction in the pipe line is measured as 25m. Calculate the size of the supply main,
if each inhabitant uses 200 litres of water per day and 65% of the daily supply is pumped in 8 ½
hours. Take f=0.0195.
Solution:-
Number of inhabitants = 5million = 5,00,000
Length of pipe = 25km = 25,000m.
Hf = 25m, D=?
Per capita daily demand = 200litres.
Total daily demand = 5,00,000x200= 100x106 litres.
Daily supply = 65/100 x 100x106 = 65,000m3.
 65,000 
Supply rate Q =   = 2.1248m / sec
3
 8.5 x60 x60 

 8 fLQ 2 
hf =  2 5 
 gπ D 
1
 8 x0.195 x 25,000 x(2.1248) 2  5
D= 
 9.81xπ 2 x 25 
D = 1.487 m
4) An existing pipe line 800m long consists of four sizes namely, 30cm for 175m, 25cm dia for the
next 200m, 20cm dia for the next 250m and 15cm for the remaining length. Neglecting minor
losses, find the diameter of the uniform pipe of 800m. Length to replace the compound pipe.
Solution:-
L=800m
L1=175m D1=0.3m
L2=200m D2=0.25m
L3=250m D3=0.20m
L4=175m D4=0.15m
L  L1 L2 L3 L4 
For an equivalent pipe = + + + 
D 5  D15 D25 D35 D45 
1
  5
 800 
∴D =  
  175 + 200 + 250 + 175  
  0.35 0.255 0.25 0.155  
D = Diameter of equivalent pipe = 0.189m less than or equal to 19cm.

5) Two reservoirs are connected by four pipes laid in parallel, their respective diameters being d,
1.5d, 2.5d and 3.4d respectively. They are all of same length L & have the same friction factors f.
Find the discharge through the larger pipes, if the smallest one carries 45lps.
Solution:-
D1=d, D2 =1.5d, D3=2.5d, D4=3.4d
L1=L2=L3=L4= L.
f1=f2=f3=f4=f.
Q1=45x10-3m3/sec, Q2=? Q3=? Q4=?
For pipes in parallel hf1=hf2=hf3=hf4
i.e.
Q12 Q22 Q32 Q42
= = =
D15 D25 D35 D45
1
 1.5d 5 2
Q2 =  (
 x 45 x10
−3
) 2
 = 0.124m / sec
3
 d  
1
 2.5d 5 2
Q2 =  (
 x 45 x10
−3
) 2
 = 0.4446m / sec
3
 d  
1
 3.4d 5 2
Q3 =  (
 x 45 x10
−3
) 2
 = 0.9592m / sec
3
 d  
6) Two pipe lines of same length but with different diameters 50cm and 75cm are made to carry
the same quantity of flow at the same Reynold’s number. What is the ratio of head loss due to
friction in the two pipes?
Solution:-
D1=0.5m, D2 =0.75m
L1=L2Q1=Q2
hf1
(Re)1 = (Re)2, =?
hf 2
ρ DV
Reynold’s number Re=
µ
ρ1 D1V1 ρ 2 D2V2
∴ =
µ1 µ2
V1 D1 = V2 D2 ( ρ1 = ρ 2 ) (µ1 = µ 2 )
0.5V1 = 0.75V2 V1 = 1.5V2
fLV 2
From Darcy’s equation hf =
2 gD
hf1 D2 V12
∴ = x
hf 2 D1 V22
2
0.75  1.5V2 
= x  = 3.375
0.5  V2 

7) A 30cm diameter main is required for a town water supply. As pipes over 27.5cm diameter are
not readily available, it was decided to lay two parallel pipes of same diameter. Find the diameter
of the parallel pipes which will have the combined discharge equal to the single pipe. Adopt
same friction factor for all the pipes.
Fig.(8)
 Q 
2
 8 fL  
 8 fLQ 2    2   − − − (2)
Solution:- h f =  2 5  − − − (1) hf =  
 gπ D   gπ D 
2 5
 
 Q 
2
 8 fL   
 8 fLQ 2   2 
Equating  2 5  = 2 5 
 gπ D   gπ D 
 
1 1
∴ =
D1 4 D 5
5
1
 0.2755  5
or D= 
 4 
D = 0.205m ≥ 0.275m
8) Two reservoirs are connected by two parallel pipes. Their diameter are 300mm & 350mm and
lengths are 3.15km and 3.5km respectively of the respective values of coefficient of friction are
0.0216 and 0.0325. What will be the discharge from the larger pipe, if the smaller one carries
285lps?
Solution:-
D1=300mm=0.3m, D2=-.350m
L1=3150m L2=3500m
F1=0.0216 f2=0.0325
Q1=0.285m3/sec Q2=?
8 f L Q 2  8 f L Q 2 
For parallel pipes h f =  1 21 15  =  2 22 52 
 gπ D1   gπ D2 
1
 f L Q 2 D5  2
∴ Q2 =  1 1 1 5 2 
 f 2 L2 D1 
1
 0.0216 x3150 x0.2852 x0.355  2
∴ Q2 =  
 0.0325 x3500 x0.35 
Q2 = 0.324m / sec
3
9) Consider two pipes of same lengths and having same roughness coefficient, but with the
diameter of one pipe being twice the other. Determine (I) the ratio of discharges through these

pipes, if the head loss due to friction for both the pipes is the same. (ii) the ratio of the head loss
due to friction, when both the pipes carry the same discharge.
Solution:-
f1=f2 D1=2D2 L1=L2(i)Given hf1=hf2 Q1/Q2=?
 8 fLQ 2 
From Darcy’s equation h f =  2 5
 gπ D 
8 f L Q2 8 f L Q2
∴ 1 21 51 = 2 22 52
gπ D1 gπ D2
5 5
Q1  D1  2  2 D2  2
=   =   = 5.656
Q2  D2   D2 
(ii) Given Q1/Q2, hf1/hf2=?
5 5
hf1 8 f1 L1Q22  D2   D2 
= =  =  = 0.03125
hf 2 gπ 2 D15  D1   2 D2 
10) Two sharp ended pipes are 50mm & 105mm diameters and 200m length
are connected in parallel between two reservoirs which have a water level
difference of 15m. If the coefficient of friction for each pipes of 0.0215.
Calculate the rate of flow in each pipe and also diameter of a single pipe
200m long which would give the same discharge, if it were substituted for the
Original two pipes.
Solution
D1=0.015m, D2=0.105m, L1=L2=200m
H=15m, f1=f2=0.0215, a) Q1=?, Q2=? (b) D=?, when Q=Q1+Q2
a) For parallel pipes
8 f L Q 2  8 f L Q 2 
h f =  1 21 15  =  2 22 52 
 gπ D1   gπ D2 
1
15 x9.81xh 2 x0.055  2 −3 3
Q1 =   = 3.63 x10 m / sec
 8 x0.0215 x 200 
1
15 x9.81xh 2 x0.1055  2
Q2 =   = 0.023 m / sec
2 3
 8 x0.0215 x 200 
b) ( )
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 3.63 x10 −3 + 0.0232 = 0.02684m 2 / sec
1
8 fLQ 2  8 x0.0215 x 200 x(0.02684 )2  5

hf = ∴D =  
gπ 2 D 5  9.81xπ 2 x15 
∴ D = 0.1112m = 11.12cm
11) Two pipes with diameters 2D and D are first connected in parallel and
when a discharge Q passes the head loss is H1, when the same pipes are

Connected in series for the same discharge the loss of head is H2. Find the
relationship between H1 and H2. Neglect minor losses. Both the pipes are of
same length and have the same friction factors.
Solution (Fig.9)
 8 fLQ12   8 fLQ2 2 
H1 = head loss due to friction = hf = hf2 i.e. h f =  5
h =  2 5
− − − (1)
 gπ ( 2 D )   gπ ( D ) 
2 f2
Q1 + Q2 = Q − − − (2)
1
5.66Q2 + Q2 = Q ∴ Q2 = Q
6.66
2
 1 
8 fL Q 2
∴ H1 =  6.66  = 8 fLx 0.02256Q − − − (3)
gπ 2 D 5 gπ 2 D 5
Case(iii) H 2 = hf1 + hf 2
 8 fLQ 2  8 fLQ 2
hf =  2 5  +
 gπ D  gπ (2 D)
2 5
8 fLQ 2  1 1 
∴ H2 =  + 
gπ 2 D 5  1 2 5 
1.0312 x8 xflQ 2
H2 = − − − (4)
gπ 2 D 5
H1 0.02256 x8 xflQ 2 gπ 2 D 5
∴ = x
H2 gπ 2 D 5 1.0312 x8 flQ 2
H1 0.02256
= = 0.021876
H 2 1.0312
H2
or = 45.71
H1
12) Two reservoirs are connected by a 3km long 250mm diameter. The
difference in water levels being 10m. Calculate the discharge in lpm, if f=0.03.
Also find the percentage increase in discharge if for the last 600m a second
Pipe of the same diameter is laid parallel to the first.
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with (2) as datum and
considering head loss due to friction hf (Fig.11)
p1 V12 p V2
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + 1 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
10 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + h f ∴ h f = 10m
1
8 fLQ 2
 9.81xπ 2 x(0.25)5 x10  2
hf = ∴Q =  
gπ 2 D 5  8 x0.03 x3000 

∴ Q = 0.03624m 3 / sec
Case (ii) h f = hf1 + hf 2 orhf 3 h f = hf1 + hf 2 orhf 3 (Fig.12)

8 x0.03  2400Q12 600(Q1 / 2 ) 
2
10 =  + 
9.81xπ 2  0.255 0.255 
10 = 6472.66Q12 Q1 = 0.0393m 3 / sec

Change in discharge = ∆Q = (Q1 − Q )
= (0.0393 − 0.03624 ) ∆Q = 3.066 x10 −3 m 3 / sec
∆Q
% increase in discharge = x100
Q1
3.066 x10 −3
= x100 = 8.46%
0.03624
MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES

Minor losses in a pipe flow can be either due to change in magnitude or direction
of flow. They can be due to one or more of the following reasons.
i)Entry loss
ii)Exit loss
iii)Sudden expansion loss
iv)Sudden contraction loss
v)Losses due to pipe bends and fittings
vi)Losses due to obstruction in pipe.
Equation for head loss due to sudden enlargement or expansion of a pipe

Consider the sudden expansion of flow between the two section (1) (1)& (2) (2)
as shown in Fig.13
P1 & P2 are the pressure acting at (1) (1) and (2) (2), while V1 and V2 are the
velocities.
From experiments, it is proved that pressure P1 acts on the area (a2 – a1) i.e. at
the point of sudden expansion.
From II Law of Newton Force = Mass x Acceleration. ---------------(1)
Consider LHS of eq(1)

