Essential Histories

The Korean War 1950-1953

Essential Histories

The Korean War

1950-1953

OSPREY
Carter Malkasian PUBLISHING
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KEY TO MILITARY SYMBOLS
ISBN 1 84176 282 2

Editor: Rebecca Culler

Design: Ken Vail Grapic Design Cambridge. UK
Cartography by The Map Studio
Index by Susan Williams
Picture research by Image Select international
Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging Leeds. UK
Printed and bound in China by L Rex Printing Company Ltd

01 02 03 04 05 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21
Contents

Introduction 7

Chronology 9

Two Koreas, the Superpowers, and China 10

The Communists strike 15

The fighting

Avoiding a third world war 18

Portrait of a soldier

Patrolling, raiding, and digging 66

The world around war

The domestic and international impact 71

Portrait of a civilian
Kyonshill Kang 75

How the war ended

Closing moves 80

Conclusion and consequences

The significance of the Korean War in the history of warfare 88

Bibliography 93

Index 94
Introduction

From 1950 to 1953, the most powerful countries believed that a Communist Korea provided
in the world engaged in a major conventional insurance against American aggression; hence
war on the Korean peninsula. Arguably, the the Soviet Union's backing of the North Korean
world has never been so close to a third World invasion and China's later intervention in the
War, not even during the Cuban Missile Crisis. war. The USA reacted to the North Korean
At times, both combatants thought the war was invasion as a threat to its influence in east Asia.
a preamble to a much larger and more More broadly, American leaders believed that if
destructive global conflict. It was the only the invasion were not confronted, the Soviets
occasion in the Cold War when the military would be encouraged to engage in military
forces of the People's Republic of China (PRC), expansionism elsewhere in the world.
the Soviet Union, and the USA (plus its Western The course of the Korean War can be divided
allies) met in combat. On the ground, Chinese into two periods, one of maneuver and one of
armies engaged in huge battles with the attrition. The first six months of the war was a
American-led United Nations Command (UNC). period of maneuver. First, North Korea invaded
In the air, hundreds of Soviet, Chinese, and most of South Korea in a blitzkrieg assault on
American jet aircraft fought for air supremacy 25 June 1950. Next, US General Douglas
over North Korea. Thus, the Korean War was MacArthur conducted a brilliant amphibious
not merely a war fought between proxies of the attack at Inchon and drove the North Koreans
major powers, like the later conflicts in Vietnam out of South Korea. Then, threatened by the
or Afghanistan, but a much more significant UNC advance into North Korea, the PRC
conflagration. The war changed how the East intervened and pressed the UNC back into
and the West dealt with one another and was South Korea. Instead of unifying Korea or
part of a revolution in the conduct of war. ending the war, each of these decisive victories
The Korean War was a conflict over two led to an escalation of the war. To prevent the
prizes: first, political control of Korea; and conflict from spiralling into a Third World War,
second, power in east Asia and the world as a the USA abandoned its goal of attaining a total
whole. Historically, Communists and right- victory and decided to fight a limited war in
wing Nationalists vied for political control of December 1950.
Korea. Following the Second World War, the The remainder of the war, from 1951 to
Communists gained control of North Korea 1953, was marked by indecisive attrition. The
and rightists gained control of South Korea. UNC's object was to hold the Communists on
Both then wanted to unify the entire peninsula the battlefield while seeking a resolution of the
under their respective authority. This was what conflict based not on unifying Korea, but on
motivated North Korea to invade South Korea preserving the integrity of South Korea. The
in June 1950. However, Korea was also an Communists agreed to negotiations following
object of Cold War superpower competition. the defeat of their Fifth Phase Offensive in June
After 1945 the USA was the dominant power in 1951. Negotiations proceeded slowly because
the Pacific. The other superpower, the Soviet neither side wanted to compromise on issues
Union, led by the paranoid Josef Stalin, was like the location of the cease-fire line and the
cautiously seeking to expand its global power fate of the prisoners of war. Military operations
by promoting Communism in regions continued in the form of limited attacks, air-to-
important to its security. Korea was one of air battles, and strategic bombing campaigns.
those areas. The Soviet Union and the PRC An armistice was finally concluded on 27 July
8 Essential Histories • The Korean War

1*53 after the Chinese and North Korean with his underequipped men and was
economies could no longer support war, the instrumental in modernizing the army of the
USA was threatening to escalate the conflict, Republic of Korea (ROK). On the Communist
and Stalin had died. side, the innovative and insightful General
Ironically, the Korean War is well known as Deng Hua reformed the Chinese forces in
the USA's 'Forgotten War.' This is because it Korea, known as the Chinese People's
does not figure nearly as highly in the national Volunteers (CPV), into a modern army capable
consciousness as the Second World War, the of holding its own against the UNC.
Vietnam War, or the 1991 Gulf War. One Historically, the Korean War was a
reason that the Korean War has been significant turning point in the Cold War. This
'forgotten' is that, with the exception of the conflict in a small peninsula in east Asia
Inchon landing, it seems boring and featureless. affected the entire international system and the
However, there are actually several major balance of power between the two superpowers.
battles that were as important as Inchon, if not Through the conflict, the West demonstrated
more so. Two stand out in particular. First, the its resolve to thwart Communist aggression.
initial Chinese intervention in the war in The USA and its allies strengthened NATO and
November 1950 resulted in the resounding took steps to defend their interests throughout
defeat of the UNC and the longest retreat in the world. The conflict convinced the American
American military history. The ensuing panic leadership of the need to engage in a massive
amongst American leaders nearly caused them rearmament, setting the tone for the arms races
to take actions that probably would have led to that marked the remainder of the Cold War.
a Third World War. Second, the Communists The Korean War also marked the rise of China
suffered an even worse defeat when the UNC as a military power. After the impressive
crushed their Fifth Phase Offensive in April and performance of the CPV, the USA was forced to
May 1951. This was a turning point in the war, treat the PRC as a major power in east Asia. In
the Communists being forced to abandon their general, the UNC success in the Korean War
quest to unify Korea and accept that the war probably deterred China and the Soviet Union
would end through compromise. from instigating further conventional wars
against the West or its interests.
Besides battles, there are a number of
generals in the Korean War who should not be Finally, the Korean War defined the new
forgotten. MacArthur is obviously massively strategic context of warfare that emerged in the
important. His brilliant victory at Inchon and Cold War. Wars were conducted in an entirely
his later dismissal have made him a magnetic- new manner. Before 1945, the aims of most
historical figure. The decisive strategies that he wars had been total victory: the annihilation of
espoused are a rallying point for those who an opponent. After 1945, the advent of nuclear
agree that the only aim in war should be total weapons and the increasing power of
victory. But MacArthur was outshone in nearly conventional weapons made total war
every respect by his subordinate and later prohibitively dangerous. The risk of mutual
successor, General Matthew Ridgway. His destruction could not be countenanced. Instead
dynamic leadership revitalized the defeated of total victory, limited aims were now sought
Eighth US Army and prevented the in most wars. In turn, the means of warfare
Communists from capturing South Korea. became more limited as careful measures were
Ridgway understood that, in the Cold War, taken to reduce the risk of a conflict escalating
seeking total victory was an outmoded military into a Third World War. The Korean War was
strategy. Therefore, he developed an operational the first example of such a limited war. The
doctrine of attrition that did not result in strategies and operational doctrines employed
escalation, yet enforced the UNC bargaining were the first adaptations to limited war. As
position in negotiations. Two other generals are such, the Korean War was the formative
worthy of note. The young South Korean, experience in the strategy and operational
General Paik Sun Yup, won several victories techniques developed during the Cold War.
 Chronology

Chronology

1950 25 June North Korea invades South 23 August Communists suspend cease-fire
Korea negotiations over alleged UNC violation of
7 July UN Security Council creates the the neutral zone around Kaesong
United Nations Command 3-18 October Operation Commando
1 August-22 September Battles 25 October Truce talks resume at new
around the Pusan Perimeter neutral site of Panmunjom
15 September Inchon landing 27 November Agreement reached on
2 October Chairman Mao Zedong the location of a cease-fire line
decides that China will intervene in the 1952 8 April Screening begins of
war Communist prisoners of war
7 October American forces cross the 7 May Brigadier General Dodd is seized
38th Parallel in Koje-do prison riots
15 October President Harry Truman 12 May General Mark Clark replaces
and General Douglas MacArthur meet Ridgway as commander of the UNC
on Wake Island 24 May Rhee declares martial law in
27 October-2 November Communist South Korean temporary capital, Pusan
First Phase Offensive 23 June Air strikes against North
25 November-9 December Korean hydroelectric plants
Communist Second Phase Offensive 11 July First strike on Pyongyang
27 November-25 December Battle of 29 August Second strike on
the Chosin Reservoir Pyongyang, the largest bombing raid of
8 December Truman-Attlee the war
communique 8 October Clark recesses cease-fire
23 December General Matthew negotiations indefinitely
Ridgway is appointed commander of the 4 November Dwight Eisenhower is .
Eighth Army elected President of the United States
31 December-24 January 1953 5 March Death of Josef Stalin
Communist Third Phase Offensive 28 March Zhou Enlai accepts 'Little
1951 25 January-11 February Operation Switch'
Thunderbolt 26 April Cease-fire negotiations
11-18 February Communist Fourth resume
Phase Offensive 13 May Beginning of UNC air strikes
14 March Eighth Army recaptures on North Korean dams
Seoul 25 May UNC delegation presents its
11 April Truman dismisses MacArthur; 'final position'
Ridgway replaces him 10-16 June Communists assault the II
22 April-20 May Communist Fifth ROK Corps in the Kumsong bulge
Phase Offensive 16 June First cease-fire concluded
23 June Soviet Ambassador to the UN, 18 June Rhee unilaterally releases
Jakob Malik, proposes cease-fire 25,000 North Korean prisoners of war
negotiations 13-27 July Final Communist offensive
10 July Cease-fire negotiations open 27 July The UNC and the Communists
at Kaesong sign the armistice, ending hostilities
 Warring sides

Two Koreas, the Superpowers,

and China
The Korean War took place in two different Truman Doctrine in 1947, the USA adopted a
contexts: the superpower competition of the polio." of containment: opposing Communist
Cold War and the regional competition for expansion where it threatened the
political control of Korea. Both are important development of democracy. In 1948, the
to understanding the motivations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
warring parties. was established to defend Western Europe
against Soviet aggression. Nevertheless, until
June 1950 the degree of the Soviet threat was
The Cold War unclear. Therefore, the West had not
undertaken significant military preparations
After the Second World War, the USA and to confront Soviet or Communist
the Soviet Union were the two remaining expansionism. NATO was only a skeletal
truly great powers. Their interests began to organization without the conventional and
clash as each asserted its influence over the nuclear strength that would be associated
postwar world. This competition had a deep with it later in the Cold War. The American
ideological tone. The USA and its allies, armed forces were also in a low state of
collectively known as the West, promoted readiness. Following demobilization after the
democracy and capitalism, while the Soviet Second World War, the Republican Congress
Union and its supporters sought to expand had drastically cut American defense
Communism. With the declaration of the expenditure, pegging at less than 3 percent
of the gross domestic product (GDP).
The Cold War represented a new military
situation as well as a new international one.
After 1945, warfare underwent a revolution.
Before 1945, most wars had been fought
with the goal of decisively annihilating an
enemy's armed forces. Warfare continued
until one side unconditionally surrendered.
After 1945, such total warfare became
prohibitively costly. There were three basic
reasons for this. First, the advent of atomic
weapons multiplied the destructiveness of
warfare. Seeking a total victory became a
very dangerous endeavor when an opponent
might use atomic or nuclear weapons if faced
with a major defeat on the battlefield.
Second, the First and Second World Wars

US President Harry Truman. Truman implemented the

Truman Doctrine, which stated that the USA would oppose
aggression against democratic countries. This was the basis of
the containment policy that guided American diplomacy
through the Cold War (Ann Ronan Picture Library)
 Warring sides 1

showed that conventional warfare itself was movement conducted a low-level guerrilla
an exhausting affair. In 1950, the Soviet war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, exiled
Union, Japan, China, and Europe had not non-Communist Koreans formed a
yet fully recovered from the world wars and Nationalist provisional government in
lacked the economic strength to enter Shanghai. Dr Syngman Rhee was a South
another one. Third, the bipolar nature of the Korean leader who, for a brief period in the
international system meant that even early 1920s, was president of the provisional
peripheral conflicts were often the concern government. During the Second World War,
of the superpowers. Any gain by one Rhee lived in the USA, where he vociferously
superpower was a loss for the other. condemned Japan. His actions earned him
Therefore, there was a risk that any conflict popular recognition in Korea.
involving a superpower or one of its allies US President Franklin Roosevelt wanted to
could escalate into a Third World War. place Korea under international trusteeship
once Japan was defeated. At the Tehran
Conference in 1943, the Soviet Union, the
The Korean, peninsula UK, and the USA agreed that Korea should
be run under an international trusteeship
From 1905 to 1945, Korea was under the before becoming fully independent.
control of Japan. During this time, Koreans However, the details of trusteeship were not
fervently sought to form their own nation- determined before the Soviet Red Army
state. Unfortunately, Communists and annihilated the Japanese army in Manchuria
rightists disputed who would rule an and pressed into Korea in August 1945.
independent Korea. The Korean Communist Stalin agreed to divide Korea with the USA