∑ forces = + p1a1 − p2 a2 + p1 (a2 − a1 ) − − − (i)
or , ∑ forces = a2 ( p1 − p2 ) − − − (ii )

Consider RHS of eq(1)

Mass x acceleration = ρ x vol x change in velocity /time
ρ =volume/time x change in velocity
Substitution (ii) & (iii)
a2 ( p1 − p2 ) = ρQ(V1 − V2 )
or, ( p1 − p2 ) = ρV2 (V1 − V2 )
Both sides by (sp.weight)
 p − p2  V2 (V1 − V2 )
∴  1  = − − − (iv)
 γ  g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) with the centre line of the pipe
as datum and considering head loss due to sudden expansion hLonly
p V2 p V2
Z1 + 1 + 1 = Z 2 + 2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = Z 2C  pipeishorizontal
 p − p2  V12 − V22
∴  1  = = hL
 γ  2g
2V (V − V ) + (V12 − V22 )
hL = 2 1 2
2g
2V1V2 − 2V22 + V12 − V22
hL =
2g
2V22 − 2V1V2 + V12 − V22
hL =
2g
hL =
V22 + V12 − 2V1V2
OR
(V − V )
hL = 1 2
2
2g 2g
In Eq(V) hL is expressed in meters similarly, power (P) lost due to sudden
expansion is P = γQh f − − − (vi)
Equations for other minor losses (Fig.14 a,b,c)

V22
Sudden contraction loss hL = 0.5
2g
0.5V 2
Loss due to entrance and exit hL entry =
2g
V2
hL exit =
2g
KV 2
Loss due to bends & fittings hL =
2g
K=coefficient

Problems
1) A 25cm diameter, 2km long horizontal pipe is connected to a water tank. The
pipe discharges freely into atmosphere on the downstream side. The head over
the centre line of the pipe is 32.5m, f=0.0185. Considering the discharge through
the pipe
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) and (B) with (B) as datum &
considering all losses.(Fig.15)
P V2 p v2
Z A + A + A = Z B + B + B + entryloss + frictionloss + exitloss
γ 2g γ 2g
V 2 0.5V 2 fLV 2 V 2
32.5 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + + + +
2g 2g 2 gD 2 g
V2  0.0185 X 2000 
32.5 = 1 + 0.5 + + 1
2g  0.25 
32.5 = 7.67V 2
πD 2 2
V = 2.06m / s Q= πx 0.25 4 x 2.06 = 0.101m 3 / sec
4
Q = 101lps
2) The discharge through a pipe is 225lps. Find the loss of head when the pipe is
suddenly enlarged from 150mm to 250mm diameter.
Solution: D1=0.15m, D2 = 0.25m Q=225lps = 225m3/sec
Head loss due to sudden expansion is
2
 4Q 4Q  1 16Q 2  1 1 
2
16 x0.2252  1 1 
=  2 − X
2 
= 
2 
− 
2 
= 2 
− 
 πD1 πD2  2 g 2 gπ  D1 D2 
2
2 x9.81xπ  0.15 0.252 
2
hL = 3.385m
3) The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 350lps. The diameter of
the pipe is suddenly enlarge from 200mm to 500mm. The pressure intensity in
the smaller pipe is 15N/cm2. Determine (i) loss of head due to sudden
enlargement. (ii) pressure intensity in the larger pipe (iii) power lost due to
enlargement.
Solution : (Fig.16)
Q=350lps=0.35m3/s
D1=0.2m, D2=0.5m, P1=15N/cm2hL=?, p2=?, P=?

4Q 4 x0.35
From continuity equation V1 = = = 11.14m / s
πD12 πx0.2 2
4Q 4 x0.35
V2 = = = 1.78m / s
πD22 πx0.52
hL =
(V1 − V2 ) = (11.14 − 1.78)2 = 4.463mofwater
2g 2 x9.81
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) (1) and (2) (2) with the central line of
the pipe as datum and considering head loss due to sudden expansion hL only.
Power lost
p V2 p V2
Z1 + 1 + 1 = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Z1 = Z 2 = 0( pipehorizontal )
150 11.14 2 p 1.782
0+ + = 0+ 2 + + 4.463
9.81 19.62 9.81 19.62
p2 = 166.68kN / m 2 = 16.67 N / cm 2
Power lost P = γQhL = 9.81x0.35 x 4.463
P = 15.32kW
4) At a sudden enlargement of an horizontal pipe from 100 to 150mm, diameter,

the hydraulic grade line raises by 8mm. Calculate the discharge through the pipe
system.
(V − V )2
Solution hL = 1 2 − − − (1) (Fig.17)
2g
 p   p 
Given,  Z 2 + 2  −  Z1 + 1  = 8 x10 −3 m − − − (2)
 γ   γ 
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with the central line of the pipe as
datum and neglecting minor losses (hL) due to sudden expansion.
p V2 p V2
Z1 + 1 + 1 = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
 p2   p1  V22 − V12 
 Z 2 +  −  Z1 +  + + hL  = 0
 γ   γ  2g 
πx0.12 πx0.152
V1 = xV2
4 4
V1 = 2.25V2
 V22 − (2.25V2 ) (2.25V2 − V2 ) 
2 2
−3
∴ 8 x10 + + =0
 2 x9.81 2 x9.81 
8 x10 −3 − 0.1274V22 = 0

1
 8 x10 −3  2
V2 =   = 0.25m / s
 0.1274 
πD 2 πx0.152
Discharge Q = 2 V2 = x0.25
4 4
= 4.428 x10 −3 m 3 / s or Q = 4.425lps
5) Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe line which is 125mm diameter for the
first 10m and 200mm in diameter for the remaining 25m. The entrance and exit
are sharp and the change of section is sudden. The water surface in the upper
reservoir is 7.5m above that in the lower reservoir. Determine the rate of flow,
assuming f=0.001 for each of the types.
Solution
πx0.1252 πx0.2 2
From continuity equation V1 = V2
4 4
∴V1 = 2.56V2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) in both the reservoirs with the
water in the lower reservoir as datum and considering all losses
p A VA2 pB VB2
ZA + + = ZB + + + entryloss + frictionloss + sudden exp ansionloss
γ 2g γ 2g
 0.5V12 fL1V12 (V1 − V2 ) 
2
7.5 + 0 + 0} = 0 + 0 + 0 + + + 
 2g 2g 2g 
7.5 + 0 + 0} = 
( )
 0.5 2.5V12 0.01x10 x(2.56V2 )2 (2.56V2 − V )2 V22 
+ + + 
 2g 2g 2g 2g 
V2
7.5 = 2 {3.2768 + 5.243 + 2.434 + 1}
19.62
∴V2 = (21.16 )2 = 4.6m / s
1
πx0.2 2 
Q= x 4.6 = 0.1445m 2 / sec
 4 
Additional Problems
Flow through Pipes
1) Water flows upwards through a vertical pipeline. A mercury manometer
connected between two points 10m apart shows a reading of 40cm of mercury
when discharge is 450lpm. If the friction factor is 0.02. Determine the size of the
pipe.
2) A town having a population of 1.2lakhs is to be supplied with water from a

reservoir 4km away, and it is stipulated that half the daily supply at the rate of
140lpcd should be delivered in 8 hours. Determine the size of the concrete pipes
to be laid, if the available head is 12m K for concrete pipes = 0.3mm.

3) Two reservoirs are connected by three pipes of same length laid in parallel,
and the diameters are D, 2D & 3D respectively. If the coefficients of friction of all
the three pipes is same, and the discharge in the smallest pipe is 30lps,
determine the flow rates in the other two pipes.
4) Two reservoirs are connected by a long pipes 300mm, diameter carrying

150lps. If another pipe of the same material is to be laid in parallel to carry twice
this discharge, what should be its diameter? Neglect minor losses.
5) Three pipes are connected in parallel between two points and the total
discharge is 3 cumecs. If the pipes are of length 1200m, 1400m & 1600m
diameter 1m, 0.8m & 1.2m respectively, and friction factor is the same for all the
pipes, determine the discharge in each pipe and the pressure difference required
to maintain the flow, assuming f=0.02.
6) A 450mm concrete pipe 1800m long connects two reservoirs whose difference
in water level is 15m. What is the discharge? If another concrete pipe line
300mm diameter is introduced in parallel what would be the percentage increase
in discharge and the discharge in each pipe. If the parallel pipe is introduced.
a)In the first half of the length. b)In the second half of the length
c)In the middle one – third of the length. Assume f=0.03 for all pipes and same
difference in the reservoir levels.
7) A 450mm, concrete pipeline 200m long connects two reservoirs whose

difference in water levels is 15m. What is the discharge?
a)What is the percentage increase in discharge if another pipe line of the same
diameter is introduced is parallel for the second half of the length?
b)If a 30% increase in discharge is desired, what diameter pipe should be
introduced in parallel for the second half of the length? Assume f=0.03 for all the
pipes and the difference in reservoir levels same in the both the cases. Neglect
minor losses.
8) Two pipes of 5cm diameter and 10cm diameter are connected in series. They
have the same length and friction factor. If the head loss in the 10cm pipes is 1m,
what is the head loss in the 5cm pipe? If the discharge through the 10cm pipe is
10lps, what is the discharge through the 5cm pipe?
9) A pipe has D=40cm, L=10m, f=0.02. What is the length of an equivalent pipe
which has D=20cm and f=0.02.
10) An 8cm diameter pipe carrying water has an abrupt expansion 12cm
diameter at a section. If a differential mercury manometer connected to upstream
and downstream sections of the expansion indicate a gauge reading of 2cm.
Estimate the discharge in the pipe.

11) When a sudden contraction form 50cm diameter to 25cm is introduced in a

horizontal pipe line the pressure changes from 105kps to 69kps. Assuming a
coefficient of contraction of 0.65, calculate the flow rate. Following this
contraction if there is a sudden enlargement to 50cm and if the pressure in the
25cm diameter section is 69kps, what is the pressure in the 50cm section?
12) Three pipes A, B & C with details as given in the following are connected in
series. Calculate a) the size of a pipe of length 125m and f=0.020, equivalent to
the pipe line ABC b) the length of an 8cm diameter (f=0.015) pipe equivalent to
the pipe line ABC.
13) A horizontal pipe line carrying water at 0.03 m3/s reduces abruptly from 15cm
to 10cm diameter. Taking contraction coefficient CC=0.60. Determine the
pressure loss across the contraction. How this pressure loss compares with the
loss that would result if the flow direction is reversed?
14) Two pipes of diameter 40cm and 20cm are 300m each in length. When the
pipes are connected in series and the discharge through the pipe line is 0.1m3/s ,
find the loss of head incurred. What would be the loss of head incurred. What
would be the loss of head in the system to pass the same total discharge when
the pipes are connected in parallel, take f=0.03 for each pipe.
(P.S: FOR ANSWERS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS, DOWNLOAD THE

CONTENTS OF SESSION-9, VTU.AC.IN (E-LEARNING).
flow P2
V1 P1
V2
Area = a1
Area = a2
1 2
Fig.13

Fig 14.(a)
V2
V1
Fig 14.(b)
exit
entry
Fig 14. (c)
Fitting collar
Fig 15
entry exit
V Q

Fig 17
1 2
Z1+p1/ Z2+p2/
flow
V1
V2
1 2
Fig 16
1 2
flow
V1 P2
V2
1 2

FLOW MEASUREMENTS
Flow Through Orifices
An orifice is an opening of any cross section, at the bottom or on the side walls of
a container or vessel, through which the fluid is discharged.
If the geometric characteristics of the orifice plus the properties of the fluid are
known, then the orifice can be used to measure the flow rates.
Classification of orifices
Based on shape: circular, triangular, rectangular
Based on size :Small orifice (when the head over the orifice is more than five times its size I.e. H>5d,
Large orifice
Based on shape of the u/s edge :Sharp edge, Bell mouth
Based on flow: Free, Submerged
Flow through an orifice
As the fluid passes through the orifice under a head H, the stream lines converge
and therefore the jet contracts. The stream lines which converge are mostly
those from near the walls and they do so because stream lines cannot make right
angled bend in motion. This phenomenon occurs just down stream of the orifice,
and such a section where the area of cross section of the jet is minimum is know
as VENA CONTRACTA.
The pressure at Vena Contracta is assumed to be atmospheric and the velocity

is assumed to be the same across the section since the stream lines will be
parallel and equally spaced.
Downstream of Vena contracta the jet expands and bends down.
Figure(18) shows the details of free flow through a vertical orifice.
Applying Bernoulli's equation between (B) & (C) with the horizontal through BC
as datum and neglecting losses (hL)
p1 V12 p2 V22
Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p
Z1 = Z 2 ; 1 = H ,
γ
V1 = 0, V2 = V
V2
∴H + 0+ 0 = 0+ 0+ +0
2g
orV = 2 gH − − − (1) Theoretical velocity
Velocity V in Eq(1) is known as TORRICELLI’S VELOCITY.
Hydraulic Coefficients of an orifice

i)Coefficient of discharge (Cd): It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge (Qact)

Q 
to the theoretical discharge (Qth). ∴ Cd =  act  . Value of Cd varies in the range of
 Qth 
0.61 to 0.65
ii) Coefficient of Velocity (Cv): It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity (Vact) to
V 
the theoretical velocity (Vth). ∴ CV =  act  Value of Cv varies in the range of
 Vth 
0.95 to 0.99
Coefficient of Contraction (Cc): It is defined as the ratio of the area of cross
section of the jet at Vena of cross section of the jet at Vena Contracta (ac) to the
area of the orifice (a).
a 
∴ CC =  c 
a
Value of Cc will be generally more than 0.62.
Relationship between the Hydraulic Coefficients of an orifice
Actual discharge Qact = ac x Vact
Theoretical discharge Qth = a x Vth
Q a V
∴ act = c x act
Qth a Vth
or Cd = Cc xCc
Equation for energy loss through an orifice
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the liquid surface (A) and the centre of jet
and Vena Contracta (C) and considering losses (hL).
p V2 p V2
Z A + A + A = Z C + C + C + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Z A = H , p A = pB = 0(atmosphere)
VA = 0, p A = pB = 0(actualvelocity )
Va 2
∴H + 0+ 0 = 0+ 0+ + hL
2g
Va 2
hL = ( H − )
2g
ButVa = CV 2 gH
Torricellis equation
hL = ( H − HxCV )
2
hL = H (1 − CV )
2
Equation for Coefficient of Velocity (CV) (Trajectory method)

Consider a point P on the centre line of the jet, such that its horizontal and
vertical coordinates are x and y respectively.
By definition, velocity
x x
Va = or, t =
t Va
Since, the jet falls through a vertical distance y under the action of gravity during
this time (t)
1
gt 2  2y 2
y= or t =   − − − (2)
2  g 
Equating equations (1) & (2)
1
x  2y 2
=  But , Va = CV 2 gH
Va  g 
1
x  2y 2
=  
CV 2 gH  g 
1
x g2
CV = 1 1 1
x 1 1
2 2 2
2 g H 22 y 2
x
CV =
2 Hy
 x2 
or CV =  
 4 yH 
Problems
1. The head of water over the centre of an orifice 30mm diameter is 1.5m. If the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.613, Calculate the actual discharge.
Solution: d=30mm = 3x10-3 H=1.5m
Cd=0.613
Q
Cd = act ; Qact = Cd xQth = Cd xa 2 gH
Qth
(30 x10 −3 )
x(2 x9.81x1.5)2
1
= 0.613 xπx
4
−3 3
Qact = 2.35 x10 m / s or Qact = 2.35lps
2. Compensation water is to be discharge by two circular orifices under a

constant head of 1.0m, measured from the centre of the orifices. What diameter
will be required to give a discharge of 20x103 m3 per day? Assume Cd for each
notch as 0.615.
Solution: d=? H=1m. Qtotal = 20x103 m3/day Cd=0.615.
1 1
Qact = x 20 x103 x = 0.1157 m 3 / s
2 24 x60 x60
we know Qact = Cd a 2 gH

πxd 2
0.1157 = 0.615 x x 2 x9.81x1
4
d = 0.2325m = 232.5mm
3. A jet of water issuing from an orifice 25mm diameter under a constant head of
1.5m falls 0.915m vertically before it strikes the ground at a distance of 2.288m
measured horizontally from the Vena Contracta. The discharge was found to be
102lpm. Determine the hydraulics coefficients of the orifice and the head due to
resistance.
Solution: d=25mm=25x10-3H=1.5m, y=0.915m, x=2.288m
Qact=102lpm = 102/60 = 1.7lps = 1.7x10-3m3/sec, Cd=?, Cc=?, hL=?
x2 2.2882
CV = = = 0.976
4 yH 4 x0.915 x1.5
Qact  1.7 x10 −3 x 4 
Cd = =  = 0.638
( )
Qth πx 25 x10 −3 2 x 2 x9.81x1.5 
Cd  0.638 
Cd = CC xCV ∴ CC = =  = 0.999
Cv  0.976 
headlosshL = H 1 − Cv ( 2
)
= 1.5(1 − 0.976 ) hL = 0.0712m = 71.2mm
2
4. The head of water over a 100mm diameter orifice is 5m. The water coming out
of the orifice is collected in a circular tank 2m diameter. The time taken to collect
45cm of water is measured as 30secs. Also the coordinates of the jet at a point
from Vena Contract are 100cm horizontal and 5.2cm vertical. Calculate the
hydraulic coefficients of the orifice.
Solution:
D=100mm=0.1m, H=5m
Qact = Area of collecting tankxheight of water collected / time
πx 2 2 0.45
= x = 0.0471m 3 / s
4 30
X=100cm = 1m, y=5.2cm = 0.052m
Cd=?, Cv=?, Cc=?
 x2   12 
Cv =   =   = 0.98
 4 yH   4 x0.052 x5 
Qact  0.0471x 4 
Cd = =   = 0.605
Qth  πx0.1 2 x9.81x5 
2
C 0.605
CC = d = = 0.618
CV 0.98

5. The coordinates of a point on the jet issuing from a vertical orifice are 0.4m &
0.003m. Neglecting air resistance, determine the velocity of the jet and the height
of water above the orifice in the tank.
Solution.
X=0.4m, y=0.3m, V=? H=?
Assume
x2
We know CV =
4 yH
4 yHxG 2 = x 2
x2  0.4 2 
∴H = =  
4 yxG 2  4 x0.03 x12 
H=1.33m
V = G 2 gH = 1x 2 x9.81x1.33 = 5.115m / s
6. A vertical orifice is fitted 0.2m above the bottom of a tank containing water to a
depth of 2m. If G=0.98. What is the vertical distance from the orifice of a point on
the jet 0.6m away from the Vena Contracta?
Solution
CV=0.98, y=?, x=0.6m
x2
CV =
4 yH
0.6 2
or , (0.98) 2 =
4 xyx1.8
 0.6 2 
y =   = 0.052m = 52mm
2 
 4 x1.8 x0.98 
7. A closed tank contains water to a height of 2m above a sharp edged orifice

1.5cm diameter, made in the bottom of the tank. If the discharge through the
orifice is to be 4lps. Workout the pressure at which air should be pumped into the
tank above water. Take Cd=0.6.
Solution: (fig.19)
Q=4lps = 4x10 m3/s -3
D=1.5x10-2m, Cd=0.6
PA=? γ air = 11.772 N / m 3 = 11.772 x10 −3 kN / m 3
 p 
Total head over the orifice H =  h + A 
 γ 
Qact = Cd a 2 gH