East Asia and the Korean peninsula in 1950

12 Essential Histories - The Korean War

along the arbitrary line of the 38th Parallel. in east Asia. Stalin did not want Korea to
The bulk of the Korean population as well as become a staging ground for an invasion of
the capital city of Seoul fell into the the Soviet Union. However, Control of all of
American zone. The northern industrial half Korea could not easily be attained in the
of Korea went to the Soviets. midst of American hegemony over the
Pacific. Stalin was not ready to risk a major
At the end of the Second World War, the
conflict and preferred to protect Soviet
USA was the dominant power in east Asia.
security by establishing North Korea as a
Having fought the Pacific War to eliminate
buffer. The Soviets and Korean Communists
Japanese economic and military strength, the
Purged all non-Communists from leadership
USA now considered the entire Pacific Ocean
positions in North Korea. The North Korean
to be its sphere of influence. However,
Communist Party was officially formed in
American leaders were unsure of how Korea
July 1946. With Soviet support, Kim Il Sung
fell into this sphere of influence. Many,
established authority over other prominent
including the supreme commander in the
figures within the party. Kim had been
Far East, General Douglas MacArthur,
trained by the Soviet Union and, in the
believed that Korea was irrelevant.
Second World War, had fought the Japanese
The domestic political scene in Korea was as a guerrilla in Manchuria With these
turbulent as rightists and Communists vied developments, North Korea was progressing
for power. General John Hodge was At the Moscow Conference in December
commander of the American occupational 1945, the USA and the Soviet Union made an
zone. Extremely anti-Communist. Hodge
agreement on the future of Korea. Their
first relied on the Japanese police and
administrators to run South Korea. The
Shanghai government was disregarded.
Rightists like Rhee appealed to Hodge for North Korean leader Kim II Sung (left) and Chinese
support, which he readily gave. Premier Zhou Enlai (right) at a cocktail party Kim II Sung
The Soviets unsurprisingly supported the was the main advocate for invading South Korea.
Zhou was the PRC's number one diplomat He
development of Communism in North conducted most of the negotiations with the Soviet
Korea. Their interest in Korea derived from Union regarding China's entry into the war.
their desire to maintain a sphere of influence (China Photo Service/Eastphoto)
 Warring sides 13

respective occupational commands would the USA secured UN authorization for

form a joint commission to advise on the UNTCOK to supervise elections solely in the
formation of a provisional government South for a 'National Government' of Korea.
Trusteeship would occur after a provisional The elections took place on 10 May 1948.
government had been established. The UNTCOK's supervision was superficial due to
agreement suited Soviet interests because it a lack of manpower. Amidst widespread
stipulated that the new government must be corruption and even violence, Rhee and
amenable to the Soviet Union. The South rightist political parties gained a majority in
Korean people were hostile to the agreement. the National Assembly. The National
They opposed trusteeship of any sort. The first Assembly chose Rhee to be president and he
meeting of the joint commission was held formed a government that claimed to
between March and May 1946. It dealt with represent all of Korea. In October 1948, the
the identification of Korean groups that could UN General Assembly recognized the new
be approached for the eventual formation of a Republic of Korea (ROK). However, a Soviet
government. The Soviets refused to recognize veto in the Security Council prevented the
groups that rejected the 1945 Moscow ROK from actually joining the UN. In turn,
Conference agreement, meaning nearly every the Soviets proceeded with their own
important South Korean political party. 'elections' in North Korea. On 25 August
Disagreement could not be overcome and the 1948, a Supreme People's Assembly was
commission adjourned to resume its debate supposedly elected. One month later, the
the following year. When the joint North Korean Communists formed the
commission reconvened in May 1947, Democratic People's Republic of Korea
proceedings quickly became bogged down (DPRK), with Kim as the premier.
over the same issues. In September, the USA Both governments considered themselves
decided to hand the problem of Korea over to to be the legitimate rulers of all Korea.
the United Nations (UN). Violent skirmishes and raids wracked the
In September 1947, the US Joint Chiefs of border between North and South Korea. Kim
Staff (JCS) assessed that the USA had little focused on gaining control of South Korea
interest in maintaining troops and bases in through internal subversion. North Korea
Korea. In April 1948, the National Security had been attempting to subvert South Korea
Council (NSC) recommended withdrawing internally since the end of the Second World
American military forces but providing War. Guerrillas in South Korea received
military and economic aid to bolster South direction and arms supplies from North
Korea's security. President Harry Truman Korea. Many North Korean leaders had
adopted this recommendation even though originally been Communist leaders in the
it failed to address how the USA should South. Civil disorder spread to coastal and
respond to overt Communist aggression. US mountainous regions of South Korea.
troop withdrawal began on 19 May 1948. The guerrilla war in South Korea came to
Meanwhile, in November 1947, the UN a head in April 1948 when a major rebellion
General Assembly recognized Korea's right to exploded on Cheju-do, an island off the
independence and established a commission southern coast. The island was disaffected
to supervise elections, the United Nations from the rest of South Korea by its clannish
Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK). social structure and radical political leanings.
The elections were intended to create a In short order, the rebellion spread to Taegu
constituent assembly that would unify the on the mainland. Police sent to suppress the
nation prior to the withdrawal of foreign rebellion themselves rebelled around Yosu in
occupation forces. The resolution passed over October 1948. Rhee instituted harsh
the objection of the Soviet Union. measures to suppress the Cheju Rebellion
Consequently, the Soviets would not allow and subversion throughout South Korea,
UNTCOK to enter North Korea. Nevertheless, including purging his police force. By the
14 Essential Histories • The Korean War

time fighting finally ended after January military assistance or political support. He
1949, 30,000 people had died. In March had even signed a treaty with the
1950, North Korea sent thousands of Nationalists. In early 1949, with the civil
insurgents south to resuscitate the guerrilla war drawing to a close, Mao outlined future
war. However, the ROK army was now very PRC foreign policy, it was based on the
efficient at counterinsurgency. Five principles of making a fresh start,
regiments and 10,000 national police consolidating the Chinese Communist
quashed the renewed insurgency. Party's (CCP) domestic Position, fostering
economic growth, and 'leaning to one side.'
The last phrase meant that, in the context
China of the superpower competition of the Cold
War, the PRC would build ties with the
The People's Republic of China also had an Soviet Union. Mao officially declared that
interest in events in Korea. American power in China would 'lean to one side' and
the Pacific threatened the PRC. Impressive established a Special relationship with the
American air and naval forces and a string of Soviet Union on 30 June 1949. This
bases in the western Pacific were poised off alignment was due partly to shared
China's coast. Furthermore, the Chinese Communist ideology, but also to increasing
Nationalists had received American military confrontation with the USA.
assistance throughout the Chinese Civil War. Following Mao's 'lean to one side'
After the civil war. the USA did not recognize statement, the PRC and the Soviet Union
the PRC and used its veto power to prevent became much closer. In August 1949, the
the PRC from taking the seat designated for Soviet Union sent experts to China to
China in the UN Security Council. In April advise in economic reconstruction and
1950, the USA embargoed nearly all goods military expansion. Stalin offered the PRC
into China. Mao Zedong, the Chinese leader, $300 million in loans. In early 1950, Mao
was also concerned about maintaining the sought an alliance with the Soviet Union.
momentum of the Communist revolution. For Consequently, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of
Communism in China to develop further, he Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance
believed it was necessary to make a firm break was signed on 14 February 1950. The treaty
with the USA and its imperialist ideology. obliged each country to aid the other in the
In spite of their ideology, the Chinese event of an attack by a third party. China
Communists did not have close ties with also received another loan of $300 million,
the Soviet Union during the Chinese Civil which was to be spent on purchasing arms
War. Stalin was not forthcoming with from the Soviet Union.
Outbreak

The Communists strike

When the revolutionary movement in South shown for South Korea, the speech seemed to
Korea began to falter, Kim turned to more confirm that the USA would stand aside if
overt means of unifying the peninsula. In the Communists invaded. Second, on
March and April 1949, he visited the Soviet 19 January, the House of Representatives
Union and signed an economic and cultural narrowly rejected the administration's Korean
agreement. The two countries also signed an Aid Bill. Although the vote was reversed in
arms pact in March 1949, in which the Soviet February, the rejection enforced the
Union promised to expand the North Korean impression that Americans did not greatly
armed forces. While in Moscow, Kim pressed care about Korea.
Stalin to support a North Korean invasion of While the USA waffled over committing to
South Korea. Stalin would not agree. He did Korea, its policy was solidifying against the
not want to take any actions that might Soviet Union. A joint State-Defense
provoke the USA or South Korea into a war. Department group completed NSC 68 on
Throughout 1949, Kim lobbied Stalin to back 14 april 1950. This document was a reaction,
military action. to perceived Soviet expansionism. It
By September 1949, Stalin and the Soviet simplistically viewed international relations
Politburo were beginning to consider the as a confrontation between Communism,
merits of military action. Stalin did so for representing slavery, and the West,
four reasons. First, the victory of the Chinese representing freedom. It surmised that within
Communists in the Chinese Civil War four to five years the Soviet Union would be
increased the strength of the Communist able to attack the USA with nuclear weapons
bloc in east Asia. Second, the Soviet Union and win a world war. Therefore, American
successfully detonated its first atomic bomb military spending needed to be drastically
in September, eliminating a major handicap increased in order to confront Communism
in a war with the USA. Third, the not just in Europe but everywhere in the
establishment of NATO and worsening world. Truman supported the document's
relations with the West reduced the prospects suggestions. However, many policymakers
of attaining Soviet foreign policy goals were sceptical that high military expenditures
were necessary or good for the economy. For
through diplomacy. Fourth, there was a
the next months, NSC 68 sat awaiting
perceived weakening of Washington's resolve
approval and implementation.
to fight a war over Korea.
Two events occurred in 1950 that signalled Stalin entertained three reasons to back a
to the Communists that the USA would not North Korean invasion of South Korea. First,
fight over Korea. First, on 12 January 1950, capturing South Korea would increase Soviet
Secretary of State Dean Acheson made his security in east Asia. In particular, he wanted
infamous speech before the National Press to bolster the Soviet position before Japan
Club in which he implied that South Korea re-emerged as a major economic and military
was not an American interest. He stated that power. Second, Stalin worried that Rhee might
the USA was forming a defensive perimeter in soon attack North Korea. This could create an
the Pacific from the Aleutians to Japan to the uncontrollable situation in which the Soviet
Ryukyus and the Philippines. South Korea Union would be forced to intervene. Third, he
was not listed within the defensive perimeter. believed that a war would tie the PRC more
Given the lack of military support already firmly to the Soviet Union. A war over Korea
I6 Essential Histories • The Korean War

would make Chinese rapprochement with the Washington. American leaders were
USA nearly impossible. determined to keep Soviet influence out of
Kim secretly visited the Soviet Union in Japan. In fact, the peace treaty with Japan was
April 1950. Here, Stalin finally permitted a being delayed in order to prevent the Soviet
North Korean invasion of South Korea. He Union from participating in negotiations over
asked only that Kim assure him that a the fate of the country. The victory of the
decisive victory could be achieved and that Communists in the Chinese Civil War had
escalation was impossible. Stalin also already worried American leaders, especially
emphasized that there would be no direct MacArthur, about the safety of Japan. Now
Soviet intervention. He felt the Soviet Union the North Korean invasion seemed to
itself was not yet reach" for a military conflict threaten this vital interest imminently.
with the West. However, all requested war .Acheson and Truman immediately
material would be delivered. Kim then visited brought the issue before the UN Security
Mao in Beijing. Mao agreed that only military Council. The Soviet Union had been
action would unify Korea. He doubted that boycotting the Security Council since January
the USA would concern itself over a war in 1950. It was protesting the representation of
Korea. Kim was also confident and told Mao the Chinese Nationalist government in
that his army would capture all of Korea in Taiwan, instead of the PRC, as one of the five
two to three weeks, long before American permanent members of the Security Council.
intervention would be possible. Without a Soviet delegation to obstruct
On 25 June 1950, North Korea invaded deliberations, the Security Council quickly
South Korea. North Korean propaganda adopted a resolution that deplored the North
claimed that the offensive was in reaction to a Korean invasion. It urged a cessation of
South Korean attack. The invasion took the hostilities and the withdrawal of North
ROK and the USA completely by surprise. Korean forces to the 38th Parallel. A second
Truman was outraged. When he disembarked resolution two days later recognized the
from his airplane in Washington, having necessity of urgent military measures and
flown from Missouri, he was rumoured to recommended that member states assist
have uttered: 'By God, I'm going to let them South Korea to repel the attack and restore
have it.' For Truman, the invasion was a clear peace. Although Truman and Acheson
indication of Communists' willingness to use supported the ideal of collective security, they
overt aggression to support the expansion of used the UN mainly as a vehicle for
their influence. Both Truman and Acheson achieving American interests. Securing
believed that Korea was a test of the West's international peace was a secondary goal.
commitment to stand up to Communist Truman, Acheson, Louis Johnson (Secretary
aggression. Not fighting would repeat the of Defense), and the JCS met for dinner on
mistakes of the appeasement of the 1930s and 25 June to devise an immediate reaction to the
inspire the Communists to conduct further crisis. The capable and level-headed General
acts of aggression throughout the world. Omar Bradley, of Second World War fame,
Despite the previous equivocation, the chaired the JCS. Three recommendations were
North Korean invasion was viewed as a discussed: first, to use air power against the
clear-cut threat to American interests. If North Korean forces; second, to deploy the
South Korea were conquered, Communist US Seventh Fleet to protect Taiwan, which
governments would control the entire east might also become threatened soon; and third,
Asian mainland (minus Hong Kong) north of to send American military forces directly to
Indochina and Communist insurgencies were South Korea. Johnson and the JCS opposed
well underway in Malaya and French Indo- this last recommendation. They only
China. This would be a tremendous boon to supported air and naval action. Dispatching
the Soviet Union. The security of Japan was of ground forces to Korea would weaken the
particular concern to decision-makers in USA's global military position.
 Outbreak 17

Consequently, on 29 June, MacArthur Command to defend South Korea, under the

received instructions to use his naval and air authority of the USA. MacArthur was duly
forces to defend the ROK. The US Seventh appointed its commander. Fifteen states
Fleet was placed under his command and would eventually contribute troops to the
he was to ensure that Taiwan was safe UNC. Britain, New Zealand, Netherlands,
against attack. In order to reduce the risk of France, Canada, Australia, Thailand, and
the conflict escalating into a wider war, Turkey were the first to offer military
operations were to stay clear of the borders assistance. Taiwan's offer of ground forces was
of the Soviet Union and China. MacArthur declined due to the deleterious effect that
travelled to South Korea on 30 June and such a move would have on relations with
observed the military situation. He the Communists. However, American and
concluded that only the introduction of ROK forces always far outnumbered the total
American ground forces could save the contribution of all other states.
ROK. MacArthur requested that two The Korean War had now begun as the
divisions be sent to Korea. The JCS, now first open war between the USA and a proxy
more confident that the attack was not a of the Soviet Union. For the two Koreas, their
prelude to a major battle in Western political identity and the very survival of
Europe, approved of the move. their peoples were at stake. But for the
A third resolution was passed in the UN superpowers, influence within east Asia was
Security Council on 7 July. It recommended at issue. Korea was a regional battleground
the establishment of a United Nations for their global competition.
The fighting

Avoiding a third world war

The war of maneuver infantry divisions plus an armored brigade,

for a total of 130,000 men plus
From July to September 1950, South Korea was 100,000 trained reserves. Five of the infantry
on the brink of falling to the North Koreans. divisions were very well trained and
Only brilliant and aggressive action by the contained troops with combat experience in
USA averted this possibility. Both the North the Chinese Communist People's Liberation
Koreans and the Americans utilized highly Army (PLA). In the late 1940s, Kim had sent
effective and aggressive operational doctrines tens of thousands of Koreans to assist the
that had been refined during the Second Chinese Communists fighting against the
World War. However, rather than decisively Nationalists in the Chinese Civil War. The
end the war, these doctrines prolonged it. PLA released soldiers of Korean nationality,
For the most part, the North Korean together with their equipment, to join the
armed forces had been trained and equipped NKPA in 1949 and 1950. In fact, two PLA
by the Soviet Union. Large numbers of tanks, divisions directly entered the NKPA,
artillery, aircraft, and small arms had been changing in name only. The key formation
invested into the North Korean armed forces in the NKPA, though, was the well-trained
in 1949 and early 1950. The North Korean 105th North Korean Armored Brigade. It was
People's Army (NKPA) comprised ten equipped with 120 Soviet T-34 tanks, which
 The fighting 19

were armed with 85mm guns. North Korea Korean positions for weak spots. North
also possessed an air force of 180 Soviet-built Korean soldiers even mingled with civilians
Yak fighters and Ilyushin bombers. in order to infiltrate South Korean lines.
Soviet operations advisers devised the General Kim Ch'aek. a veteran partisan of
invasion plan. It embodied a blitzkrieg the Chinese Civil War, commanded the
assault across the 38th Parallel. Two major North Korean forces.
armored thrusts were aimed on converging The ROK army was not nearly as well
paths towards Seoul. The western thrust, the Trained or equipped as its North Korean
1st and 6th North Korean Divisions (a counterpart. It numbered 100.000 men in
former PLA division) and a detachment from eight weak infantry divisions. Most of these
the 105th North Korean Armored Brigade, divisions contained only six of their requisite
would strike through Kaesong. The eastern nine infantry battalions. There were only
thrust, the 3rd and 4th North Korean three artillery battalions in the entire army.
Divisions and the rest of the 105th North The South Korean infantry was woefully
Korean Armored Brigade, would attack undertrained: only a handful had seen
through Uijongbu, the traditional invasion combat against Communist guerrillas. The
route. In central Korea, the 2nd and 7th ROK lacked both an air force and anti-
North Korean Divisions would mount a aircraft batteries to counter North Korean air
secondary assault on Chunchon. support. The only American troops in South
Additionally, independent regiments were to
advance down the east and west coasts.
Supplied by the Soviet Union, the T-34 tanks of the 105th
Division-level planning and reconnaissance North Korean Armored Brigade spearheaded the invasion
were carried out with the help of Soviet of South Korea. The South Koreans and Americans initially
advisors. The North Koreans spotted targets had no defense against the T-34's heavy armor and high-
for the artillery barrage and probed South powered 85mm gun. (The Tank Museum. Bovington)
20 Essential Histories - T h e Korean War

South Korean soldiers marching to battle in July 1950

The ROK army was extremely unprepared for war in operations. The summers are very hot and
1950. Many of the men had no military training and little Humid. The Winters, on the other hand, are
proper equipment. (US Army)
extremely cold, with near-Arctic conditions.
The Yellow Sea often freezes. In the spring,
Melting snow creates large floods and
Korea were the 500 men of the Korean mudslides, which restrict movement.
Military Advisory Group (KMAG) Nevertheless, the dispositions of the ROK
South and North K o r e a were more evenly army made a blitzkrieg entirely viable.
matched on the sea. The North Korean navy Major-General Chae Pyongdok, a veteran of
was composed of approximately 50 small the Japanese army, commanded the ROK
vessels; a mix of patrol boats, minesweepers. armed forces. He wanted to contain any
torpedo boats, and one escort. South Korea North Korean attack at the 38th Parallel and
had 39 small craft, primarily patrol boats and rejected a planned withdrawal to stronger
minesweepers. By neglecting seapower, Kim positions, such as behind the Han river. The
abandoned virtually any capability to interfere 38th Parallel was on comparatively flat
with possible UK and US naval operations. ground, lacking ridges or river-lines on which
These two naval powers would easily be able to form a defensive. Chae strung out four
to reinforce South Korea and mount strikes divisions and one regiment along the parallel.
anywhere along the Korean littoral. On 25 June, at 4.40 am, the North Koreans
The terrain of Korea is not optimal for a attacked. Soviet advisors guided the initial
blitzkrieg. Only about 150 miles (240km) wide, breakthrough. The general pattern of the
the peninsula is suited for a strong in-depth attack was as follows. First heavy artillery
defense. Most of the country is comprised of bombarded the attack zones. Next the infantry
rugged hills with steep slopes, intersected by and tanks moved forward, smashing the
valleys. The roads primarily run through these bewildered South Korean defenders. Finally
valleys. The Taebaek mountain range runs the mechanized North Korean units pressed
north to south through the entire eastern half on to their objectives, cutting South Korean
of the peninsula. Even in the flatter western supply lines and pursuing defeated units.
half, narrow valleys, rice paddies, and jagged The 1st ROK Division defended the
hills make mobile warfare difficult. Climatic approach to Seoul via Kaesong, known as the
conditions are no more conducive to military 'western corridor.' Colonel Paik Sun Yup
 The fighting 21

A North Korean command group Soviet advisors guided

the initial breakthrough. Thereafter the North Koreans
controlled operations. But without the Soviets'
experience, North Korean officers were less able to
conduct combined-arms operations. (US Army)

river. Artillery fire supported counterattacks

and was directed against North Korean
penetrations. Nevertheless, unable to counter
the North Korean tanks, Paik was pushed
back. He wrote in his memoirs that many
soldiers acquired T-34 disease' and panicked
at the sight of tanks. Some of Paik's men
resorted to Japanese suicide tactics. Laden
with high explosives, they threw themselves
upon oncoming tanks.
The 6th ROK Division, under the able Kim
Chong O, also fought well and managed to
halt the 2nd and 7th North Korean Divisions
for three days before Chunchon. Elsewhere,
however, the front was crumbling. In
commanded the division. At only 29 years of particular, the undermanned 7th and
age, he was the youngest divisional 2nd ROK Divisions on Paik's right flank
commander in the ROK army. On 25 June, disintegrated against the North Korean
the veteran 6th North Korean Division
overwhelmed Paik's forward regiment and Paik Sun Yup stands third from the far left with this group
captured Kaesong, the ancient capital of of senior officials, including Matthew Ridgway (second
Korea, in four hours. Paik put up a fierce from far right), for a photo in 1951. In 1950, Paik was
the 29-year-old commander of the 1 st ROK Division.
fight with his remaining two regiments. Generally considered to be the best South Korean field
Commanding from the front, he withdrew officer in the war Paik would command the ROK armed
to a pre-arranged defensive line on the Imjin forces by the end of the war. (US Air Force)
22 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Under Soviet supervision, the North Koreans rapidly broke through the ROK army's lines in a
blitzkrieg assault on South Korea on 25 June 1950.
 The fighting 23

armored column advancing towards Hong Il had been a senior officer with the
Uijongbu. In the ROK military headquarters Chinese Nationalists in the Second World War
in Seoul, there was disorder. With and had experience of commanding large
communications disrupted, Chae had no formations. His steady efforts provided the
idea of the situation at the front. By the end time needed for the build-up of American
of 26 June, the North Koreans had invested forces in Korea and the construction of the
Uijongbu and looked upon an open road to Pusan Perimeter (see page 24).
Seoul. Consequently, Paik sought to Upon the outbreak of war, the US and
withdraw across the Han, but Chae ordered British navies quickly deployed to the waters
him to 'Fight to the death in your present surrounding Korea. Because the US Seventh
positions.' The roads and trains out of Seoul Fleet was dispatched to the Taiwan Straits,
were clogged with people trying to flee. In the initial US navy commitment to Korea
the confusion, the sole bridge across the Han consisted of only one fleet carrier (USS Valley
was prematurely blown up. Hundreds of Forge), one heavy cruiser, and eight
civilians were crossing the bridge at that destroyers, known as Task Force 77.
moment. Forty-four thousand soldiers and Eventually, the bulk of the Seventh Fleet
most of the army's heavy equipment were deployed off Korea. On 27 June, the British
now cut off to the north. Although in a government decided to place ships of the
disorganized state, Paik managed to pull his Royal Navy Far East Fleet, which included a
division across the Han near the western light fleet carrier (HMS Triumph) at the
outskirts of Seoul. Thus, by 28 June, the ROK disposal of Vice-Admiral C. Turner Joy, the
army had been completely routed and Seoul commander of American naval forces in the
had fallen. Far East. The fleets blockaded North Korea,
Major-General Chung Il Kwon, Chae's
successor, decided to withdraw and preserve
A group of South Korean soldiers in a rice paddy wait to
the ROK army rather than engage in further advance on 6 September 1950. Despite their initial rout, the
last-ditch defensives. Major-General Kim Hong ROK army survived the opening North Korean onslaught
Il took charge of delaying actions as the ROK and continued fighting throughout the war South Korea
army withdrew to the Naktong river. Kim provided over half of the UNC's manpower (US Army)
24 Eessential Histories - T h e Korean War

and naval aircraft from both carriers Pershing tanks had arrived that could
launched strikes against enemy targets. counter the T-34s. The North Koreans waited
Meanwhile, the US Far East Air Force quickly until 3 September to make their major
swept the skies of North Korean aircraft. assault in the Second Battle of the Naktong
After the decision to commit ground Bulge. However, by then North Korean
forces, the USA hurriedly ferried formations strength was ebbing. With only 98,000 men,
into South Korea. The Eighth US Army was they faced 180,000 UNC soldiers. Walker
sent to Korea, commanded by General used his superior firepower and reserves
Walton Walker. Rhee placed the ROK army effectively and threw back the attackers.
under UNC command. The first Exact North Korean casualties from the
reinforcements, the 24th and 25th US beginning of the war to this point are
Infantry Divisions, arrived directly from unknown, but some American estimates
Japan. Their men had been enjoying the place them as high as 60,000. The ROK army
comforts of occupational life in Japan and and the American forces suffered 70,000 and
were not ready for combat. Like the ROK 16,000 casualties respectively.
army, the two divisions were not equipped to While Walker halted the North Koreans
combat T-34s. On 5 July, a detachment of the around the Pusan Perimeter, MacArthur was
24th US Division, known as Task Force Smith, planning a more decisive action to the
was assigned to defend Osan. North Korean north. MacArthur is one of the great figures
armor pressed the Americans back to Taejon, of the Korean War. At the beginning of the
an important road hub, within a week. There, war, his reputation was gigantic from his
the entire division, attempting to make a victories in the Pacific War. After 1945, he
stand, was overrun. Its commander, Major- had governed the occupation and
General William Dean, was personally reconstruction of Japan. So great was his
involved in the front-line combat and was influence that Washington made few-
captured in the ensuing rout. One North attempts to control his actions. MacArthur
Korean officer, Lieutenant Oak Hyung-uk, was a devout exponent of decisive warfare.
later told historian John Toland that many Throughout the Pacific War, he had engaged
Americans were too frightened to fight. in a series of amphibious assaults to outflank
As ROK and American formations fought the Japanese, get behind their supply lines,
delaying actions, Walker established the Pusan and bypass their strongpoints. Thus, in Korea
Perimeter, a defensive line which ran north he did not want to continue a frontal battle
along the Naktong river and then east to the at Pusan, but sought to annihilate the North
west. Pusan was a vital port on the southern Koreans in one swift stroke.
tip of the peninsula through which most MacArthur proposed an amphibious
American forces arrived. The first threat came landing at Inchon, the port for Seoul. A
from the 6th North Korean Division. These landing there offered the opportunity to
veterans of the Chinese Civil War had made a sever North Korea's lines of communication
rapid, if circuitous, advance through south- and trap its army to the south. Inchon was
western Korea and were now threatening to an extremely dangerous and risky point to
outflank Walker's line in the south. The 25th attack. City-fighting is costly under the best
US Division barely stopped them less than 30 of circumstances; it is even more so when
miles (48km) from Pusan. Kim Ch'aek tried to soldiers must first disembark from assault
exploit this breach in the First Battle of the craft directly under defending fire.
Naktong Bulge. His headquarters hoped to pre- Additionally, the Inchon harbor had deep
empt further American reinforcements. But by tidal shifts, high sea walls, a narrow channel,
24 August, the attacks here and at Taegu had broad mudflats, and fortified islands. The
been thrown back with heavy casualties. tide fell 20 feet (6m) twice per day.
Reinforcements were now arriving daily. MacArthur, though, believed that these
Better American bazookas and heavy M-26 factors actually made Inchon an attractive
 The fighting 25

Marines climb from their landing craft to assault Inchon Marines would seize Wolmi-do, the island
on 15 September 1950. Inchon harbor had large tidal controlling the harbor. Then, they would
shifts, mudflats, a narrow channel, fortified islands, and a
press into the city and on to capture
high seawall. In this photo. Marines are using ladders to
ascend part of the seawall. (The Historical Branch, Kimpo Airfield. Next, Seoul, the most
United States Marine Corps) important rail and road hub in South Korea,
would be assaulted. Finally, both divisions
would block the enemy retreat from the
point to attack. The North Koreans would Pusan Perimeter. Ironically, Kim Il Sung
never expect it. The JCS initially were and Kim Ch'aek were aware of the
sceptical about the attack. But MacArthur likelihood of an American amphibious
won them over through skilfully presenting attack at Inchon. However, they decided
his case to the Chief of the Arm)7, General to stake everything on the Second Battle
Lawton Collins, and the Chief of Naval of the Naktong Bulge and left Inchon
Operations, Admiral Forrest Sherman, at a relatively undefended.
strategic planning conference in Tokyo. Early on 15 September, UNC naval and air
The 1st US Marine and 7th US Infantry forces bombarded Wolmi-do. MacArthur was
Divisions would mount the assault as part of personally present aboard the flagship of the
the newly formed X US Corps. Lieutenant- amphibious assault force, the USS Mount
General Edward Almond, MacArthur's chief McKinley. At 6.33 am, the first battalion of
of staff, was given command of the corps. the 5th Marine Regiment landed and took
Circumventing Walker, Almond answered the key point on the island without a single
directly to MacArthur. The X US Corps fatality. The remaining battalions of the
represented the last of MacArthur's reserves. regiment assaulted Inchon itself at the next
If his gamble failed and disaster struck at tidal window at 5.30 pm. The disembarking
Inchon, there would be no troops left to Marines clambered over the sea wall and
retake South Korea. through enemy bunkers to capture the
The troops were to be put ashore on dominating ground surrounding the
15 September in tidal 'windows' - the beachhead. Meanwhile, the 1st Marine
period when the tide was high enough for Regiment landed on the city's southern
landing craft to reach the shore. First, the outskirts. By morning the Marines had
26 Essential Histories • The Korean War

The Pusan Perimeter and Inchon landing,

5 August-17 September 1950

To halt the North Koreans. Eighth Army commander Walton Walker formed a defensive line in the
southeast corner of Korea, known as the Pusan Perimeter in August 1950.
 The fighting 27