−3
= 0.6 xπx
(1.5x10 )
−2 2

x 2 x9.81x 2 +
PA 
−3 
4 x10
4  11.772 x10 
PA = 0.83kN / m (Gauge)
2
8. A closed tank contains 3m depth of water and an air space at 15kpa pressure.
A 5cm diameter orifice at the bottom of the tank discharge water to the tank B
containing pressurized air at 25kpa. If Cd = 0.61 for the orifice. Calculate the
discharge of water from tank A.
Solution: fig(20)
d=5cm = 5x10-2m Cd=0.61.
 p − pB   (15 − 25) 
H = h + A  = 3 + 
 γ   9.81 
H=1.9806m
πx0.052
Qact = Cd a 2 gH = 0.61x x 2 x9.81x1.9806
4
Qact = 7.47 x10 −3 m 3 / s = 7.47lps
9. A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The upper orifice is
4m below the water surface and the lower one 6m below the water surface. If the
value of Cv for each orifice is 0.98, find the point of intersection of the two jets.
Solution.
x2
CV =
4 yH
Given Cv is same for both the orifices
2
x1 x22
=
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
x12 x2
= ( x1 − x2 )
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
∴ 4 y1 = 6 y2 ory1 = 1.5 y2 − − − (1)
y1 = y2 + (6 − 4 )
from figure(21)
y1 = y2 + 2 − − − (2)
1.5 y2 = y2 + 2
Substituting eq(1) in eq(2) and simplifying 0.5 y2 = 2
∴ y 2 = 4m

x22
x22 0.98 =
Again CV = gives 4 x 4 x6
4 y2 H 2
∴ x2 = 9.6m
(points of intersection of the jets from the Vena contracts)
10. Two orifices have been provided in the side of the tank, one near the bottom
and the other near the top. Show that the jets from these two orifices will
intersect a plane through the base at the same distance from the tank if the head
on the upper orifice is equal to the height of the lower orifice above the base.
Assume Cv to be the same for both the orifices.
Solution.
To show that x1=x2 when H1=y2from figure(22)
y1=[y2+(H2-H1)---(1)
x2 x22
Given, C V 1 = CV2 ∴ 1 =
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
or 4 y1 H1 = 4 y2 H 2
[ y2 + ( H 2 − H1 ) H1 = y2 H 2 ]
y2 H1 + H1 H 2 − H12 = y2 H 2
H12 − H1 H 2 + y2 ( H 2 − H1 ) = 0
substituting
H1 = y2 ; y22 − H 2 y2 + y2 ( H 2 − y2 ) = 0
∴0 = 0
11. A 4cm dia orifice in the vertical side of a tank discharges water. The water
surface in the tank is at a constant level of 2m above the centre of the orifice. If
the head loss in the orifice is 0.2m and coefficient of contraction can be assumed
to be 0.63. Calculate (I) the values of coefficient of velocity & coefficient of
discharge, (ii) Discharge through the orifice and (iii) Location of the point of
impact of the jet on the horizontal plane located 0.5m below the centre of the
orifice.
Solution
=V = 2 gH 2 x9.81x 2
V = 6.264m / s Head loss
 Va 2 
=hL  H − 
 2g 
 Va 2 
= 2−
0.2 
 2 x9.81 
Va = 5.943m / s
Coefficient of Velocity

Va 5.943
C=
v = = 0.943
V 6.246
Cd = Cv xCC = 0.949 x0.63 Cd = 0.598
(ii) Discharge through the orifice
Qact = Cd a 2 gH
π
= 0.598 x x0.04=
2
=
x 2 x9.81x 2 4.707 x10−3 m / s 4.71lps
4
(iii) Coefficient of velocity
x2
Cv = or
4 yH
4 yHCV = x 2 ∴ x = 4 x0.5 x 2(0.949) 2 x = 1.898m
12. An orifice has to be placed in the side of a tank so that the jet will be at a
maximum horizontal distance at the level of its base. If the depth of the liquid int
the tank is D, what is the position of the orifice? Show that the jets from the two
orifices in the side of the tank will intersect at the level of the base if the head on
the on the upper orifice is equal to the height of the orifice above the base.
Solution: fig(23)
By definition, Velocity V=x/t
∴= Vt
But
1
V = 2 gH and y = gt 2
2
2
1  x 
∴ ( D − H ) =g   or
2  2 gH 
=x2 4H ( D − H ) or
=x 4H (D − H )
For x to be maximum
dx
=0
dH
4( D − 2 H ) =
0
∴H = D/2
We know, x=Vt, V = 2 gH1
2
1 2 1  x 
y + H2 = gt = g  
2 2  2 gH1 
=x 2 4 H1 ( y + H 2 ) − − − (1)
x 2 4 ( H1 + y ) L / 2 − − − (2)
=
Equating (1) & (2)
4 H1 y + 4 H1 H 2 = 4 H1 H 2 + 4 yH 2
4 H1 y= 4 yH 2 ∴ H1= H 2
13. Two tanks with orifices in the same vertical plane are shown in figure.
What should be the spacing x for the jets to intersect in the plane of the base?
Assume CV=0.98 for each orifices. x=?
Solution: fig(25)
x12 x22
= − − − (1)
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
Assuming the coefficient of velocity CV to be the same for both the orifices, we
have (CV1) = (CV2)
where
y1 =2 − H1 =2 − 0.4 =1.6m
y2 =2 − H 2 =2 − 1.6 =0.4m
=H1 0.4 = m, H 2 1.6m
x12 x22
∴ =
4 x1.6 x0.4 4 x0.4 x1.6
x12
CV1 =
4 y1 H1
x2
∴ 0.98 = 1 = =
x1 1.568 m x2
4 x1.6 x0.4
∴ x = [ x1 + x2 ] = 2 x1.568 = 3.136m
14. A large tank has a circular sharp edged orifice 25mm diameter in the
vertical side. The water level in the tank is 0.6m above the centre of the orifice.
The diameter of the jet at Vena contracta is measured as 20mm. The water of
the jet is collected in a tank 1.2m long x 0.6m wide and the water level rised from
0.15 to 0.75 in 7 minutes. Calculate the orifice coefficients.
Solution: Dia of jet at vena contracta dc=20mm
Dia of orifice = d = 25mm
Head over the orifice H = 0.6m
Depth of water collected in the measuring tank h=(0.75-0.15)=0.6m
Depth of water collected in the measuring tank A = 1.2x0.6 = 0.72m2Time taken
for collecting 0.6m of water t=7min=7x60=420sec
Therefore actual discharge Qact = Area of measuring tank x depth of water
collected / time taken
Ah  0.72 x0.6 
i.e.Q=
act =  
t  420 
= 1.0286 x10−3 m3 / s

( 25x10 )
2
−3
Qth = a 2 gH =πx x 2 x9.81x0.6

4
Qth = 1.684 x10−3 m 2 / s
Q
Cd = act
Qth
 1.0286 x10−3 
= −3 
∴ Cd = 0.61
 1.684 x10 
Coefficient of contraction
Cc = area of jet at vena contracta / area of orifice
2
πd2  d   20 
2
4
CC = x= =  =  0.64
4 π d c  d c   25 
2
Cd 0.61
We know, Cd=CcxCV Therefore, Coefficient of velocity C=
V =
Cc 0.64
∴ CV =
0.953 Coefficient of resistance
 1   1 
CC ==
 2  − 1 Cr = 0.1008
 CV   0.953 
2
15. A jet of water issuing from a vertical orifice in a tank under a constant
head of 4m. If the depth of water in the tank is 12m, at what depth another orifice
to be mounted vertically below the former one, so that both the jets meet at a
common point on the horizontal at the bottom of the tank? Assume Cvto be the
same for both the orifices = 0.98.
Solution: fig(26)
x12 x22
=CV1 = , CV2
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
From figure, (y1-y2)=(H2-H1)
y1 = ( y − H1 ) = (12 − 4 ) = 8m
y2 =( y − H 2 ) =(12 − H 2 ) m
Equating the values of CV
x12 x22
=
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
4 y1 H1 = 4 y2 H 2
 x1 = x2
y1 H1 = y2 H 2
8 x=
4 (12 − H 2 ) H 2

∴ H 22 − 12 H 2 + 32 =
0
+12 ± 122 − 4 x1x32
∴ H2 =
2 x1
= 8mor 4m
H2 = 8m is the correct answer.
Hence, the second orifice should be 4m below the first orifice.
16. Water is to be discharged by two circular orifices under a constant head
of 1m above their centres. What should be the diameter of the orifices to give a
discharge of 20Mlpd? Assume a coefficient of discharge of 0.62.
Solution.
Total discharge=20Mlpd
(million litres per day)
20 x106
= = 231.48lps
24 x60 x60
Therefore Discharge per orifices
231.48
=Q = 115.74lps
2
orQ = 0.11574m 2 / s
But,
Q = Cd a 2 gH
 0.11574 
a= 
 0.62 x 2 x9.81x1 
= 0.04214m 2
1
πd2  4 x0.04214  2
a= ∴ d=  
4  π 
=0.2316m
Therefore, Diameter of each orifice d = 231.6mm
17. What is the discharge through the 60mm diameter orifice shown in figure,
assuming the oil level remains constant
Solution. Fig(27)
 100 
= 2+
Head of the orifice H 
 0.9 x9.81 
∴H = 13.326mofoil Q = Cd a 2 gH
π
= 0.65 x
4
( )
x 60 x10−3 x 2 x9.81x13.326
= 0.02972m3 / s = 29.72lps

18. What is the discharge through a sharp edged slot 0.2 long x 10mm wide
at the bottom of a tank 0.5m diameter with 3m depth of water constant?
Solution.
C=V 0.98,=
y ?,=x 0.6m
x2
CV =
4 yH
 0.62 
(0.98) 2 =  
 4 xyx1.8 
=
∴ y 0.052 = m 52mm
19. A vertical orifice is fitted 0.2m above the bottom of a tank containing
water to a depth of 2m. If CV=0.98. What is the vertical distance from the orifice
of a point on the jet 0.6m away from the Vena contracta?
Solution.
 10 
= 0.61x  0.2 x  x 2 x9.81x3
 100 
= 9.36 x10−3 m 2 / s
∴Q = 9.36lps
20. The coordinates of a point on the jet issuing from a vertical orifice are
0.4m & 0.3m. Neglecting air resistances, determine the velocity of the jet and the
height of water above the orifice in the tank. Assume CV=0.98.
Solution.
X=0.4m, y=0.3m, V=?, H=?
x2 0.42
CV = 0.98 =
4 yH 4 x0.3 xH
∴H =
0.1388m
=V =
2 gH = 1.65m / s
2 x9.81x0.1388
Mouth Pieces
A mouth piece is a short tube or pipe connected in extension with an orifice
Classification of Mouth Pieces

Depending on the position with respect to the tank: External, Internal
Depending on shape :Cylindrical,Convergent, Divergent
Nature of flow: Running Full,Running Free
External Cylindrical Mouthpiece fig(28)

It is a short pipe whose length is two or three times the diameter.
H=Head over the centre of the mouth piece
VO=Velocity of the liquid at Vena Contracta © ©
ac=Area of flow at Vena Contracta