A dramatic picture of Marines engaged in street fighting support struck the city heavily. Napalm
during the battle for Seoul. American incendiary bombs, caused incendiary fires. Many civilians died
artillery shells, and tanks reduced the city to rubble.
in the fighting. The North Koreans fought
(US Army)
fanatically, using suicide squads to destroy
American tanks. They were finally defeated
pressed 6 miles (10km) inland and controlled by 27 September when the American and
the Inchon-Seoul supply route. UN flags were raised over the capitol.
The North Koreans, facing the X US Walker broke out from the Pusan Perimeter
Corps, retreated to Seoul where 20.000 held on 23 September. Three days later, the 1st US
out in a last-ditch stand. Major-General O. P. Cavalry and 7th US Divisions linked at Osan,
Smith, commander of the Marine Division, trapping large numbers of Koreans. The NKPA
planned a two-pronged attack to take Seoul fell into a rout. Trapped, the North Korean
from the north and southwest. Kimpo fell to forces west of Osan were smashed. Those to
the northern group on 18 September. the east collapsed as they retreated north.
Anxious to capture Seoul, Almond threw the Many soldiers took refuge in the Taebaeks as
7th US Division's 32nd Regiment into the guerrillas. Ranking officers frequently
attack from the southeast. The fight for Seoul surrendered to the American and ROK forces.
was ferocious. UNC artillery fire and close air The battered 13th North Korean Division's
chief of staff even shot its commanding
OPPOSITE general - who wanted to continue reckless
1. On 11 August, the 6th North Korean Division tried to assaults - in order to allow the men to retreat.
outflank the Eighth Army line in the south, initiating the
By the time they were back across the 38th
First Battle of the Naktong River Bulge.
2. The bulk of the North Korean forces attacked the apex
Parallel, the North Koreans had lost over
of the Eighth Army line. 150,000 men. The UNC captured 125,000
3. Unsuccessful in the first battle, the North Koreans made prisoners. UNC losses in the offensive,
a carefully prepared attempt to break the Pusan including Inchon, were 18,000.
Perimeter in the Second Battle of the Naktong Bulge Inchon was a stunning and brilliant
(3-10 September), but again the Eighth Army held fast
4. Meanwhile. MacArthur landed the X US Corps at
victory for the UNC. The threat to South
Inchon on 15 September threatening the North Korean Korea was completely overturned and the
supply lines. This caused the collapse of the entire North NKPA virtually annihilated. However, while
Korean People's Army in the following week. MacArthur's maneuver warfare was
28 Essential Histories • The Korean War

outstandingly effective in annihilating the Korea, the entire balance of power in east Asia
North Koreans, it did not create a stable basis would be upset. American forces would be
for peace. Rather, the decisiveness of the directly on Soviet borders as well as China's.
victory greatly threatened the Soviet Union Nevertheless, Stalin was still unwilling to risk a
and the PRC. direct military confrontation. Therefore, Stalin
asked Mao if China was in a position to
intervene. He promised military equipment
The Chinese enter the war and that the Soviet air force would provide air
superiority over the Chinese armies.
American entry into the Korean War greatly- Mao did not respond to Kim and Stalin's
concerned the Chinese Communists. An requests until 2 October. At a specially
American victory in Korea would threaten convened meeting of the CCP Politburo,
their security and ideological interests. Indeed, Mao announced his intention to intervene.
Mao and Premier Zhou Enlai viewed the After the meeting, with the Politburo's
American intervention as part of a grand plan tentative support, Mao sent a telegram to
to control east Asia. Accordingly, on Stalin, comprehensively summarizing his
13 July 1950, four armies were dispatched to plans. A portion of the PLA would be sent to
the Korean border to form the Northeast Korea as the Chinese People's Volunteers
Border Defense Army (NBDA). It would defend (CPV). Although he expected American
China's border and support the operations of retaliation against Chinese soil, Mao's goal
the North Korean armed forces. Historian was nothing less than the decisive
Chen Jian describes in China's Road to the annihilation of the UNC forces in Korea. He
Korean War how, at a meeting of the Chinese hoped to avoid a stalemate, which would
Politburo on 4 August 1950, Mao said: 'If the drain China's resources and stunt its
US imperialists won the war they would economic reconstruction.
become more arrogant and would threaten us. Zhou was sent to Moscow to ask for large
We should not fail to assist the Koreans. We amounts of aid and weapons, as well as
must lend them our hands in the form of reconfirmation of Soviet air support. Before
sending our military volunteers there.' his departure, at midnight on 2 October,
However, Mao could not yet intervene because Zhou told Panikkar that if the USA crossed
of the unpreparedness of the PLA. the 38th Parallel, the PRC would 'not sit still
The Inchon landing brought the question and do nothing.' Nevertheless, in all
of Chinese intervention to a head. As the likelihood, there was little the USA could
NKPA disintegrated, first Pak Il-yu, North have done to dissuade Mao from intervening
Korean Minister of Interior Affairs, and then at this point. Zhou's message was probably
Kim himself requested immediate Chinese just meant to buy time for the CPV to
intervention to save North Korea. For Mao concentrate in North Korea. On 3 October,
and the CCP, the annihilation of the NKPA Mao appointed Peng Dehuai to command
increased the threat that the USA posed to the CPV. Peng was one of the PLA's best
China. The battle line was rapidly leaders and was known for his courage in
approaching Manchuria, a vital industrial tough situations. The final orders to the CPV
region. On 24 September, Zhou protested the to enter Korea were issued on 8 October.
accidental American bombing of Andong to The Chinese decision to intervene gave
the UN. Two days later, Nie Rongzhen, the Stalin what he wanted. When he met with
acting PLA chief of staff, told K. M. Panikkar, Zhou on 11 October, Stalin said that the
Indian ambassador to the PRC, that the PRC Soviet Union would provide all of the
would not passively await an American artillery, armor, aircraft, and military
advance to the Sino-Korean border. equipment required, but that the PRC would
The American landing at Inchon also have to pay for it. Mao tried unsuccessfully
shocked Stalin. If the USA occupied all of to bargain with Stalin. Given the threat that
 The fighting 29

the USA posed, though, he had no choice A UN resolution in the General Assembly
but to continue with intervention. on 7 October permitted the UNC to advance
Meanwhile, the Eighth Army approached across the 38th Parallel and unify Korea. The
the 38th Parallel. MacArthur was hypnotized Soviet Union had returned to the Security
by the allure of total victory and disregarded Council in August. To overcome its veto, the
the repeated Chinese warnings. Nor did USA pushed through a special procedure in
many in the American government take the November 1950, known as 'Uniting for
warnings seriously. MacArthur and the Peace.' It stipulated that, if a veto paralyzed
American government sought to unify Korea the Security Council in an emergency, the
under the ROK. In late September, the JCS General Assembly could rule on the
and Acheson decided to pursue the NKPA concerned matter as long as a two-thirds
north of the parallel as long as there was no majority pertained.
threat of major Soviet or Chinese Back in Korea, MacArthur deployed his
intervention. Secretary of Defense George C. corps on diverging lines of advance. The
Marshall even told MacArthur that the Eighth Army advanced in the west, taking
government wanted him to 'feel unhampered Pyongyang on 20 October and then moving
tactically and strategically to proceed north on toward the Yalu. The X US Corps, still
of the 38th parallel.' On 1 October, ROK acting directly under MacArthur, conducted
troops crossed the 38th Parallel, followed by a belated amphibious landing at Wonsan on
the rest of the Eighth Army on 7 October. 26 October (which the I ROK Corps had
Despite the increasing momentum to unify already beaten them to), and drove north.
Korea, Truman was concerned about the
UNC front-line strength was approximately
repercussions of crossing the 38th Parallel. He
200,000 men.
arranged a meeting with MacArthur on Wake
Island to discuss the situation. At the hugely
A column of Chinese infantry crossing the Yalu river into
publicized meeting on 15 October, Korea. In October and November 1950. the People's
MacArthur reassured Truman that there were Liberation Army, under the pseudonym of the Chinese
no signs of Chinese or Soviet intent to People's Volunteers, massed in the northern reaches of
intervene. Korea, waiting to spring their trap against the carelessly
advancing UNC forces. (Chinese News Agency)
30 Essential Histories - T h e Korean War

The CPV, unlike the NKPA, was poorly OPPOSITE

equipped. It lacked artillery and was not The Chinese entered the Korean War in force on
25 November 1950. In the west the Thirteenth CPV
mechanized. Despite the recent increase in
Army Corps threatened to encircle the Eighth Army. The
Soviet assistance, most of its small arms and 2nd US Division was cut off at Kunu-ri and virtually
ammunition had been captured from the annihilated struggling south. The entire army was forced
Nationalist Chinese or the Japanese. Logistics south in a disorganized rout. In the east, the Ninth CPV
Army Corps encircled the 1st US Marine Division of the
were primarily organized through civilian
X US Corps at the Chosin reservoir
laborers who carried supplies to the front on
foot. Thus, the CPV could not advance far
without suffering supply difficulties. a total of about 300,000 men. The former,
However, tremendous manpower and a commanded by General Deng Hua,
strong base of recent combat experience contained four CPV armies, of three
offset these disadvantages. Most CPV soldiers divisions each. Deng had carefully trained
had experienced combat in the large field the Thirteenth CPV Army Corps. Its soldiers
operations at the end of the Chinese Civil were of a very high caliber. For example,
War. They were hardy marchers and adept at the 38th CPV Army of the Thirteenth CPV
off-road movement. Peng emphasized the Army Corps was known as an elite
quick and bold movement of infantry to formation from its performance in the
encircle and overwhelm the enemy. Attacks Chinese Civil War. The three armies of the
were to be conducted at night when the Ninth CPV Army Corps, on the other hand,
element of surprise would facilitate a had been preparing for an invasion of
breakthrough. Most Chinese leaders, buoyed Taiwan and were not ready to face the
by their success in the Second World War mountainous terrain and freezing winter
and the Chinese Civil War, believed that weather of Korea. The North Korean armed
deception, stealth, and night fighting would
enable their poorly armed soldiers to
General Peng Dehuai. seated on the left, commanded
overcome Western technological and the Chinese People's Volunteers. He was a realistic and
materiel superiority. level-headed commander. Unfortunately, he was
The CPV was composed of the executed during the Cultural Revolution after privately
Thirteenth and Ninth CPV Army Corps, for questioning Mao's policies. (Xinhua)
 The fighting 31

The Communist Second Phase Offensive, 25 November 1950

32 Essential Histories • The Korean War

forces, although given some autonomy, also in central Korea and then cut off the retreat of
fell under Peng's command. the I and IX US Corps to the west. Mao and
The Thirteenth CPV Army Corps first Peng hoped this offensive might unify the
crossed the Yalu on 14 October 1950. Two peninsula under Communist control. The
weeks later, it mounted a limited attack on assaulting Chinese infantry moved off-road to
the II ROK Corps in order to stunt the encircle and then overwhelm UNC units.
Eighth Army advance; this attack was Lacking sufficient radios, the Chinese used
known as the First Phase Offensive. After bugles, drums, and other instruments to
smashing an ROK and an American coordinate their movements. These surprise
regiment, Peng returned to the defensive, attacks were very disorienting to the average
waiting for the UNC to advance and UNC soldier. By the end of 26 November, the
overextend itself. Although Walker ordered a II ROK Corps had completely disintegrated,
tactical withdrawal, MacArthur did not and the Chinese were surrounding the 2nd US
appreciate the gravity of what had occurred. Infantry Division. Meanwhile, the Chinese
He believed that only a small number of pressed the fronts of the two American corps
Chinese troops were actually in Korea and in order to pin them against the flanking
that a quick advance would pre-empt further movement. The I US Corps was forced to
intervention. On 24 November, MacArthur retreat hurriedly down the coast. The entire
and Walker resumed the UNC advance, Eighth Army was threatened with
falling into Peng's trap. Expecting a quick encirclement.
and painless end to the war, UNC soldiers Disregarding reports from the front,
and officers advanced recklessly. Formations Walker and MacArthur would not permit
became strung out and did not take proper the 2nd US Division to retreat until
precautions against a counterattack. Rumour 28 November. By then, the 38th CPV Army
spread that the American troops would be had cut off the division's escape route, the
'home by Christmas.'
On the evening of 25 November, Peng and
the CPV sprung upon the renewed American infantry under Chinese attack in North
Korea in late 1950. American soldiers had been
UNC advance to open the Second Phase expecting to be shipped home, but instead found
Offensive. The Thirteenth CPV Army Corps, of themselves in a new. much more difficult, conflict.
180,000 men, was to crush the II ROK Corps (US Army Military History Institute)
 The fighting 33

Chinese infantry advancing at night. The Chinese were cohesion. The road became filled with the
adept at infiltration tactics, night combat, and off-road wreckage of American tanks, artillery, and
movement. Their surprise attacks, accompanied by eerie transport vehicles. UNC air strikes napalmed
whistles and bugles, disconcerted UNC soldiers.
the hillsides and hampered the CPV
(Chinese National Army Museum)
encirclement. The 38th CPV Army was
unable physically to block the road, allowing
road from Kunu-ri to Sunchon. The Chinese disordered American soldiers to escape.
ensconced themselves on the hillsides
overlooking the road and maintained a
The Ninth CPV Army Corps marching in North
constant rain of small arms fire on to the
Korea about the time of the battle for the Chosin
road-bound 2nd US Division. They used reservoir. These men had been training for an amphibious
satchel charges, grenades, and mortar landing on Taiwan and were not prepared for the
shelling to destroy American vehicles and near-Arctic conditions of the Chosin reservoir
equipment. American troops quickly lost all Thousands died from the cold. (Xinhua)
34 Essential Histories • The Korean War

By 30 November, the remnants of the order to concentrate his forces and maintain
2nd US Division met with the forward a steady flow of supplies. As the Marines
positions of the 27th Commonwealth Brigade, marched north, the temperature dropped
which had been attempting to relieve them. below freezing and it began to snow.
The division had taken 5,000 casualties. The 1st US Marine Division was an elite
Meanwhile, the rest of the DC and I US Corps formation. Many of the Marines had
(with some elements of the 2nd US Division) extensive combat experience in the Pacific
retreated to safety via Anju on the west coast. War. This foundation of combat experience
The Chinese had not moved fast enough to was one of the major reasons that the
block this escape r o u t . Marines performed well in Korea. .Another
In the mountains around the Chosin was the degree to which the Marines
reservoir, the Ninth CPV Army Corps of emphasized loyalty and unit cohesion. The
120,000 men was preparing to encircle the Marines woe committed to standing together
X US Corps. In accordance with MacArthur's and fighting it out in difficult situations.
orders for an offensive to the Yalu, the 1st US
Marine Division had advanced along the
western edge of the Chosin reservoir toward On the night of 27 November, the Ninth CPV Army
Corps encircled the Marines at the Chosin reservoir In
the Yalu. To Almond's ire, Smith had wisely
the ensuing battle, the Marines fought their way out.
slowed the advance of the Marine Division in driving south to Chinhung-ni.

Battle of the Chosin Reservoir, 27-28 November 1950

 The fighting 35

On the night of 27 November, the were trained to fight as infantrymen. Sergeant

Chinese struck. They cut off the lead 5th and James H. Fearns was a mechanic who quickly
7th Marine Regiments at Yudam-ni and departed from his duties to serve as a
surrounded the 1st Marine Regiment at front-line infantryman. He found the Chinese
Hagaru and Koto-ri. In mass numbers, the to be much more determined opponents than
Chinese mounted frontal assaults on the the North Koreans. The North Koreans would
Marine positions. Corporal Arthur Koch, a retreat once pushed off a position. The
squad leader in the 5th Marine Regiment, Chinese, on the other hand, would stand and
described the experience of a Chinese attack fight However, the Chinese often made gross
in Martin Russ's book Breakout. tactical errors. Besides frontally attacking the
same strong positions repeatedly, they did not
It was enough to make your hair stand on know bow to exploit a breakthrough. They
end ... When the bugles died away we heard a would mill around on captured hills, making
voice through a megaphone and then the blast of wonderful targets. Despite being
a police whistle. I was plenty scared, but who outnumbered, the Marines inflicted hideous
wasn't? I couldn't believe my eyes when I saw casualties on the Chinese frontal assaults.
them in the moonlight. It was like the snow Every time the Chinese captured a ridge, the
coining to life, and they were shouting and Marines counterattacked and drove them
shaking their fists - just raising hell ... The back off it.
Chinese didn't come at us by fire and maneuver
... they came in a rush like a pack of mad dogs.
A load of napalm dropped from a Corsair explodes
Even though I was ready it was a terrible shock.
against the Chinese blocking the retreat of the Marines
from the Chosin reservoir. In spite of being surrounded,
Nearly every man took part in the fighting. the Marines fought their way out, destroying several CPV
All Marines, whatever their specialization, divisions in the process. (US Naval Institute)
36 Essential Histories • The Korean War

On 29 November, Smith ordered Colonel We'd been humiliated, debased, overwhelmed

Homer Litzenberg, commanding the - routed ... The news writers would slant it all to
7th Marine Regiment at Yudam-ni to break sound like a minor setback. Take it from me,
out to Hagaru. One battalion attacked however, it was carnage. Intelligence said they hit
cross-country and broke through the us with one-third of a million men. I believe it.
Chinese block at the Toktong Pass, while the They turned our Army into a leaderless horde,
bulk of the two regiments pressed down the running headlong for Pusan. Our soldiers had lost
road frontally. Steep hills and ridges lined every bit of confidence in all of their leaders, from
both sides of the road. The Chinese were the commander in chief down to platoon leaders.
able to fire upon the column and injure
Marines, destroy transports, and temporarily American decision-makers now believed
block the road. Individual Marines that they were faced with the choice of
independently remedied problems as they either withdrawing entirely from Korea -
arose, such as clearing wreckage in the road. tantamount to surrendering - or escalating
assisting wounded men, or engaging the the conflict further. Escalation could bring
Chinese. In the daytime, US Marine Corps the Soviet Union directly into the fighting.
Corsair fighter-bombers napalmed, strafed, Thus, the conflict in Korea threatened to
and bombed the hillsides. Through their trigger a Third World War.
combined efforts, the column trudged
forward.
On 3 December, the vanguard of the The war of attrition
column entered Hagaru. From Hagaru, the
entire Marine force pressed on to Koto-ri and The rout of the Eighth Army placed UNC
then to the X US Corps lines and safety at general headquarters in a state of total panic.
Chinhung-ni. Smith allegedly told reporters: MacArthur dispatched a series of frantic
'Retreat, hell - we're attacking in another reports to Washington warning of the
direction.' The entire X US Corps evacuated impending annihilation of the UNC. Despite
Hungnam and left North Korea on Christmas the risk of further escalation, he called for
Day. The Marines suffered 4.400 battle direct military action against China. The use
casualties in the fighting around the Chosin of atomic weapons was not excluded in his
reservoir. The Ninth CPV Army Corps was demands. Despite MacArthur's reports,
badly mauled and had to be withdrawn to escalating the war appeared very dangerous
Manchuria for reorganization. More than to the Truman administration and the USA's
20,000 dead Chinese, most killed by the allies. Seeking total victory against North
cold, littered the hillsides, frozen and Korea had already brought China into the
covered with snow. conflict. Waging total war against China
However, the Marines' heroism at Chosin might cause the Soviet Union to intervene as
cannot mask the catastrophic results of the well. With very weak conventional forces in
Chinese intervention for the UNC. The Europe, the West could not risk a war with
UNC fell back all the way to the 38th Parallel the Soviet Union. Even if the Soviet Union
in the longest retreat in American military did not intervene, the USA and UNC
history, known by the troops at the front as would be immersed in a wider war in Asia
the 'Big Bug-Out.' Even though only that would demand a huge military
13,000 casualties were suffered, the UNC commitment. In the following weeks,
ground forces, for the most part, were although still searching for a course of
transformed into a disorganized mob. action, the USA hesitantly supported two
Captain Charles Bussey, of the 77th US resolutions in the UN for an immediate
Engineer Combat Company, described his cease-fire. Zhou rejected the resolutions. It
recollections of the retreat in his book was evident that the USA needed to find an
Firefight at Yechon: alternative between withdrawal and
 The fighting 37

escalation: in other words, a means of to fight a limited war and hold the UNC
fighting a limited war. position in Korea as long as possible. The
In a limited war, the total defeat of the goal of liberating North Korea was
opponent is not a goal. Examples of aims of a abandoned. In the Truman-Attlee
limited war are seizing a piece of land, causing communique of 8 December, the two leaders
the enemy to compromise on a particular called for negotiations with the Communists.
issue in negotiations, or simply defending The JCS issued MacArthur a strategic
one's own territory. In early December, JCS directive on 29 December 1950. It stated that
and State Department discussions regarding a decisive victory would not be sought in
fighting a limited war were very tentative. Korea or against the PRC. MacArthur was
There was a great deal of uncertainty over instructed to hold his position in Korea
whether the UNC could actually withstand without risking the safety of his forces. In
the Communist onslaught. reply, MacArthur put forth his own strategy
In a press conference on 30 November, of escalation. He called for a blockade of
Truman stated that the USA would 'take any China; air strikes and naval bombardments
steps necessary to meet the military against China's industry; the reinforcement
situation.' When asked if this included the of the Eighth Army with Chinese Nationalist
use of the atomic bomb, he replied: 'There troops; and diversionary attacks from Taiwan
has always been active consideration of its against the Chinese mainland. MacArthur
use ...' Although Truman had no intention of
using atomic weapons, the statement greatly Ridgway and MacArthur near the front line on
frightened Western governments. The British 28 January 1951. MacArthur is on the far right. Ridgway
Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, immediately stands in the center with sunglasses and a grenade
strapped to his shoulder Unlike MacArthur. Ridgway
flew to Washington for a meeting with understood that it was in the best interests of the
Truman. He and Truman agreed on the need USA to fight a limited war in Korea. (US Army)
38 Essential Histories • The Korean War

wanted nothing less than to remove the PRC imagination in dealing with a foe whom they
'as a threat to peace in Asia for generations to soon outmatched in firepower and dominated in
come.' The JCS rejected MacArthur's request. the air and surrounding seas - these were not the
Truman personally told MacArthur to avoid fault of the GI . . .
actions that might cause a general war.
The Eighth Army commander Walton Ridgway immediately acted to revitalize
Walker died on 23 December in a jeep the Eighth Army. He demanded that officers
accident. Lieutenant-General Matthew command from the front. Divisional
Ridgway replaced him. A renowned airborne commanders were to be with their forward
commander in the Second World War, battalions, and corps commanders were to be
outwardly Ridgway seemed a flamboyant with the regiment 'that was in the hottest
character. For example, he always sported a action. 'He ordered commanders to deploy
grenade on his webbing. Inwardly, though, their units off the roads and into the hills.
Ridgway was extremely thoughtful and Officers were rebuked for failing to keep
perceptive. Ready to adapt to difficult contact with the enemy. He forcefully
circumstances, he was determined to repeated the army slogan: 'Find them! Fix
reinvigorate the Eighth Army and stop the them! Fight them! Finish them!' Officers
Communists on the ground. were also encouraged to breed group
In his first week in Korea, Ridgway toured cohesion and unit loyalty in their men. To
the front line and visited nearly every make the army more 'offensive-minded' and
divisional commander. Speaking directly certain of their cause, Ridgway issued a
with the men at the front, he was overtaken general statement to the troops, which said
by their demoralization. He wrote in his that they were fighting to uphold freedom
book, The Korean War. and fight the slavery of Communism. Ted
White, an enlisted man in the African-
The men 1 met along the road, those I stopped
American 24th US Infantry Regiment, related
to talk to and to solicit gripes from - they too all
Ridgway's doctrine from the private soldier's
conveyed to me a conviction that this was a
perspective in Rudy Tomedi's book No Bugles,
No Drums:
bewildered army, not sure of itself or its leaders,
not sure what they were doing there, wondering
when they would hear the whistle of that We were there to kill Chinese. That's what
homebound transport. they told us. The army was done with retreating.
General Ridgway was in charge now, and he
The men were prone to retreating. wasn't a retreating general. We heard it every
Because units failed to keep contact with the day from the officers. 'Fix 'em, find 'em, kill
enemy, Eighth Army intelligence had no idea 'em.' We went out every day and we attacked.
of the opposing enemy strength. Also, many Seems like that's all we did was attack. We
soldiers were simply not interested in hardly ate. We hardly slept. We just attacked. If
fighting. Civilian life was much more I'd known what I was getting myself into, I don't
appealing. Veterans, in particular, did not know if I'd of [sic] volunteered.
appreciate being called up for a second war
in five years. Problems extended beyond the In the midst of these reforms, Ridgway
enlisted men to the officers. Ridgway wrote: instituted attrition as the new operational
doctrine of the Eighth Army. He supported
The leadership I found in many instances fighting a limited war and understood that
sadly lacking, and I said so out loud. The warfare had changed since the Second World
unwillingness of the army to forgo certain War. He especially opposed the use of atomic
creature comforts, its timidity about getting off weapons. Instead of annihilating the
scanty roads, its reluctance to move without Communists, he sought to wear down their
radio and telephone contact, and its lack of manpower. To do so, superior UNC firepower
 The fighting 39

was to be exploited to the maximum effect. by-step advance northwards, with heavy
The hallmark of Ridgway's doctrine of artillery and close-air support. The 25th US
attrition was his directive to his subordinates Division and the renowned Turkish Brigade
to maximize enemy casualties while pummelled the opposing 50th CPV Army in
minimizing those of the Eighth Army. Given the first day of fighting. Ridgway observed
the daunting Communist numerical the progress from the air. Frequently, he
superiority, conserving casualties was appeared at corps and divisional
absolutely crucial. Not a single company -was headquarters, or even on the front line, to
to be sacrificed. There was to be no fighting guide and observe operations. By 9 February,
simply to hold terrain. Rather than fighting the Eighth Army was back on the Han river.
the expected Communist attack in forward The counteroffensive surprised the CPV
positions around Seoul, Ridgway intended to commanders, who had not expected such a
withdraw carefully to the Han river. quick UNC recovery. Overconfident, Mao
Ridgway's first use of attrition was ordered another attack, the short-lived and
successful. Peng launched the Third Phase ill-advised Fourth Phase Offensive. On
Offensive in sub-zero conditions on 11 February. Chinese forces, led by Deng
31 December 1950. Although Ridgway was Hua, broke through the III ROK Corps and
forced to abandon Seoul, his withdrawal threatened the important road hub of
stretched the Communist supply lines to Wonju. Further west, the 23rd RCT (2nd US
breaking point, forcing Peng to call off the
offensive. Ridgway was anxious to seize the 1. Ridgway's first major counteroffensive was Operation
initiative. On 15 January 1951, he mounted Thunderbolt, which took the Eighth Army back to the
Han river by 11 February.
a reconnaissance in force, Operation
2. Meanwhile, Operation Roundup brought the army
Wolfhound, followed by a full-blown forward in the east.
counteroffensive, Operation Thunderbolt, 3. From 11 to 20 February, the Eighth Army defeated
10 days later. In Operation Thunderbolt, the the Communist Fourth Phase Offensive, after heavy
I and IX US Corps made a careful and step- fighting around Wonju and Chipyong-ni.

The Eighth Army's resurgence, January-February 1951

40 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Division) and an attached French battalion circumstances. Pursuit of the defeated

were encircled at Chipyong-ni. Supplied by enemy was to be cautious and coordinated,
air, they fought stubbornly and took the avoiding the kind of reckless advance that
momentum out of the Communist advance. had made the Eighth Army vulnerable in
By 20 February, the Communists had been November 1950. This also enabled Ridgway
halted at the cost of 17,000 UNC casualties. to ensure that his forces always had strong
Communist casualties were probably greater. logistical support.
Because of this defeat, Peng instituted a In late February and March, Ridgway
temporary strategy of withdrawing before launched a series of colorfully named
UNC attacks in order to conserve his forces limited objective attacks: Operations Killer,
before launching another major offensive. Ripper, and Rugged. Due to Peng's new
Hoping to bring the Communists to the strategy, the Communists generally
negotiating table, Ridgway outlined an withdrew and avoided a serious battle. This
offensive doctrine for attrition in allowed Ridgway to steadily expand his
mid-February. Soldiers often called it 'the territorial objectives. UNC units advanced
meatgrinder.' It was based on the limited into an empty and devastated Seoul on
objective attack. A limited objective attack 14 March. Thereafter, Ridgway and the JCS
was a concentrated and carefully prepared decided to cross the 38th Parallel in order
set-piece assault meant to kill to secure stronger defensive positions to the
Communists, not capture ground.
Inflicting the maximum damage on the
enemy with the minimum loss to the French soldiers on patrol. Their commander; Lieutenant-
UNC remained the principle behind all Colonel Ralph Monclar had asked to be reduced in
rank from lieutenant-general so that he could command
operations. Massive use of superior UNC
the French battalion in Korea. The French served
firepower was emphasized. No attacks valiantly in several actions, including Chipyong-ni and
would be made in unfavorable or risky Heartbreak Ridge. (ECP Armees)
 The fighting 4

immediate north. The positions After some thought, Marshall, Acheson,

subsequently taken became known as the and the JCS all agreed that MacArthur would
Kansas Line. Sited on strong defensive have to go. On 14 April, MacArthur was
terrain, it ran along the lower Imjin in the relieved of command of the UNC. Ridgway
west to Hwachon and then to the east replaced him, and immediately issued a
coast, just north of Taepo-ri. The directive to all of his principal subordinates
Communists suffered more than that no actions were to be taken that risked
53,000 casualties in Ridgway's limited escalating the conflict.
objective attacks. Total UNC casualties were In early April, Peng was finally ready to
probably less than 20,000. By now it was launch the major offensive to annihilate the
clear that Ridgway had turned the Eighth Eighth Army, known as the Fifth Phase
Army into a highly efficient fighting force. Offensive. The plan was for two converging
MacArthur never accepted the new thrusts to break through the UNC line and
strategy of attrition. Indeed, his rhetoric encircle the Eighth Army divisions one by one.
became more inflammatory the further The Third and Nineteenth CPV Army Corps,
north Ridgway marched. But Ridgway's the western thrust, would cross the Imjin and
successes undermined MacArthur's seize the Seoul-Uijongbu area. Simultaneously,
arguments. The advances of the Eighth the Ninth and Thirteenth CPV Army Corps,
Army during February and March solidified the eastern thrust, would strike in the direction
consensus in Washington that the strategic of Kapyong from Kumwha and Hwachon. This
objective of the UNC was to bring the was the first action for the Nineteenth and
Communists to the negotiating table Third CPV Army Corps. They were fully
through continued attrition. equipped with Soviet weapons, including tanks
Aware of the deliberations in and artillery. In all, 14 Communist divisions
Washington, MacArthur issued a statement would attack the Eighth Army.
to the press on 24 March that escalating the General James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway
war would quickly cause the PRC's military as commander of the Eighth Army. Van Fleet
capability to collapse. By advocating a
policy contradictory to the one set out by
the JCS and the Truman administration,
MacArthur was flouting their authority.
Then, on 5 April, Senator Joe Martin read a
letter from MacArthur in the US House of
Representatives. In the letter, MacArthur
approved of the idea of landing Chinese
Nationalists on the Chinese mainland. He
ended the letter with an endorsement of
total victory.
Because of these two incidents, Truman
acted to relieve MacArthur. Truman wrote in
his memoirs:

Time and again General MacArthur had

shown that he was unwilling to accept the
policies of the Administration. By his repeated
public statements he was ... setting his policy
against the President's ... If I allowed him to General James Van Fleet. Ridgway's successor as
commander of the Eighth Army. Van Fleet was an avid
defy the civil authorities in this manner, I myself
proponent of firepower He espoused massive artillery
would be violating my oath to uphold and bombardments, which the troops dubbed the 'Van Fleet
defend the Constitution. Day of Fire.' (National Archives)
42 Essential Histories • The Korean War

had previously commanded the American successful delaying action north of the
forces that had assisted the Greek critical road junction at Kapyong from 23 to
government to defeat Communist guerrillas 26 April. This prevented the eastern
in the late 1940s. In the west, where the Communist pincer from cutting off any
Communist offensive was aimed. Van Fleet UNC formations.
had seven divisions (five American) and Meanwhile, the western Communist thrust
three brigades at his disposal. Eighth Army engaged in a pitched battle to penetrate the
Operational doctrine remained based on
attrition. Without micromanaging, Ridgway
On the night of 22 April, the Communists, intent on
supervised Van Fleet's planning. He annihilating the UNC. launched the Fifth Phase Offensive.
emphasized that the Eighth Army was to The basis of the initial attack was a two-pronged
withdraw before the expected Communist encirclement of the UNC forces in the west.
offensive. Thereby, the Communists would 1. The Ninth and Thirteenth CPV Army Corps smashed
be exposed to UNC firepower and denied the through the 6th ROK Division and drove deep into
the Eighth Army rear; threatening to encircle the
opportunity to cut off any UNC formations.
American divisions to the northwest.
On the night of 22 April 1951, the Fifth 2. This caused the 1 st Marine Division to quickly refuse
Phase Offensive began. On the eastern axis their left flank.
of advance, the Ninth CPV Army Corps 3. Meanwhile, the other prong of the offensive, the
Nineteenth CPV Army Corps, attacked the
quickly smashed through the 6th ROK
29th British Brigade along the Imjin river but the
Division. By morning, there was a gaping Communists were held back until 25 April.
hole between the 24th US Division to the 4. Back to the east, the 27th Commonwealth Brigade
west and the Marine Division to the east. delayed the Communists at Kapyong from 28 to
Elements of the Ninth and Thirteenth CPV 30 April, preventing them from encircling any UNC
Army Corps poured into the gap, threatening formations.
5. Starting on 25 April, the American divisions
to cut off the 24th and 25th US Divisions
threatened with encirclement withdrew toward Seoul.
to the northwest. However, the 6. The Eighth Army fell back to the No Name Line,
27th Commonwealth Brigade conducted a where it halted the Communist advance by 30 April.