V1=Velocity of liquid at outlet

a1=Area of mouth piece at outlet.
Cc=coefficient of contraction
Applying continuity equation between © © & (1) &(1)
accc=a1v1
a
∴Vc =1 V1
ac
ac
= c=c coefficientofcontraction= 0.62
a1
1
=
∴Vc V1 − − − (1)
0.62
As the jet flows from © © to (1) (1) there will be loss of head due to sudden
enlargement of flow, and this value can be calculated from the relation.
2
 V1 
 − V1 
(VC − V1 )
2
hL =  
0.62
=
2g 2g
0.375 2
=hL V1 − − − (2)
2g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) and (1) (1) with the centre line of the
mouth piece as datum and considering head loss hL due to sudden expansion.
p V2 p V2
Z A + A + A = Z1 + 1 + 1 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pA p1
Z= Z= 0, = H , = 0(atmosphericpressure)
A 1
γ γ
VA = 0( Negligible)
V12 0.375V12
∴0 + H + 0 = 0 + 0 + +
2g 2g
1.375 2
H= V1
2g
or
2 gH
V1 =
1.375
=∴V1 0.853 2 gH − − − (3)
By definition, Coefficient of velocity
CV=Actual velocity/Theoretical velocity
0.853 2 gH
i.e, CV =
2 gH
∴ CV = 0.853
At the exit of the mouth piece CC=1

∴ C=d Cc xC=v = 0.853

1x0.853
Hence, for an external cylindrical mouth piece Cd=(=0.853) is more than that of
an orifice.
Pressure head at Vena contracta
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) & © © with the centre line of the mouth
piece as datum & neglecting losses.
p V2 p V2
Z A + A + A = Z c + c + c + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pA Pc
= H , V= 0, Z= Z= 0, h= 0, = ?
γ A A C L
γ
pc Vc2
∴0 + H + 0 = 0 + 0 + +
γ 2g
2
pc Vc
∴ =H −
γ 2g
But,
V12 V1
= =
H 1.375 , VC
2g 0.62
2 gH
∴
=V1 = 0.853 2 gH
1.375
0.853 2 gH
&VC =
0.62
pC  1 
2
 0.853 2 gH 
= H −   x 
γ  0.62
   2 g 
pC
= H − 1.893H
γ
pC
∴ =
−0.893H
γ
Negative sign indicates that the pressure at the Vena contracta is less than
atmospheric pressure or the pressure is negative
Problems
1. Find the discharge from a 80mm diameter external mouthpiece, fitted to a side
of a large vessel if the head over the mouth piece is 6m.
Solution.
π
( )
2
=
d 80mm ∴=
a x 80 x10−3
4
−3
= 5.026 x10 m Q = Cd a 2 gH
2
For a cylindrical mouth piece Cd=0.853

∴Q = 0.853 x5.026 x10−3 x 2 x9.81x6

= 0.04652m3 / s
Q = 46.52lps
2. An external cylindrical mouthpiece of 100mm diameter is discharging water

under a constant head of 8m. Determine the discharge and absolute pressure
head of water at Vena contracta. Take Cd=0.855 and CC for Vena contracta
=0.62. Take atmospheric pressure head =10.3m of water
Solution.
H=8m, Q=?, Cd=0.855, Cc=0.62
π x0.12
d= 100mm = 0.1m ∴ 7.854 x10−3 m 2
=
4
pa
= 10.3mofwater
γ
=Q C=
d a 2 gH 0.855 x7.854 x10−3 x 2 x9.81x8
= =
Q 0.08413 m3 / sec 84.13lps
We know
pc
=−0.893H ( whenCc =0.62)
γ
pc
=
−0.893 x8 =
−7.144mofwater (Gauge)
γ
p   pc   pc  
∴  c  absolute =  −   gauge 
γ   γ   γ  
= (10.3 − 7.144) = 3.156m( Abs )
3. An external cylindrical mouth piece 60mm diameter fitted in the side of a tank
discharges under a constant head of 3m, for which CV=0.82
Determine i) the discharge in lps
ii) absolute pressure at Vena contracta
iii) Maximum head for steady.
Flow assuming that separation occurs at 2.5m of water absolute. Local
barometer reads 760mm Hg.
Solution.
(i)Discharge(Q)
At the exit of the mouth piece CC=1
∴ C=d Cc xC=v 1x0.82
Q = Cd a 2 gH
 ( ) 
2
 π x 60 x10−3 
= 0.82 x x 2 x9.81x3 
 4 

= 0.0178
= m3 / s 17.8lps
(ii) Absolute Pressure head at Vena contracta

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) & © © with the centre line of the mouth
piece as datum and neglecting losses hL
p V2 p V2
Z A + A + A =Z1 + C + C + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p V2
0 + H + 0} = {0 + c + C + 0
γ 2g
p V2
= C + C − − − (1)
H
γ 2g
From Continuity equation Q=aV
Q
V=
a
 
Q  0.0178 
=
VC =  
CC xa  0.62 x π x 60 x10−3 2 
 4
( 
)
p V2
∴Vc = 10.154m / s ∴ FromEq (1) ∴ c = H − c
γ 2g
 10.1542 
= 3−  =2.255m of water (Gauge)
 2 x9.81 
p  p p 
∴  c  = atim −  c 
γ  γ  γ Gauge
patm
= = 760mmofmercury 10.336= mofwater ( S1 H1 S 2 H 2 )
γ
p 
∴  c  = (10.336 − 2.555 ) = 7.781( Absolute)
 γ  abs
(iii) Hmax for steady flow
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between Vena contracta and exit of the mouth
piece with the centre line of the mouth piece as datum & considering head loss
hL due to sudden expansion of flow.
p V2 p V2
Z C + c + C = Z1 + 1 + 1 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2
=
Assu min =
gCC 0.62, hL 0.375
2g
(V / 0.62 )
2
V 2 0.375V 2
0 − 7.836 + = 0+0+ +
19 − 62 2g 2g

V2
−7.836 =
−1.2265
2g
V 2  7.836 
= =  6.389mofwater
2 g  1.226 
weknowV = CV 2 gH
V2 1
H= x
2 g CV2
1
∴ H max =
6.389 x = 9.5mofwater
0.822
pc pa
Alternatively, = − 0.82 H
γ γ
-7.781=0-0.82xHmax
Hmax=9.49m of water
Submerged Orifice
A fully submerged orifice is one in which the entire outlet side or the downstream
side is completely under the liquid. It is also known as a drowned orifice.
Consider points (1) and (2) situated upstream of orifice and at the Vena contracta
respectively.
H 1 =Height of water above the top of the orifice on the upstream side.
H 2 =Height of water above the bottom level of the orifice.
H=Difference in water level

b=width of orifice
Ca=Coefficient of discharge.
Height of water above the centre of orifice on upstream side
 H 2 − H1   H1 − H 2 
=  H1 + = 
 2   2 
Height of water above the centre of the orifice on the downstream side
 H − H2 
=  1 −H
 2 
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) with the horizontal passing
through (A) & (B) as datum and neglecting losses. (hL)
p1V12 p V2
Z1 + + = {Z 2 + 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1  H1 + H 2  p2  H1 + H 2 
Z= Z= 0, =  ; =  −H
1 2
γ  2  γ  2 
V1 = 0 (negligible)

H1 + H 2 H + H2 V2
∴0 + +0=
0+ 1 −H + 2 +0
2 2 2g
V22
or =H ∴V2 =2 gH
2g
Discharge Qact=Cdxarea of orifice x velocity
∴=Qact Cd xb ( H 2 − H1 ) x 2 gH
Large Rectangular Orifice
An orifice is said to be large when the head acting on it is five times the depth of
the orifice. Unlike in the case of a small orifice, the discharge cannot be
calculated from the equation
for the reason that the velocity is not constant over the entire cross section of the
jet.
Consider an elementary horizontal strip of depth “dh” at a depth h below the free
surface of the liquid as shown.
Area of the strip
Theoretical velocity through the strip = 2gh
Discharge through the elementary strip dQ = bxdhx 2 gh
Therefore through the entire orifice is obtained by integrating the above equation
between the limits H1= and H2.
H2
i.e, Q = ∫C
H1
d xbx 2 ghdh
H2 1
= Cd b 2 g ∫
H1
h 2 dh
2  32 3

= Q Cd b 2 g x  H 2 − H 2 1 
3 
Problems
1. Find the discharge through a fully submerged orifice of width 2m if the
difference of water levels on both the sides of the orifice be 800mm. The height
of water from the top and bottom of the orifice are 2.5m and 3m respectively.
Take Cd=0.6
Solution.
For a submerged orifice.
=Q Cd b ( H 2 − H1 ) x 2 gH
Where, Cd=0.6, b=2m, H2=3m, H1=2.5m, H=800mm = 0.8m
∴ Q 0.6 x 2 x ( 3 − 2.5 ) x 2 x9.81x0.8
= Q = 2.377 m3 / s
2. Find the discharge through a totally drowned orifice 1.5m wide and 1m deep, if
the difference of water levels on both the sides of the orifice is 2.5m, Take
Cd=0.62.

Solution.
b=1.5m, d=1m, H=2.5m, Cd=0.62
Q = Cd a 2 gH
= 0.62 x1.5 x1x 2 x9.81x 2.5
Q = 6.513m3 / s
3. Find the discharge through a rectangular orifice 3m wide and 2m deep fitted to
a water tank. The water level in the tank is 4m above the top edge of the orifice.
Take Cd=0.62.
Solution.
2  32 3

=
For a rectangular orifice Q Cd b 2 g  H 2 − H 1 2 
3  
where
B=3m, Cd=0.62, H2=(4+2)=6m, H1=4m.
2  3 3

Q x0.62 x3 x 2 x9.81x  6 2 − 4 2 
3  
4. A rectangular orifice 1m wide and 1.5m deep is discharging water from a

vessel. The top edge of the orifice is 0.8m below the water surface in the vessel.
Calculate the discharge through the orifice if Cd=0.6. Also calculate the
percentage error if the orifice is treated as small.
Solution.
2  3 3

=
For a rectangular orifice. Q Cd b 2 g  H 2 2 − H 1 2 
3  
2  3 3

x0.6 x1x 2 x9.81x  2.3 2 − 0.8 2 
3  
Ql arg e = 4.912m3 / s
Qsmall = Cd a 2 gH
 1.5 
0.6 x1x1.5 x 2 x9.81x  0.8 + 
 2 
Qsmall = 4.963m3 / sec
Qsmall − Ql arg e
% Error = x100
Ql arg e
 4.963 − 4912 
=  x100
 4.912 
% error=1.04 %

Flow Over Notches & Weirs

A notch is an opening made in the side wall of a tank such that the liquid surface
in the tank is below the upper edge of the opening. Generally notches are made
of metallic plates and their use is limited to laboratory channels.
A weir is a masonry/concrete structures built across an open channel so as to
rise the water level on the upstream jside and to allow the excess water to flow
over the entire length onto the downstream side.
Classification
a) Depending on shape:
i) Rectangular
ii) Triangular
iii) Trapezoidal
b) Depending on the shape of the crest
i) Sharp crested
ii) Broad crested.
c) Depending on flow
i) Free
ii) Submerged
d) Depending on Ventilation
i) Fully aerated
ii) Depressed
iii) Clinging or Drowned.
Definition sketch of a Notch.(fig.31)
a)Flow over a Triangular Notch.