Fifth Phase Offensive, First Stage, 22-30 April 1951

 The fighting 43

A medic applies first aid while under heavy fire Nineteenth CPV Army Corps. The army corps'
during the Fifth Phase Offensive. (US Army Military advance depended upon the quick
History Institute)
annihilation of the 29th British Brigade.
The Glosters, commanded by Lieutenant-
UNC line along the Imjin. The focal point of Colonel James Carne, were located on the
this fighting was the stand of the 1st Battalion, western flank of the British line. On the
the Gloucestershire Regiment (the Glosters). night of 22 April, the Chinese surged over
The Glosters were part of the 29th British the Imjin at 'Gloster Crossing.' Carne could
Brigade, along with two other British infantry not retreat without uncovering the flanks of
battalions and the 8th King's Royal Irish the British battalion to the east and the
Hussars. The 8th Royal Irish Hussars was an 1st ROK Division to the west. The Chinese
armored regiment, equipped with the attacked the Glosters' positions four times in
fearsome Centurion tank. Mounting an two and a half hours. Mortar, artillery, and
extremely accurate 20pdr (83.4mm) gun, the Vickers machine-gun fire inflicted heavy
Centurion was debatably the best tank in the losses on the attackers. The Glosters lost no
world. The British units contained a mix of ground and suffered few casualties. The rest
regular soldiers and conscripted National of the 29th British Brigade was also attacked.
Servicemen. These were steady and On the evening of 23 April, increasing
professional troops. Known as two of the most pressure forced the Glosters to withdraw from
reliable formations in the Eighth Army, the their position before 'Gloster Crossing' to the
two Commonwealth brigades had been nearby Hill 235, dubbed 'Gloucester Hill.'
repeatedly assigned to vital rearguard actions. However, the Chinese had infiltrated almost
The 29th British Brigade, commanded by completely around Gloucester Hill. On the
Brigadier Thomas Brodie, was disposed directly afternoon of 24 April, Soule asked Brodie
behind the Imjin, guarding two crossings. The about the Glosters' situation. Brodie replied:
brigade was under the direct authority of 'A bit sticky; things are pretty sticky down
Major-General Robert Soule, commander of there.' To the subtle British, 'pretty sticky'
the 3rd US Infantry Division. The British were meant critical. But to forthright Americans, it
the hinge between the 1st ROK Division on merely meant unpleasant. Therefore, Soule
the lower Imjin and the American divisions to ordered the Glosters to continue to hold. On
the northeast. If the Chinese annihilated the Gloucester Hill, the Chinese attacked from
British, the 3rd and 25th US Divisions would three directions throughout that night.
be outflanked. This was indeed the goal of the Engaged in close combat with the Chinese,
44 Essential Histories • The Korean War

the British repeatedly called artillery fire A sketch by Bryande Grineau of the last stand of
down upon their own positions. The 1 st Battalion, the Gloucestershire Regiment, on the Imjin.
The stand enabled several American divisions to escape
Glosters' ranks were filled with wounded men
encirclement, but most of the battalion was killed or
who would not leave the firing line. By taken prisoner in the process. Van Fleet called it 'the most
morning, ammunition was nearly exhausted. outstanding example of unit bravery in modern warfare.'
With the Communists threatening to (Illustrated London News)
break through all along his line, Lieutenant-
General Frank Milburn, commander of the Shortly thereafter, Van Fleet ordered the 1 and
I US Corps, finally ordered a general IX US Corps to fall back 25 miles (40km) to the
withdrawal on the morning of 25 April. No Name Line before Seoul. When the Chinese
Unfortunately, Soule and Brodie lacked the advanced again, they could not dislodge the
reserves to break the Glosters out. Brodie entrenched and prepared UNC forces. Van
ordered the battalion to disperse and try to Fleet later said that the loss of the Glosters had
escape in small independent parties. Only been necessary to save the whole Eighth Army.
39 men made it back to UNC lines. The rest, Nevertheless, the destruction of an entire
including Carne, were killed or taken battalion outraged Ridgway. It violated his
prisoner. The remainder of the 29th British basic dictum of never ordering units to hold a
Brigade successfully withdrew from the Imjin. position at all costs.
Supported by a squadron of Centurions, the In early May, Peng shifted his weight for a
infantry cut through the Communists second blow in the eastern half of the
attempting to block the line of retreat. peninsula. The Ninth and Third CPV Army
The Glosters' stand blunted the western Corps were transferred east to attack
Communist thrust. The Nineteenth CPV Army alongside the II and V North Korean Corps.
Corps had been delayed for three vital days. On 16 May, the Communists slammed into
Human wave attacks exposed the Chinese to the III ROK Corps and the adjacent ROK
devastating losses from British and American divisions of the X US Corps. The III ROK
firepower. One of the divisions of the attacking Corps was virtually annihilated and fled
63rd CPV Army was entirely destroyed. The south. In accordance with Van Fleet's orders,
29th British Brigade lost 1,091 men in the the X US Corps fell back. This extended
three days of fighting. Approximately half of Communist supply lines and provided time
these casualties were borne by the Glosters. to move UNC reinforcements into the front
 The fighting 45

These riflemen of the 65th Regimental Combat Team recaptured the Kansas Line by 15 June.
(RCT). 3rd US Division, are participating in the UNC Additionally, the lower half of the Iron
counterattacks to the Fifth Phase Offensive. The Triangle was seized. The Iron Triangle was the
65th RCT was composed almost entirely of Puerto
road and rail complex connecting
Ricans. (US Army Military History Institute)
Pyonggang, Chorwon, and Kumwha. Its
unique position made it the communications
line. Intense artillery fire and close air hub between the Communist front line and
support inflicted heavy casualties on the the rest of North Korea. Thus, it was a major
exposed Communist forces. On 21 May, Communist supply center. The extension of
running out of food and ammunition, the the UNC line in this area was known as the
Communist advance ground to a halt. Wyoming Line.
Ridgway was intent on exploiting the Ridgway did not press the offensive further
Communists' defeat and forcing them to because he believed that the price of advancing
come to the negotiating table. The Eighth to Pyongyang or the Yalu would be too great.
Army counterattacked across the front on The rugged terrain of North Korea was optimal
20 May. UNC spearheads cut Communist for a strong Communist defensive. UNC supply
lines of retreat. Many Chinese panicked and lines would become extended while the
large numbers of prisoners were taken. Tzo Communists drew nearer to their supply
Peng, a machine-gunner, said that the centers on the Yalu. Furthermore, there was the
situation was pure chaos and that there was risk that such an action would cause the PRC
nothing to eat for five days. He found the or even the Soviet Union to escalate the war.
shelling horrifying. Unable to fight or escape, The Fifth Phase Offensive was the most
he surrendered. The Eighth Army had important battle of the Korean War. The
46 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Fifth Phase Offensive, Second Stage, 16-20 May 1951

After being defeated in the west, the Communists the Communists would accept negotiations.
shifted their offensive to the east. They effected a Notwithstanding this decision, Mao and Peng
major breakthrough, but the planned UNC
were intent on winning more victories on the
withdrawal caused their advance to quickly lose
momentum and grind to a halt.
battlefield before actually agreeing to a
cease-fire. Nevertheless, the Communists'
willingness to enter into negotiations and
UNC lost about 25,000 men, followed by fight a limited war marked the abandonment
another 14,700 in the counteroffensive of their goal of reunifying Korea. While it did
operations in June. These were heavy losses. not end the war immediately, the UNC victory
However, the Communists suffered at least in the Fifth Phase Offensive laid the basis for a
85,000 casualties. This does not include negotiated settlement to the conflict.
numbers for the UNC counteroffensive, in
which the UNC captured 17,000 prisoners and
probably killed or wounded many more than Negotiations
that. The defeat caused a major change in
Chinese strategy. Mao realized that the losses Cease-fire negotiations began on 10 July
incurred since January meant that the UNC 1951 behind Communist lines at Kaesong.
could not be decisively defeated. Rather, he No political issues were to be discussed, only
decided that cease-fire negotiations were now 'military' issues related to the initiation of a
acceptable. Stalin agreed. Since 31 May, cease-fire. Vice-Admiral C. Turner Joy headed
representatives of the USA and the Soviet the UNC delegation. North Korean General
Union had been tentatively discussing the Nam Il led the Communist delegation.
possibility of commencing cease-fire However, Stalin, Mao, and the JCS were
negotiations. On 23 June 1951, Jacob Malik, intimately involved in negotiations and
the Soviet Ambassador to the UN, implied in controlled the bargaining positions of their
the UN radio program The Price of Peace that respective delegations. The final agenda was
 The fighting 47

The UNC delegation to the cease-fire negotiations. Communists from including one of their
From left to right are Major-General Henry Hodes basic demands, the mutual withdrawal of
Major-General Laurence Craigie, Vice-Admiral C. Turner
foreign troops from Korea, as an item. The
Joy, Major-General Paik Sun Yup, and Rear-Admiral
negotiators then turned to discussing Item
Arleigh Burke. Joy was the head U N C delegate.
(Defence Department) Two, which seemed to be the most
important issue on the agenda.
Given the new context of negotiating
confirmed on 26 July. It comprised five while fighting, Ridgway updated his strategy.
items: first, the adoption of an agenda; Attrition would now be used to enforce the
second, the establishment of a cease-fire line; UNC bargaining position by increasing the
third, supervisory arrangements for the
cease-fire; fourth, the exchange of prisoners The Communist delegation to the cease-fire negotiations. From
left to right are Major-General Hsieh Fang and Lieutenant-
of war (POWs); and, fifth, recommendations
General Deng Hua, the Chinese delegates; and then, General
for a political settlement of the conflict. In N a m Il, Major-General Lee Sang Cho, and General Chang
the process of establishing a final agenda, Pyong San. the N o r t h Korean delegates. Nam II was the main
the UNC delegation had prevented the Communist spokesman. (Defence Department)
48 Essential Histories • The Korean War

costs of war for the Communists. The Communists would attack a certain UNC
Kansas-Wyoming Line would be the position repeatedly until they held it,
foundation of the Eighth Army's defensive regardless of how many times UNC forces
positions and the basis for a cease-fire line. counterattacked and recaptured the position.
Limited objective attacks would take small Even if they suffered heavier losses than the
portions of ground in order to wear down UNC in the ebb and flow of a 'see-saw
the Communists and make minor battle,' the Communist commanders
improvements in the Eighth Army's believed that their superior manpower would
defensive positions. As before, Ridgway took make the UNC relatively worse off. The
careful steps to ensure that no actions were Communists also fortified their front line
taken that might be costly or escalate the and increased their strength in artillery.
conflict. In particular, he vetoed several Negotiations proceeded very slowly at
ambitious plans advocated by Van Fleet for a Kaesong. The Communists wanted the
major offensive to the waist of Korea. 38th Parallel to be the cease-fire line. The
With the initiation of negotiations, Mao UNC and USA, on the other hand, wanted
and Peng adopted a doctrine of attrition on the current front line - the line of contact -
the battlefield. Given the virtually to be the cease-fire line. The rugged terrain
inexhaustible Chinese manpower supply, along the Kansas-Wyoming Line was much
Mao and Peng believed that the USA could more defensible than the flat ground along
never defeat China in a war of attrition. Like the 38th Parallel. As a temporary bargaining
the UNC, the Communists' goal for attrition ploy, the UNC delegation initially called for
was to enforce their bargaining position. a line north of this, within current
Tactically, human wave attacks were
abandoned. Instead, Peng endorsed
Men of the 3rd US Division advance upon a hill held by
'small-scale annihilation' - methodically
the Chinese during the summer fighting of 1951. The
destroying individual enemy battalions. He
smoke rising from the hill is the result of the preceding
particularly sought to engage in 'see-saw artillery bombardment. American assaults received
battles.' In a 'see-saw battle,' the intense artillery support. (US Army)
 The fighting 49

Communist positions. This only made the around Kaesong. The next two months
Communist delegation more obstinate. The would be consumed by tangential
following quote from 14 August is a good discussions between UNC general
example of Nam Il's rhetoric:'We stand firm headquarters and the Communists over
for making the 38th Parallel the military where and how to reconvene negotiations.
demarcation line because it reflects the Ridgway intensified (united objective
military and is hence fair and reasonable. We attacks in the fall of 1951 in order to
oppose resolutely your proposal of pushing increase the pressure on the Communists to
the military demarcation line completely concede on Item Two. These offensives
into our positions because it is absurd, mauled the Communist armies. In the
arrogant, and intolerable.' Unshakably process, the Eight Army suffered
somber, the Communists would even insult substantial, if sustainable, losses. This was
the UNC delegates as a means of rejecting particularly the case in a series of slogging
their demands. This negotiating style was matches around the Punchbowl. Bloody
infuriating to the UNC delegation. Ridge, and Heartbreak Ridge - terrain
By mid-August, the Eighth Army's limited features on the eastern half of the peninsula.
objective attacks had convinced the Chinese Determined to capture Communist positions
that military action to seize the 38th Parallel overlooking the Eighth Army front line, Van
was impossible. Nevertheless, Stalin and Mao Fleet was induced into fighting just the sort
preferred to continue fighting, in hopes of of 'see-saw battle' that Peng had planned for,
an improvement in Communist fortunes. with the same pieces of terrain changing
The Communist delegation suspended hands repeatedly. By the end of the fighting
negotiations on 23 August because of in October, the Eighth Army had suffered
supposed UNC violations of the neutral zone 8,000 casualties, 3,300 of which fell on the

Bloody Ridge, the scene of a massive 'see-saw battle' South Korean laborers bringing supplies to the front.
between the North Koreans and the 2nd US Division in They are carrying the ubiquitous Korean A-Frame
August and September 1951. (US Army) backpack. (US Military History Institute)
50 Essential Histories • The Korean War

The fall offensives, September-October 1951

In the fall of 1951, the Eighth Army pressed the attacking divisions would be the
Communists back in a series grinding offensives. This map 1st Commonwealth Division. Its operations
shows the two most important.
in Operation Commando would epitomize
1. From July to October the 1 ROK Corps, Marine
Division, and 2nd US Division engaged in a series of
Ridgway's dictum of maximizing enemy
slogging matches over possession of terrain features casualties while minimizing one's own.
known as the Punchbowl, Bloody Ridge, and In July 1951, the 25th Canadian Brigade,
Heartbreak Ridge. the 28th Commonwealth Brigade, and the
2. From 3 to 18 October several UNC divisions wore
29th British Brigade joined to form the
down the Communists and seized dominating terrain
to the north in Operation Commando.
1st Commonwealth Division. The formation
of the division united the Commonwealth
ground forces in Korea. As noted above,
2nd US Division alone. Communist losses Commonwealth infantry was of a very high
were probably much greater due to the caliber. The division also boasted a strong
immense firepower of the Eighth Army. and highly professional artillery arm and the
The most effective of the fall offensives armored support of the 8th Royal Irish
was Operation Commando. In addition to Hussars. There was even an Indian Field
wearing down the Communists, Ridgway Ambulance unit.
and Van Fleet wanted to seize a range of The Commonwealth Division's objectives
steep hills north of the Imjin, known as the were Hills 235, 355 (Kowang San), and 317
Jamestown Line. The line formed excellent (Maryang San). With steep faces, they were the
defensive positions because there was no most difficult objectives of all the attacking
dominating terrain to the immediate north. divisions. The attack began on 3 October. The
Three divisions of the I US Corps and one of 28th Commonwealth Brigade assaulted
the IX US Corps would mount the attack. Kowang San and Maryang San, defended by
They would be opposed by the 47th and the 191st CPV Division. The Communists held
64th CPV Armies. One of the I US Corps' well-entrenched and in-depth positions. The
 The fighting 5

The Battle of Maryang San, 3-8 October 1951

As a part of Operation Commando, the than the enemy. For the operation, Hassett
28th Commonwealth Brigade seized the highpoints espoused bold flanking movements along
of Maryang San and Kowang San.
ridgelines - a tactic learned fighting the
1. On 4 October the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian
Regiment (3 RAR) seized Pt 199, in preparation for
Japanese in New Guinea - in order to attack
the advance on Maryang San. Additionally, an the Chinese from unexpected directions.
Australian company outflanked Kowang San, while the The Australians smashed through the
1 st Battalion, the King's Own Scottish Borderers Chinese defenses, first outflanking Kowang
Regiment attacked frontally.
San and then Maryang San from the east,
2. The next day, the 3 RAR took the Maryang San
ridgeline from the flank, while the 1 st Battalion, the
while two British battalions held the fronts of
Royal Northumberland Fusiliers Regiment pressed these positions. The fighting was very intense.
the Chinese front. The New Zealanders expended 50,000 rounds
in support of the operation. Centurions fired
ridges were lined with covered trenches, directly on the Chinese from the
bunkers, and dug-in artillery batteries. One Commonwealth starting positions. The
hundred and thirty guns and heavy mortars following quote by Lieutenant Maurie Pears,
supported the attack, including those of the from the book Korea Remembered, illustrates
16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand the combined-arms and infiltration tactics
Artillery. The 3rd Battalion, the Royal used in the final assault on Maryang San:
Australian Regiment (3 RAR), commanded by
Lieutenant-Colonel Frank Hassett, spearheaded C Company was to rush across the valley and
the assault. Ever since Gallipoli, the Australians move through B and D Companies, which were
had enjoyed a reputation for fighting hard, held up under Point 317, to take the summit
innovating quickly, and being more cunning from the rear. Surprise was again the tactic, the
52 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Chinese being used to the previous massed The British Centurion tank; arguably the finest tank in
frontal attacks of the Americans. The battalion the world during the Korean War. Its 20pdr gun was
extremely accurate. Its ability to knock out T-34s
artillery and tanks would support us with
emplaced in the Communist lines was renowned.
enfilade fire during the final assault, as the (The Tank Museum, Bovington)
approaches to the summit were clear from the
observation post.
counterattacks were repulsed, causing the
Once successful, the Australians quickly 191st CPV Division to withdraw. In these
consolidated and dug-in on the Maryang counterattacks, the Australians withstood
San ridgeline. The ensuing Chinese some of the heaviest Communist artillery
concentrations of the war. The Australians
had destroyed two enemy battalions and
captured 50 prisoners. There were 109
Australian casualties. Along the rest of the
line, the remaining attacking UNC divisions
were also successful after vigorous fighting.
The Communists launched a major
counteroffensive to retake the ground lost to
the I and IX US Corps. On 4 November, two
CPV regiments with heavy artillery support
fell on Maryang San, now held by the
1st Battalion, the King's Own Scottish
Borderers Regiment. Rather than suffer
exorbitant casualties in a see-saw battle, the
battalion fell back to Kowang San. There, the
Commonwealth Division, with its formidable
firepower, decimated the attackers from

Australians on the march. In addition to air and naval

commitments, Australia deployed the 3rd Battalion, Royal
Australian Regiment, to Korea in 1950. followed by the
1 st Battalion in 1952. (Australian War Memorial)
 The fighting 53

strong in-depth positions. Thus, despite the return of POWs. However, negotiations
loss of Maryang San, the Commonwealth quickly stalled here as well. Meanwhile, a
Division maximized Chinese casualties while stalemate appeared on the battlefield.
minimizing its own. Since 3 October, the Neither side engaged in major offensive
division had suffered 1,159 casualties. operations. In spite of their recent military
Chinese casualties are unknown, but successes, American leaders were reluctant to
probably were much greater, given the futility return to an intense operational tempo
of their attacks. The Chinese made no because of the heavy casualties incurred in
significant headway against the UNC the offensives since July. The Communists,
elsewhere either. By mid-November, the on the other hand, had been greatly
47th and 64th CPV Annies were exhausted weakened by the fall offensives and focused
and had to be withdrawn from the front line. on rebuilding their forces.
More importantly, just four days after the
start of Operation Commando, the
Communists indicated their willingness to The air war
reopen negotiations. On 21 October, the two
delegations finally agreed to resume While the Eighth Army fought the
negotiations at Panmunjom, a new neutral Communists on the ground, dramatic battles
site located between the two front lines. As were being fought in the air. The Korean War
negotiations reopened, Mao decided to accept was the first jet war and the one occasion in
the line of contact as the cease-fire line. The the Cold War where American and Soviet
UNC was not about to crack and the costs of military forces regularly engaged each other
war for the Chinese were rising. Additionally, in combat.
the rugged ground on the line of contact From July to November 1951, the UNC
bore defensive advantages for the conducted air operations as if fighting a total
Communists, just as it did for the UNC. war. The North Korean air force was
However, Kaesong was an obstacle to immediately swept from the air, and bombers
agreement. Ridgway and Joy wanted it on the directly targeted North Korea's industry.
UNC side of the cease-fire line, even though However, once the Chinese intervened, the war
it was not in their military possession. in the air became limited. There was a tacit
Over Ridgway's objection, the JCS offered understanding that the Communists would not
a compromise on 17 November. It stipulated bomb Japan, South Korea, or UNC naval forces
that the current front line would be frozen as as long as the UNC did not strike Chinese or
the actual cease-fire line as long as Soviet territory. With MacArthur's dismissal, the
agreement was reached on the remaining JCS delineated explicit restrictions on air
agenda items within 30 days. Thereafter, the operations. Aircraft were forbidden from flying
line of contact would become the cease-fire within 3 miles (5km) of China and 20 miles
line. Subsequently, on 27 November, the two (32km) of the Soviet Union. China could only
sides reached agreement on Item Two. This be struck in retaliation to a major Communist
essentially created a de facto one-month attack, and targets on the Yalu were off-limits
truce because further offensives served no without Ridgway's explicit permission.
territorial purpose. In spite of these restrictions, several US
Unfortunately, the impact of the fall politicians and military officers frequently
offensives was not enough to end the war. called for Communist airfields in
Discussion on Item Three, supervisory Manchuria to be bombed. Although
arrangements for the cease-fire, stalled over contingency plans existed to do so, the JCS
the composition of an armistice commission never authorized the strikes for two main
and the number of airfields permitted in reasons. First, there was the continuing fear
North Korea after the war. To overcome the that attacking China would escalate the
impasse, attention shifted to Item Four, the war. Second, the USA and UNC actually
54 Essential Histories • The Korean War

lacked the capability to fight an air war hundreds of MiG-15s in reserve.

over China. It would require stripping the Communist air operations focused on
other US commands, including in Europe, fighting for air supremacy over North Korea.
of aircraft. Aircraft losses would certainly be Virtually the only bombing missions were
high, weakening the global Western night-time harassment of the UNC front line
military position. by Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes, known as
Recent evidence suggests that a large 'Bed-check Charlies.' The MiG-15 jet fighter
percentage of the air-to-air combat of the was the primary Communist aircraft. It was
Korean War involved Soviet pilots. Some an outstanding fighter. Its swept wings
historians even believe that the Chinese enabled great speed and maneuverability.
effort was a mere sideshow. Over 200 of the Additionally, it could operate at high
best Soviet aircraft, pilots, and crews were altitudes around 40,000 feet (12,000m) and
stationed in Andong, China. Several had had a strong rate of climb. A combination of
experience flying in the Second World War one 37mm and two 20mm cannons
and more than a few were aces. Stalin was provided armament.
adamant that no Soviet pilot be captured. The US Far East Air Force (FEAF)
The Russians dressed in Chinese uniforms conducted most of the UNC air operations.
and flew aircraft with Chinese or North The FEAF employed an assortment of aircraft.
Korean markings. One of their major roles Many were propeller-driven stalwarts of the
was equipping and training the PLA air force. Second World War. In the beginning of the
The Chinese flew out of air bases in northern war, F-51 Mustangs were still being used in
China and North Korea. The PLA air force an air superiority role. With its large payload
did not begin major air operations until
September 1951. From then until the end of
the war, the Chinese always deployed three A MiG-15 in take-off. With this tighten the Communists
challenged the UNC for air supremacy over MiG Alley
divisions (135 MiG-15s) into combat.
Swept wings gave the fighter high speed and maneuverability.
Additionally, the Communists possessed (US Air Force)
 The fighting 55

and long range, the B-29 Stratofortress was fire a few bursts, and then streak back to
the mainstay of the FEAF bomber force. The safety across the Yalu. In spite of strict orders
B-26 Invader served in close support, to the contrary, Sabre pilots often chased
interdiction, and strategic bombing roles fleeing MiG-15s across the Yalu in 'hot
where more accuracy was needed. Two new pursuit.'
jet aircraft were the F-80 Shooting Star and Air-to-air combat tactics had not changed
F-84 Thunderjet. Both were straight-winged, significantly since the Second World War. Jet
heavy, and reliable. Although they could be engines simply made everything happen
employed in a fighter role, the FEAF preferred much faster. A pilot's objective in air-to-air
to use them as fighter-bombers because of combat was still to hold a commanding
their inferiority to the MiG-15. Additionally, position over an opponent long enough to
the South Africans and Australians each shoot him down with gunfire at a range of
contributed a squadron of Mustangs that 1,000 feet (300m) or less. The basic tactical
were eventually upgraded to Sabres and rule was that each individual aircraft paired
Gloster Meteors (a British jet) respectively. up with a wingman to provide support.
Only the US F-86 Sabre, the sole UNC Using this sound tactic, Sabre squadrons
aircraft with swept wings, could equal the would try to break up Communist
MiG-15. Designed as a fighter-bomber, the formations and shoot down the MiG-15s one
Sabre was heavy, durable, stable, and easy to by one. However, the Sabres were always
fly. In general, the two aircraft were evenly fighting an outnumbered battle. General
matched. At high speeds, the Sabre was more Otto Weyland, commander of the FEAF,
maneuverable and easier to handle than the repeatedly requested more Sabre squadrons.
MiG-15. However, the Sabre could neither But Air Force Chief of Staff Hoyt Vandenberg
climb as fast nor fly as high as the MiG-15. could not deploy significant Sabre
Furthermore, its six .50 caliber machine-guns reinforcements to Korea without dangerously
lacked the stopping power of the MiG-15's weakening American military strength
cannons. The USA's most important elsewhere in the world.
advantage in the Korean War, though, was Interdiction, the disruption of an enemy's
the superior training and experience of its lines of communications, became the
fighter pilots. The UNC had more pilots with primary FEAF bombing mission in early 1951
extensive experience fighting over Europe or when it was necessary to limit the supply of
the Pacific during the Second World War the Communist forces advancing into South
than the Communists had. Korea. At that time, interdiction was highly
In November 1950, the first MiG-15s effective because the Communists required
(Soviets) appeared over North Korea. They an intense rate of supply to sustain their
established control over the northwest corner offensives. Bombing bridges and roads
of North Korea between the Chongchon and overburdened the already elongated
Yalu rivers. This area would become Communist supply lines.
infamously known as MiG Alley. The FEAF Interdiction intensified in May 1951
regularly sortied into MiG Alley to protect when the FEAF initiated Operation Strangle.
their bombers and challenge the Weyland agreed with Ridgway's strategy of
Communists for air supremacy. Both the using military force to coerce the
Sabre and the MiG-15 had a low combat Communists. Given its success earlier in the
radius. However, due to Communist strategy, year, he believed that interdiction would be
the MiG-15s were always a short distance the most effective means of doing so.
from their bases over the Yalu. The Sabres, on Initially, Operation Strangle started as a short
the other hand, flew from South Korea and campaign against Communist supply lines
could patrol in MiG Alley for a very limited within 60 miles (100km) of the front. But in
amount of time. A common Communist August 1951, the operation was extended in
tactic was to dive in on Sabres from above, both length and scope to target bridges, rail
56 Essential Histories • The Korean War

A flight of four F-86 Sabres. The Sabre handled better Partly as a response to Operation Strangle,
than the MiG-15 at high speeds and was more resilient. the Communists pressed their numerical
The true edge that American fighter pilots possessed,
advantage in a major fighter offensive in the
though, was their extensive training and combat
experience from the Second World War. (US Air Force)
fall of 1951. This marked the entry of the
Chinese into the air war in force. The Soviets
coordinated their activities with the Chinese
tracks, and locomotives throughout North and matched the number of aircraft they
Korea. The object of these operations was to deployed into major air battles. American
increase the long-term costs of supplying pilots found that the inexperienced Chinese
their front line and force the Communists were very brave but lacked skill. The Soviets
either to accept UNC terms in the truce talks received more respect. Occasionally, a lone
or to retreat further north. Soviet pilot would tangle with the Sabres,
 The fighting 57

showing off his skill and daring. The A few bursts from their cannon had a
Americans used the term 'honcho' to devastating effect on the bombers. The black
describe such pilots. day for FEAF Bomber Command came on
On 18 October, Weyland initiated 23 October. Fifty MiG-15s intercepted
daylight bombing raids into MiG Alley to nine B-29 Superfortress bombers attacking
thwart Communist airfield construction. The Namsi airfield. Three bombers were
Superfortresses could not be effectively destroyed. Another eight received major
protected from intercepting MiG-15s. damage. With a total force of only
Exploiting their ability to fly at high 90 operational Superfortresses, continued
altitudes, the MiG-15 pilots would dive losses at this rate would be catastrophic.
through the fighter screen, fire upon the Therefore, at the end of October,
bombers, and then escape across the Yalu. Superfortress daylight bombing raids were
58 Essential Histories • The Korean War