Figure(32) shows the details of flow over a V – notch.
2θ=Central angle
H=Head over the notch
Consider an elemental strip of thickness “dh” at a depth “h” below the free
surface as shown. Discharge through the strip dq=area x velocity
dq = 2 xdhx 2 gh
Discharge over the entire notch
Q H
∫ dq = ∫ 2 xdhx
0 0
2 gh
H 1
Q = 2 2 g ∫ xh 2 dh
0

In the above equation x can be eliminated.Interms of θ & H. In otherwords

x
tan θ = or
( H − h)
= x ( H − h) tan θ
H 1
=∴Q ( 2) 2 g ∫ ( H − h ) tan θ h 2 dh
0
 1 3H

= 2 2 g tan θ ∫  Hh 2 − h 2 dh
0 
2 3
2 52 
H
integrating Q 2 2 g tan θ  Hh − h  ∫
= 2
3 5 0
2 2
5
= 2 2 g tan θ H 2  − 
3 5
= 4 2 g tan θ
( 5 − 3) H 52
15
5
8
= Q 2 g H 2 tan θ − − − (1)
15
5
8
∴ Qact =Cd 2 g H 2 tan θ
15
Cd =Coefficient of discharge
In deriving Eq(1), velocity of approach Va is neglected. If the head due to this
velocity of approach is considered,
8  5 5

=then, Qact Cd 2 g ( H + ha ) − ha 2  tan θ − − − (3)
2
15  
Problems
1. A triangular notch discharges 0.0110m3/s under a head of 0.2m. Find the
angle of the notch, if Cd=0.626.
= =
Q 0.0113 m3 / s, H 0.2m
Solution.
Cd = 0.626
5
8
Q = Cd 2 g H 2 tan θ
15
 
15 0.0110 
tan θ =  x 5 
 8 0.626 x 2 x9.81x ( 0.2 ) 2 
 
θ = 22.6 0
= 2=
Therefore angle of the notch θ 45.20
2. A right angled triangular notch discharges 0.143m3/s. Find the head over the
notch if Cd=0.6.

2θ 90
= = 0
,θ 450
= =
Solution. Q 0.143 m3 / s, H ?
Cd = 0.6
5
8
Q= Cd 2 g H 2 tan θ
15
15 0.143 
H = x 0
 8 0.6 x 19.62 x tan 45 
∴= = 399.5mm
H 0.3995
3. 150lpm of water is expected to flow down an irrigation furrow. Design the

weir, if a minimum head of 100mm is desired. Assume Cd=0.61.
150
Solution:= = = 2.5=
Q 150lpm lps 2.5 x10−3 m3 / s
60
=H 100 = mm 0.1=m, Cd 0.61
5
8
15
 
15 2.5 x10−3 
tan θ =  x 5 
 8 0.61x 19.62 x ( 0.1) 2 
 
= 0.5486 ∴ =θ 28.75 0
∴ 2θ = centralangle= 57.5 ≈ 600

Hence, it is suggested to use a 600 V – notch.
4. Calculate the top width and depth of a triangular notch capable of discharging
700lps. The weir discharges 5.7 lps when the head over the crest is 7.5cm. Take
Cd=0.62.
=
Solution. Q 700= lps 0.7 m3=
/ s, H ?
−3 3
=Q1 5.7 x10 = =
m / s, H1 0.075 m, Cd 0.62
5
8
Q= Cd 2 g H 2 tan θ
15
5 5
Q 8 15
∴ =Cd 2 g H 2 tan θ x Cd 2 g H 2 tan θ
Q1 15 8
5
Q  H 2
= 
Q1  0.075 
5
0.7  H 2
−3
=  ∴H =
0.514m
5.7 x10  0.075 
Also,

5
8
15
or
 
15 0.7 
tan θ =  x 1 5 
 8 0.62 x ( 2 x9.81) 2 x ( 0.514 ) 2 
 
= 2.523
=∴θ 68.38
= 0
or 2θ 136.760
= 2 x0.514 x tan 68.380

Top width of the notch =
= 2.594metres
Flow over a Rectangular Notch

Figure(33) shows the details of the flow over a rectangular notch.
L=length of the notch
H=head over the notch
Consider a small strip of thickness dh at a depth h below the liquid surface
Discharge through the strip dq=areaxvelocity
dq = Lxdhx 2 gh
Q H 1
Total discharge ∫ dq = L 2 g ∫ h dh 2
0 0
3H
2
Q = L 2g
3
h 2
∫
0
3
2
∴ Q =L 2 g H 2
3
3
2
=Qact Cd 2 g LH 2 − − − (1)
3
Cd=Coefficient of discharge, its average value is about 0.62.
End Contraction
When the length of the weir(L) is less than the width of the channel (B), the
nappe contracts at the sides, and this is knows as end contractions.(fig34)
According to Francis, the effective length of flow over the notch is given by
Substituting this value in EQ(1) and simplifying
2 3
=Q Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) H − − − (2)
3 2
A notch without end contraction is known as a suppressed notch.
Velocity of approach (Va)

The total head over the weir will be the sum of static head (H) and velocity head
V2
(ha), velocity head ha = a is due to the velocity of the liquid approaching the
2a
notch.
On similar lines, considering a strip of uniform thickness dh at a depth h below
the liquid surface.
Discharge through the strip dq=area x = velocity. dQ Lxdhx 2 g ( H + ha )
Therefore Total discharge is given by
1
Q H 2
=∫ dq L 2 g ∫ ( H + ha ) dh
0 0
2 3 3

= L 2g ( H + ha ) 2 − ha 2

3 
2  3 3

=Q Cd 2 g L ( H + ha ) − ha 2 
2
3  
Empirical Formula
 3 3

(i)Francis Formula Q= 1.84 ( L − 0.1nH ) ( H + ha ) − ha 2 
2
 
 0.003  3
=
(ii)(ii)(ii)Bazin’s formula Q  0.405 +  L 2g H
2
 H 
 0.053 ( H + 0.011)  3
(iii)(iii)(iii)Rehbock formula Q =  0.403 +  L 2 g ( H + 0.0011) 2
 Z 
Considering velocity of approach and End contraction, we have
2  3 3

=Q Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) ( H + ha ) 2 − ha 2 
3  
Considering velocity of approach and End contraction, we have
2  3 3

=Q Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) ( H + ha ) − ha 
2 2
3  
5.Find the discharge over a rectangular notch of crest length 400mm. When the
head of water over the crest is 50mm. Take Cd=0.6.
3
2
Solution. Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
3
2
= x0.6 x 2 x9.81x0.4 x ( 0.05 ) 2
3
= =
Q 7.92 x10−3 m3 / s 7.92lps

6. A rectangular weir 9m long is divided into 3 bays by two vertical post each
300mm wide. If the head of water over the weir is 500mm, Calculate the
discharge, given Cd=0.62.
3
2
=
Solution. Q Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) H 2
3
n=number of end contractions=6.
L=clear length of weir=9-3x0.3=8.1
3
2
=∴Q x0.62 x 2 x9.81 ( 8.1 − 0.1x6 x0.5 ) x0.5 2
3
Q = 5.05m3 / s
7. The discharge over a rectangular weir is 0.4m3/s when the head of water is
0.20m. What would be the discharge if the head is increase to 0.3m?
Solution.
Q1=0.4m3/s H1=0.20m
Q2=? H2=0.3m
3
Q2  H 2  2
= 
Q1  H1 
3
 0.3  2
= =
or , Q2 0.4 x  0.735m3 / s
 0.20 
8. A rectangular channel 6m wide carries a flow of 1.5m3/s. A rectangular

sharp crested weir is to be installed near the end of the channel to create a depth
of 1m upstream of the weir. Calculate the necessary height . Assume Cd=0.62.
Solution: fig(35)
L=6m, Q=1.5m /s, Cd=0.62.
3
Y=(Z+H)=1m
Velocity of approach
Va= Discharge/area of flow in the channel
1.5
∴Va = = 0.25m / s
1x6
V2
Head due to velocity of approach a = ha
2g
0.252
∴=
ha = 3.185 x10−3 m
2 x9.81
But,
2  3 3

=Q Cd 2 g L ( H + ha ) 2 − (ha ) 2 
3  

12
∴=
ha = 0.05097 m
2 x9.81
 3
−3 2 
3
x0.62 x 2 x9.81x6 x ( H + 3.185 x10 ) − ( 3.185 x10 ) 
2 −3 2
= 1.5
3  
2  3 3

=Q Cd 2 g L ( H + ha ) − (ha ) 2 
2
3  
∴H = 0.266m , And height of the weir
x0.6 x 2 x9.81xLx (1.2 + 0.05097 )2 − (0.05097 )2 

2 3 3
2.645 =
3  
= (1 − 0.266 )
Z = 0.734m
9. A rectangular sharp crested weir is required to discharge 2.645m3/s of wate

under a head of 1.2m. If the coefficient of discharge is 0.6 and the velocity of
approach near the weir is 1m/s. Find the length of the weir.
Solution.
Q=2.645m3/s H=1.2m
Cd=0.6 Va=1m/s L=?
V2
Head due to velocity of approach ha = a
2g
And height of the weir Z= ( y − H )
= (1 − 0.266 )
Z = 0.734m
10. A rectangular sharp crested weir is required to discharge 2.645m3/s of water

approach near the weir is 1m/s. Find the length of the weir.
Solution.
Q=2.645m3/s H=1.2m
Cd=0.6 Va=1m/s L=?
V2
Head due to velocity of approach ha = a
2g
12
∴=
ha = 0.05097 m
2 x9.81

2  3 3

=Q Cd 2 g L ( H + ha ) 2 − (ha ) 2 
3  
2  3 3

=2.645 x0.6 x 2 x9.81xLx (1.2 + 0.05097 ) 2 − ( 0.05097 ) 2 
3  
=
∴ L 1.076
= m 107.6cm
11. Water passing over a rectangular notch flow subsequently over a right
angled triangular notch. The length of the rectangular notch is 600mm and
Cd=0.62. if the Cd value for the V-notch is 0.60, what will be its washing head,
when the head on the rectangular notch is 20cm.
Solution.
Rectangular Notch.
L=600mm=0.6m
Cd=0.62, H=0.2m
3
2
Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
3
2
= x0.62 x 2 x9.81x0.6 x ( 0.2 ) 2 Q = 0.09825m3 / s
3
2θ 90=
= 0
,θ 450=, H ?,=Cd 0.6
Since the same discharge of 0.09825m3/s is passing over the V-
notch, we have
5
8
15
5
8
0.09825 = x0.6 x 2 x9.81x ( H ) 2 tan θ
15
5
H = 0.0693.
2
∴H = 0.3438m
Types of Nappe

The equations derived for the discharge over notches were under the assumption
that pressure under the nappe is atmosphere. However, when the liquid if flowing
over the notch (suppressed), it touches the walls of the channel and the air gets
dissolved or entrained in water, continuation of this process results in a negative
pressure i.e. partial vaccum under the nappe. Finally the nappe gets deflected
closer to the weir wall.
The pressure on the inner side of the the nappe decides its type in the following
ways.
a)Free Nappe
In this type, the stream of water passing over the weir the springs clear of the
weir. (fig.36a)
b) Depressed NappeIn this type, a partial vaccum is created between the nappe
and the weir. Discharge for such a flow situation is 8 to 10% greater than that
with a free nappe.(fig.36b)
c) Clinging NappeIn this type the nappe totally adheres to the face of the weir.
The discharge in this case would be 20 to 30% more than that in a fully aerated
nappe).(fig36c)
Ventilation of Weirs
The nappe emerging from a weir should be of a correct form, so that the
discharge equations derived for them are valid.
For accurate gauging of flow the nappe should spring clear or it should be free. In
other words the space between the weir and nappe should be maintained under
atmospheric conditions, particularly when the weir is suppressed.
In practice ventilation holes are made on the weir walls so that air circulates
freely between the weir and the nappe.
This is known as ventilation or ventilation of weirs.(fig36d).
Submerged Weir
A weir is said to be submerged when water level on both the upstream and
downstream sides are above the crest level of the weir as shown in figure (37).
H1 and H2 are the heads over the weir on the upstream and downstream sides.
In the case of submerged weir, it is necessary to derive the discharge equation
considering that the flow over the weir is a combination of a free weir and a
submerged orifice.
In other words, the flow Q1 between H1 and H2 is considered as a free weir and
Q2 between H2 and the weir crest as a submerged orifice.
3
2
For a free weir Q1 = Cd1 L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ) 2 − − − (1)
3
For a submerged orifice. Q1 = Cd 2 LH 2 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ) − − − (2)
∴ Q = Q1 + Q2 − − − (3)
Cd1=0.58 and Cd2 = 0.80 are usually considered for the weir and the orifice.
As in the earlier cases the head due to velocity of approach ha=Va2/2g can also
be considered.

3 3
2
In such a case Q1 = Cd1 L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 + ha ) 2 − ha 2 − − − (4)
3
Q1 = Cd 2 LH 2 2 g ( H1 − H 2 + ha ) − − − (5)
In all the above equation L=length of the notch or weir.
Problems
1) A submerged weir 1m high spans the entire width of a rectangular channel 7m
wide. Estimate the discharge when the depth of water is 1.8m on the upstream
side and 1.25m on the downstream side of the weir. Assume Cd=0.62 for the
weir.
Solution (fig.38).
Qsubmerged weir= Qweir+Qsubmerged orifice
= Cd1 L 2 g x(H1 − H 2 ) + Cd LH 2 2 g (H1 − H 2 )
2 3
3 2
= x0.62 x7 x 19.62 x(0.8 x0.25) + 0.62 x7 x0.25 x 19.62 x(0.8 − 0.25)
2 3
3 2
Q = 6.25m / s
3
2) The upstream and downstream water surfaces are 150mm and 75m above the
crest of a drowned weir. If the length of the weir is 2.5m, find the discharge, the
coefficients of discharge for the free and drowned portions may be taken as 0.58
and 0.8 respectively. Allow for velocity of approach.
Solution.
H1=1500mm=15m, H2=75mm=0.075m
L=2.5m, Cd1=0.58, Cd2=0.8
2 
Q =  xCd1 xLx 2 g (H1 − H 2 )2 + Cd 2 LH 2 2 g (H1 − H 2 ) 
3
3 
2 
 x0.58 x 2.5 19.62 (0.15 − 0.075)2 + 0.8 x 2.5 x0.075 19.62 x(0.15 − 0.075) 
3
3 
Q = 0.2698m / s3
Velocity of approach
Q
Va =
areaofflowu / softheweir
 0.2698 
=  = 0.719m / s
 2.5 x0.15 
V 2 0.719 2
ha = a = 0.00264m
2 g 2 x9.81
2 
 x0.58 x 2.5 19.62 (0.15 − 0.075 + 0.0264 )2
3

Q = 3 
+ 0.8 x 2.5 x0.075 19.62 x(0.15 − 0.075) + 0.0264 
 
Q = 0.271m 3 / s

OGEE WEIR
When the weir is suppressed and its height is large, the nappe emerging out may
be subjected to the problems of ventilation. Hence, in such cases the weir profile
downstream is constructed conforming to the shape of the lower side of the
nappe. Such a weir is known as a spillway or ogee weir.
The cross section of an ogee weir will be shown(39). The coordinates of the
spillway profile can be worked out for the head H using the equation.
x1.85 = 2 H 0.85 y
The u/s face of the spillway is generally kept vertical.
3
2
The discharge equation for an ogee weir will be Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
Same as that for a suppressed rectangular notch.
Problem
1. Calculate the discharge over an ogee weir of 8.5m length, when the head
over the crest is 2.15m and Cd=0.61.
Solution.
L=8.5m, H=2.15m, Cd0.61
3
2
Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
3
2
= x0.61x 2 x9.81x8.5 x(2.15) 2 Q = 48.27 m 3 / s
3
Broad Crested Weir

A weir is said to broad crested when its width (parallel to flow) b is greater than
0.5xmaximum head acting on it (fig.40).
i.e, b > 0.5 xH
Let L=length of the weir
H=Head of water u/s of the weir w.r.t. the crest
h=Depth of water over the weir crest
V=Vel. Of flow over the weir
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) with the crest of the weir as
datum & neglecting losses (hL)
p V2 p V2
Z1 + 1 + 1 } = {Z 2 + 2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
V2
0+ H +0 = 0+h+
2g
∴V = 2 g ( H − h) − − − (1)
Discharge over the weir Q=area of flow over the weir x vel. of flow over the weir.
i.e. Q = (hxL) x 2 g ( H − h)
Actual discharge Qact = Cd Lh 2 g (H − h ) − − − (2)
From Equation (2), we see that Qact is a function of h for a given value of H.

∂Q
∴ Q is maximum when =0
dh
∂  
( )
1
∴  h H − h 2=0
∂h  
 ∂ 1 ∂h

hx (H − h )2 + (H − h )2  = 0
1
 dh ∂h 
 1 x1 
hx (H − R )2 (− 1) + (H − h )2  = 0
1 1
−1
 2 
 1
 h 
− 1
+ ( H − h) 2  = 0
 2( H − h) 2 
 
h = 2(H − h )∴ 3h = 2 H
2
orh = ( H ) − conditionforQmax
3
Substituting the value of h in eq(2) and simplifying.
2 
(Qact )max = Cd L 2 H  x 
2g H − H 
3   3 
2 H
= Cd LHx 2 g
3 3
3
(Qact )max = 2
Cd L 2 g H 2
3 3
Problems
1. Determine the discharge over a broad crested weir 26m long, the upstream
level of water is measured as 0.5m above the crest level. The height of the weir
is 0.6m and the width of the approach channel is 36m. Take Cd=0.9.
Solution.
3
For a broad crested weir. (Qact )max =
2
Cd L 2 g H 2
3 3
3
2
= x0.9 x 26 x 19.62 x(0.5) 2
3 3
(Qact )max = 14.105m3 / s
Since, the width of the channel, we have to consider the velocity of approach Va
 Q 
i.e, Va =  
 Areaofflow int hechannel 
 14.105 
  = 0.356m / s
 36 x(0.6 + 0.5) 

Va2 0.356 2
ha = = = 6.466 x10 −3
2 g 2 x9.81
(Qact )max = 2 Cd L 2 g (H + ha )2
3
3 3
( )
3
2
= x0.9 x 26 x 19.62 x 0.5 + 6.466 x10 −3 2
3 3
(Qact )max = 14.379m3 / s
2. A reservoir discharges water at 60,000 m3/day over a broad crested weir, the
head of length of the weir, if Cd=0.65.
Solution.
Q=60,000m3/day=60,000/24x60x60=0.694m3/s
H=500mm=0.5m Cd=?, L=?
3
(Qact )max = 2 Cd L 2 g H 2
3 3
 
 3 3 x0.694 
∴L =  3 
 2 x0.65 x 19.62 x(0.5) 2 
 
L = 1.77 metres
3. A channel of 45m2 cross sectional area, discharging 50 cumecs of water is to

be provided with a broad crested weir. If the crest of the weir is 1.6m below the
upstream water surface, find the length of the weir, if Cd=0.85.
Solution.
(Qact )max = 2 Cd L 2 g (H + ha )2
3
3 3
2
Va2  Q  1
whereha = =  x
2g  A  2g
2
 50  1
=  x = 0.629m
 45  19.62
x0.85 xLx 19.62 (1.6 + 0.0629 )2
2 3
∴ 50 =
3 3
50 = 3.1076 L
or L = 16.089m ≈ 16.1m

Fig 18
Vena contracta
H Centreline of orifice
C
B y
R
x
Fig 19.
Air
h=2m

Fig 21
X1 = X2
H1=4m
O1
H2=6m
Y
1
O2
Y2
Fig 22
H1
H2
Y1 Point of intersection of the jet
Y2
X1=X2

Fig 23
H
V
D
Fig 24
H1
H3
y
Y1
H2 Y2
X1=X2=X3

Fig 25
X=?
H1=0.6m
H2=1.6m
2m
Y1
Y2
X1 X2
Fig 26
H1=4m
H2=?
Y=12m
Y1
Y2
X1=X2

Fig 27
100 KN/m2
Air
2m
Oil s=0.9
Fig 28
VENA CONTRACTA
MOUTH PIECE

Fig 29
H
H1
H2
1 2
Fig 30
h
H1
H
H2 b
dh
d
Fig 31 Apex or crest

H Flow Q
Velocity of
approach Va
Dead water
Nappe
Z
Channel Bed Notch

Fig 32
ha
h
x
dh
H
θ θ
Elemental Strip
Fig 33
dh
H

Notch
Fig 34
Side wall
Flow
B L
Fig 35
Nappe
Nappe
Fig 36. (a)

Fig 36. (b) Partially

Ventilated
flow
Fig 36 (c)

Fig 36.(d)
Nappe
Ventilation
holes
Fig 37
Q1
H1
Q2 H2
Weir
Fig 38
H1=0.8m
H2=0.25m
1.8m
1m 1.25m

Fig 39
Crest of ogee weir
Top surface of nappe
Solid boundary coinciding with

the bottom surface of the nappe
Concrete or masonry
Fig 40
flow
h v
weir
Channel bed

(Additional Problems)
1.Find the diameter of a sharp edged orifice sufficient to discharge 3x106 litres of
water per day. Under a constant head of 12m. Take Cd=0.62
2.2.A closed tank partially with water upto a height of 2m has an orifice of 2.75cm
diameter at its bottom. Determine the air pressure over the water surface for a
discharge of 5 lps, through the orifice, Cd=0.62
3. Water is discharged vertically upwards through a 5cm diameter orifice under a
pressure of 180N/cm2. CV for the orifice is 0.92. Determine the height to which
the jet will rise, when
i) there is no air friction
ii) when the friction produces a retardation of 2m/s2.
4. In performing an experiment to determine the different coefficients of a sharp
edged orifice, a jet of water issuing horizontally from the orifice of 2.5cm diameter
under a constant head of 1.5m fell through 0.9m vertically and struck the ground
at 2.3m horizontally from Vena contracta. The time required to discharge 91litres
of water was found to be 53 seconds. Find the values of Cd, CV and CC for the
orifice.
5. A Jet of water issuing from a vertical orifice 0.025m diameter under a constant
head of 1.5m falls 0.915m vertically, before it strikes the ground at a distance of
2.288m, measured from Vena contracta horizontally. The discharge was found to
be 0.102 m3/min. Determine Cd, CV, CC, & Cr for the orifice.
6. The centre of an orifice is situated 60cm above the bottom of a vessel
containing water to a depth of 2.4m. Assuming CV=0.98. Estimate how far the
water in the jet issuing from the orifice in the side of the vessel will fall in moving
horizontally a distance of 1m from the Vena contracta.
7. A large tank has a circular sharp edged orifice 2.5cm diameter in a vertical
side at a depth 0.6m below the constant water level. The jet diameter at Vena
contract is found to be 2cm. The water is found to be 2cm . The water discharged
is collected in a vessel having the inside dimensions of 1.2m x 0.6m x 0.6m. The
time required to fill the vessel is 7minutes. Calculate Cd, CV & CC.
8. Oil of S=0.85 issues from a 5cm diameter orifice under a pressure of 12N/cm2.
The diameter of jet at Vena contracta is 4cm and the discharge is 20 lps. What is
the coefficient of velocity?
9. A rectangular orifice 0.9m wide, 1.2m deep is discharging water from a vessel.
The top edge of the orifice is 0.6m below the water surface in the vessel.
Calculate the discharge through the orifice if Cd=0.6 and the percentage error if
the orifice is treated as a small orifice.
10. A closed tank contains kerosene S=0.8 to a depth of 3m. The top portion of
the tank contains air under a pressure of 27.5kpa. If a sharp edged circular orifice
of 3cm diameter Cd=0.62 is provided at the bottom of the tank, estimate the
discharge through the orifice.
11. A standard mouthpiece 5cm in diameter discharges water. Determine the
maximum head under which the flow would take place without the occurrence of
separation at Vena contracta. The coefficient of discharge for the mouth piece is
0.8, separation occurs when the absolute pressure is 2.44m of water.

12. Find the discharge through an external cylindrical mouth piece of 10cm in
diameter flowing under a head of 3.5m. What is the pressure at Vena contracta?
Take CC=0.62.
13. Calculate the value of V - notch angel to discharge 400lps under a head of
0.6m, assuming Cd=0.60.
14. During a test in a laboratory the water passing through a venturimeter is
made to flow over a 900V notch. Diameter at inlet is 25cm an that at the throat is
10cm. The pressure difference is 0.34m when the head over the V-notch is
steady at 18.2cm. If Cd for the venturimeter is 0.97, what is the coefficient of
discharge of the V-Notch?
15. Discharge varies in a rectangular channel from 0.0057 to 0.142 m3/s. At what
height should a 900 V-notch be placed above the bed of the channel, if the depth
should not exceed 1.2m, in the channel? What will be its depth for minimum
discharge?
16. A 900 V-notch is provided in a rectangular channel 1.5m wide in order to
measure the channel discharge the channel is designed to carry a maximum
discharge of 0.4m3/s. With a depth not exceeding 1.8m. Find the position of the
apex of the notch from the bed of the channel.
17. A sharp crested rectangular weir 1.5m long and 90cm high is installed in a
rectangular channel 1.5m wide. If the head on the weir is 30cm, find the
discharge
a)Neglecting velocity of approach
b)Considering velocity of approach
18.A cipolletti weir of 40cm bottom width is Installed in a channel 75cm wide &
45cm deep. If the head over the weir crest is 25cm, find the discharge over the
weir.
a)Neglecting vel. of approach
b)Taking vel. of approach.
19. A rectangular channel is 4.5m wide. Water flows at a depth of 1.2m at a

velocity of 90cm/s. A sharp crested weir is constructed across the channel and
the depth in the channel rises upto 1.75m. What should be the height of the weir?
20.Two 900 V – notches & one cipolletti weir are to be used side by side to
measure a discharge of 0.85m3/s through a channel. If the head should not
exceed 30cm, what should be the dimensions of the weirs?
21. Find the discharge through a trapezoidal notch which is 1.2m wide at the top
and 0.5m at the bottom and is 40cm in height. The head of water on the notch is
30cm. Cd for the rectangular portion is 0.62 while for triangular portion is 0.60.
22. A discharge of 1500m3/s is to pass over a rectangular weir. The weir is

divided into a number of openings each of span 7.5m. If the velocity of approach
is 3m/s, find the number of openings needed in order the head of water over the
crest is not to exceed 1.8m.

23. A rectangular channel 1.5m wide has a discharge of 200lps, which is

measured by a right angled V – notch. Find the position of the apex of the notch
from the bed of the channel if the maximum depth of water is not to exceed 1m.
Take Cd=0.62.
24. During an experiment in a laboratory 0.9 litres of water is flowing per second
over a V-notch when the head is 5cm and 5 litres/sec, when the head is 10cm.
Determine the values of k & n in the equation Q=KHn.
25. A triangular weir has one side sloping at 450 and the other side Z(H):1V.
Calculate the values of Z which gives a discharge of 0.12m3/s under a head of
0.3m. Cd=0.6
26. Water flows through a 900 V-notch with a free surface of water at a height of
10cm from the crest. The corresponding flow rate is 1000lpm. If the height above
the crest is increased by 50%, what would be the new flow rate?
27. A rectangular channel 6m wide carries a flow of 1.5m3/s. A rectangular sharp
crested weir is to be installed near the end of the channel to create a depth of
1m. Upstream of the weir, calculate the necessary weir height. Assume Cd=0.62.
28. A suppressed weir having a crest length of 4m, discharges under a head of
40cm. The height of the weir crest above the channel bed is 1m. Find the rate of
discharge.
29. A rectangular sharp crested weir is required to discharge 645 m3/s of water
approach near the weir is 1 m/s, find the length of the weir required.
30. A discharge of 1800m3/s is to pass over a rectangular weir which is divided
into a number of spans of 10m each. If the velocity of approach is 4m/s, find the
number of opening required such that the head over the crest does not exceed
2m.
31. A waste weir has to pass a flood discharge of 3m3/s. find the length of the
broad crested weir to suit the discharge such that the depth of water over the
weir crest will not be more than 42cm. Take Cd=0.97.
32. A 3m wide rectangular irrigation canal carries water with a discharge of
6m3/s. what height of rectangular weir installed across the canal will raise the
water surface to a level of 2m above the floor?
33. A rectangular weir 0.75m high & 1.5m long is to be used for discharging
water from a tank under a head of 0.5m. Estimate the discharge a) when it is
used as suppressed weir. b) when it is used as a contracted weir. Take Cd=0.61.
34. A trapezoidal sharp crested weir has a base width of 1.2m & side slopes of
1.5H to 1V. Calculate the discharge over the weir for a head of 35cm. Take
Cd=0.62.
28. Calculate the bottom width and side slopes of a trapezoidal notch to
discharge 4m3/s at a head of 1.5m and 1.2m3/s at a head of 0.75. Assume
Cd=0.63.35. A Cipolletti weir of crest length 0.6m discharges water under of
0.36m. Find the discharge over the weir if the channel is 0.8m wide & 0.5m deep.
Take Cd=0.6.


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FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Reynold’s Number (Re)

Water Glass tube

Laminar flow Transition flow Turbulent flow

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Hydraulic Grade Line & Energy Grade Line

Losses in Pipe Flow

Head Loss due to Friction

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From II Law of Newton

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Substituting eq (2) in eq.(1)

From Experiments, Darcy Found that

from Continuity equation

& (5) & (6) are known as DARCY – WEISBACH Equation

Pipes in Series or Compound Pipe

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8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2 8 fL4Q 2

8 fL1Q1 2 8 fL2Q 2 2 8 fL3Q 3 2

8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2

for an equivalent pipe

Equating (1) & (2) and simplifying

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Z1 = 20m, Z2 = 0 (Datum); V1=V2 = 0 (tanks are very large)

Q = 0.4348m3 / sec = 434.8lps

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 8.5 x60 x60 

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D = Diameter of equivalent pipe = 0.189m less than or equal to 19cm.

Q12 Q22 Q32 Q42

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(i)Given hf1=hf2 Q1/Q2=?

From Darcy’s equation

(ii) Given Q1/Q2, hf1/hf2=?

a) For parallel pipes  8 f1 L1Q12   8 f 2 L2Q2 2 

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8 x0.03  2400Q12 600(Q1 / 2 ) 

Change in discharge = ∆Q = (Q1 − Q )

∆Q = 3.066 x10 −3 m 3 / sec

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MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES

Equation for head loss due to sudden enlargement or expansion of a pipe

Consider LHS of eq(1)

Consider RHS of eq(1)

Substitution (ii) & (iii) in eq(i)

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2V1V2 − 2V22 + V12 − V22

2V22 − 2V1V2 + V12 − V22

V22 + V12 − 2V1V2

Equations for other minor losses

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Loss due to entrance and exit

Loss due to bends & fittings