MiG Alley and the air war

MiG Alley was the area of North Korean air space in early fall of 1952. These did not alter the
which the Communists fought for air superiority. USA's tactical dominance. Chinese skill in
air-to-air combat improved as the war
permanently abandoned. Weyland progressed, but superior American tactics
eventually curtailed all fighter-bomber and experience continued to win most
operations in MiG Alley as well. engagements.
Nevertheless, in spite of increased Sabre When limited objective attacks were
losses, superior American tactics were suspended after the agreement on Item Two,
defeating the MiG-15s in most air-to-air UNC general headquarters and the JCS
engagements. The Communists finally looked to air power as a means to coerce the
abandoned their air offensive after Communists without the high costs of
13 December. On that day, 150 MiG-15s offensive ground operations. Consequently,
attacked the Sabres flying in MiG Alley. The in the first half of 1952, Operation Strangle
Communists lost 13 jets. These losses cooled was the focus of UNC military operations.
their enthusiasm for major air battles. The However, Operation Strangle was not a
end result of the offensive was that the success. In a period of static warfare, the
Communists held air superiority within Communist forces did not require the high
MiG Alley over FEAF bombers and rate of supply that had been necessary
fighter-bombers but not the Sabres. during their offensive operations in the first
Fighting continued in MiG Alley for the half of 1951.
remainder of the war. There was another set Moreover, the FEAF was unable to inflict
of major air battles in the late summer and serious permanent damage on the
 The fighting 59

Communist supply system. This was not the two staff officers in FEAF headquarters,
age of smart weapons. Piloting a high-speed Colonel Richard Randolph and Lieutenant-
aircraft through heavy flak and planting a Colonel Ben Mayo, created the sustained air
dumb bomb on a rail track a few feet wide pressure strategy, which envisioned
was no easy task. The Communists were also concentrated strikes against key North
adept at repairing and preventing damage to Korean industrial and political targets. This
their supply lines. Destroyed bridges were would severely damage the North Korean
quickly rebuilt, and cut roads and railroad industrial base and undermine civilian
tracks were bypassed. Obvious targets, like morale. It was hoped that this damage would
bridges, were surrounded with anti-aircraft translate into concessions at the negotiating
guns. table. Randolph and Mayo's superior, General
The economic cost of Operation Strangle Jacob Smart, FEAF Deputy for Operations,
was unsustainable. The UNC lost 330 aircraft enthusiastically advocated the plan.
in the operation. The cost of losing a General Mark Clark replaced Ridgway as
high-performance aircraft far offset the cost commander of the UNC on 12 May 1952.
that the Communists incurred in repairing a Outwardly, Clark supported the American
dirt road, steel rail track, or concrete bridge. strategy of limited war, but inwardly he
Meanwhile, the Communist front line believed that much more drastic measures
became stronger than ever. By 1952 an were required to coerce the Communists.
impressive amount of tanks, artillery pieces, Accordingly, Clark, along with Weyland,
and ammunition supplies were positioned at
the front.
A fantastic picture of a napalm strike against a marshaling
When the failure of Operation Strangle yard in North Korea. Most interdiction strikes were not
became clear, FEAF headquarters began this effective. Small rail tracks, bridges, and roads were
searching for a new strategy. In April 1952, very difficult to hit with a dumb bomb. (US Air Force)
60 Essential Histories • The Korean War

strongly endorsed the sustained air particularly upset that they had not been
pressure strategy. briefed on the raid.
On 23 June 1952, the first strikes of the After Pyongyang, Smart focused the
new strategy were conducted against North sustained air pressure campaign on the
Korean hydroelectric plants at Kojo, Fusen, remnants of North Korea's industry. North
Kyosen, and Suiho. These plants provided Korea's extensive mining facilities were
power to virtually all of North Korea and especially targeted. Oil refineries and the
much of Manchuria. Suiho. on the Yalu, was remaining power plants were also hit. But as
the fourth largest hydroelectric facility in the 1952 drew to a close, the number of
world. All four plants were severely damaged. important industrial and political targets was
Power was reportedly lost throughout North rapidly dwindling. Therefore, operations
Korea. The UNC continued striking these focused on striking major supply points and
and other plants as the North Koreans providing close-air support.
scrambled to get them back into operation. The sustained air pressure strategy was
On 11 July, the sustained air pressure largely a success. UNC air losses were
campaign entered its next stage when the significantly reduced and severe damage was
FEAF, along with Australian Meteors and dealt to the North Korean industrial base.
Royal Navy strike aircraft, bombed Soon after it had begun, Kim and Mao began
Pyongyang. Pyongyang was struck again on asking Stalin about the possibility of
29 August, in the largest air raid of the agreeing to an armistice. However, there
Korean War (1,403 sorties). Although both were two major drawbacks to the sustained
raids were directed against military targets, air pressure strategy. First, most of the
tremendous collateral damage leveled industry vital to the Communist war
Pyongyang. Several targets were napalmed. effort was located in the Soviet Union and
Kim told Stalin that 6,000 civilians had China, not North Korea. Second, North
been killed. International outrage Korea itself was relatively unindustrialized
accompanied the attack. The British were and did not contain a large number of
high-value targets. In general, the sustained
air pressure strategy represented a gradual
weakening rather than a significant
reduction in Communist military capability.
It alone could not coerce the Communists
to concede.

The naval war

Naval operations formed an important, if
peripheral, role in UNC operations.
Command of the sea ensured that the UNC
had a secure line of communications to
Japan and the USA. The US Seventh Fleet,
centered on Task Force 77, primarily

General Mark Clark replaced Ridgway as Supreme

Commander of the UNC on 12 May 1952. Clark had
commanded the US army in Italy during the Second
World War In Korea, he did not like the idea of
fighting a limited war but loyally obeyed JCS instructions.
(Defence Department)
 The fighting 61

FEAF and US Navy fighter-bombers struck the Suiho operated off the east coast of Korea. The
hydroelectric plant the fourth largest in the world, on Commonwealth navies, based around the
23 June 1952. It was the opening strike of the new
sustained air pressure strategy, which sought to coerce
Royal Navy Far East Fleet, usually including a
the Communists by destroying valuable industrial and British aircraft carrier, operated in the Yellow
military targets. (Defence Department) Sea. For four months, the Royal Australian
62 Essential Histories • The Korean War

The battleship USS New Jersey fires a 16-inch broadside bombardment interdicted supply lines and
at targets near the 38th Parallel. One Iowa-class provided support fire for the ground units
battleship was always deployed with Task Force 77.They
of the Eighth Army. Eighth Army soldiers
frequently engaged in gunnery duels with North Korean
coastal artillery around Wonsan. (Defence Department) often commented upon the accuracy and
devastating effect of the 16-inch guns of
the Iowa-class battleships. British, Australian,
Navy's aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney also and American destroyers and frigates
participated in these operations. engaged small Communist craft, conducted
With varying degrees of success, the UNC bombardments, and supported commando
naval command tried to translate its raids in the shallows and small islands
command of the sea into effectiveness in the along Korea's littoral. Naval forces kept
land war. The guns of American cruisers and Wonsan in a state of virtual siege. In
battleships could strike far inland. Shore October 1952, the Seventh Fleet even
 The fighting 63

conducted an amphibious feint at Kojo, just the land-based FEAF. For example, the largest
south of Wonsan. naval strike of the war was against the Aoji
Task Force 77 was intimately involved in oil refinery on 1 September 1952. Eight miles
both Operation Strangle and the sustained air (13km) from the Soviet frontier, only aircraft
pressure strategy. Task Force 77 generally from Task Force 77 could get within range of
consisted of two Essex-class fleet carriers the target with minimal risk of violating
conducting air operations, a third Soviet territory.
replenishing at sea, and a fourth in port in There were three main types of naval
Japan. Their aircraft participated in the aircraft: the F-4U Corsair, AD Skyraider, and
attacks on Suiho power station and F-9F Panther. The gull-winged F-4U Corsair
Pyongyang. The carriers were uniquely able was a renowned fighter from the Pacific
to launch strikes from anywhere off North War. In Korea, it served primarily as a
Korea's coast and hit targets inaccessible to fighter-bomber and was the principal aircraft
64 Essential Histories • The Korean War

The USS Valley Forge (Cv-45). an Essex-class fleet carrier carriers. F-9F Panther jet aircraft served in
was the first American aircraft carrier on duty off Korea. the dual role of fighter and strike aircraft.
Later, the USS Valley Forge was joined by three sister
Unfortunately, its straight wings placed it at
ships as part of Task Force 77. (US National Archives)
a disadvantage against the fast and
maneuverable MiG-15.
used by the Marine Air Wing. The AD
Skyraider was the workhorse of the US A US navy Sikorsky HO35-I helicopter Helicopters
made their first appearance in war in Korea. They
navy's attack aircraft. Operating from a
proved their usefulness as a means of light
carrier, it could carry a 7,500lb (3,400kg) transport and frequently engaged in search and
payload. The Korean War was the first rescue and medical evacuation missions.
conflict where jets took off from aircraft (US National Archives)
 The fighting 65

This Panther is conducting an interdiction strike against a small highway bridge. The pilot has
already dropped one bomb and is in the process of dropping another. The smoke before the
Panther's left wing is from a rocket that he has just launched. (US Naval Institute)
Portrait of a soldier

Patrolling, raiding, and digging

After November 1951, operations on the M-l Garand Rifle. Another valuable item in
front settled into static warfare. Corporal Russ's kit was his armored flak vest. The
Martin Russ served in the 1st US Marine flak vest made its first appearance in Korea.
Division in the last year of the war. His It contained fiberglass or nylon padding
experiences are indicative of the life of a that reduced the impact of shell fragments
front-line soldier during the period of static but could not stop a bullet. By 1953, the
warfare in the Korean War. Russ joined the vest had become a standard piece of
Marines after completing his undergraduate personal equipment.
education at St Laurence College. He was a As static warfare set in, the Eighth Army
member of Able Company, 1st Marine front line began to resemble the Western
Regiment. During his time in Korea, he kept Front of the First World War. The front line
a daily journal of his experiences. It was later consisted of a Main Line of Resistance (MLR)
published as a book, The Last Parallel.
As a corporal, Russ was a non-
This Marine is removing a piece of shrapnel from his
commissioned officer. He carried a Browning
armored flak vest. It is probably exactly the same kind of
automatic rifle (BAR), a 20 lb light machine- vest that Corporal Martin Russ wore during his time on
gun that provided rapid and long-range fire. the front line. The vest consisted of fiberglass plates
Most infantry carried the semi-automatic woven together (Defence Department)
 Portrait of a soldier 67

and a line of outposts. The MLR was a string another bunker for sleeping. During the night,
of mutually supporting strongpoints, Chinese snipers observed and intermittently
constructed to absorb and stop any enemy fired on New Bunker Hill. Russ always had to
blow. Outposts were forward of the MLR keep his head down and sleep curled up.
within No Man's Land. They served to detect Patrols into No Man's Land were
and slow an enemy advance. Bunkers, several conducted both day and night. The object of
aprons of barbed wire, and minefields a patrol was generally reconnaissance or
protected most defensive positions. Bunkers combat. A reconnaissance patrol observed
were largely underground, with a roof of thick and kept contact with the enemy, reporting
logs and sandbags to protect against artillery on unit identification, headquarters,
and mortar hits. Underground passageways locations, and the layout of his forward
often interconnected several bunkers. Each defenses. Combat patrols sought to fight the
outpost and various points in No Man's Land enemy, usually through staging an ambush or
were pinpointed so that mortars and artillery probing a Communist outpost. Patrols varied
could deliver quick and accurate fire. in size from a mere fire team to an entire
Generally around a half mile (0.8km) wide, platoon. Most front-line UNC companies
No Man's Land became familiar territory for conducted one patrol per night. Raids were
both sides. In Russ's sector, it was littered with conducted in platoon to battalion strength.
empty ration cans, discarded weapons, They were mounted in order to seize a small
minefields, patrol paths, a burnt-out tank, outpost, capture prisoners, or simply harass
downed Corsairs, and dead men. the enemy.
Russ's platoon occupied an outpost, New
Bunker Hill, for 16 days in March 1953. He An M-26 Pershing tank fires in support of the
24th US Division in January 1952. The Pershing was
defended a listening post within the front-line
the only American tank that could stand up to a T-34.
trench with one other man. There was a To provide the infantry with direct fire support, tanks
bunker directly behind his position and barbed were often positioned in fortified emplacements within
wire in front of it. Further to the rear, there was the MLR. (The Tank Museum, Bovington)
68 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Russ became adept at patrolling. He point-man discovered a trip wire across the
learned how to move stealthily and guide path. The lieutenant followed the trip wire
a patrol as a point-man. The Chinese into a clump of bushes. Then, a burst of fire
frequently fired upon these patrols with brought him down. The patrol had walked
mortars and machine-guns and, on a into a Chinese ambush. Russ described the
number of occasions, Russ engaged in following moments:
actual firelights. In the dark, the enemy
was rarely seen and aiming consisted of A tremendous volume of fire, coming from
firing as much ammunition as possible in our right front, at a distance varying from
the general direction of the enemy's muzzle twenty to fifty yards. These were the first muzzle
flashes. In April 1953. Russ became an blasts I noticed . . . Fire of equal intensity came
acting squad leader and began leading from our left but at a greater distance. The
more patrols. ambush had been deployed in an inverted
For many UNC units, patrolling and V formation and the fire from its apex was
raids proved burdensome. Raiding enemy obviously the most deadly.
outposts and capturing prisoners resulted in
hard-fought battles and heavy casualties. Nine of the first 10 Marines in the
Russ recorded that one proposed raid to column were hit. A staff sergeant died in
capture a prisoner required 50 men, all of hand-to-hand combat trying to rescue the
the regimental artillery and mortars, three lieutenant, who was captured. Further back,
tanks, two flame-throwing tanks, and a after overcoming his surprise, Russ began to
flight of Corsairs. Russ was very sceptical return fire with the BAR, along with the
about American estimates of Chinese remaining members of the patrol. The
casualties from raids and patrols. He wrote firefight lasted for less than five minutes.
of one particular estimate: Once the Marines had suppressed the
Chinese fire, they aggressively began to
We scoffed at the estimate of Chinese withdraw.
casualties. From the little experience I've had in The Chinese were still trying to surround
raids and from the stories I've heard of other the patrol and the Marines had to fight
raids, I'll bet the Chinese suffered half the their way out. Moving back down the path,
number of casualties that we had. When we raid Russ spotted two Chinese approaching two
the Chinese, we get clobbered. When the Chinese prone Marines in a ditch less than 50 feet
raid the marines, they get clobbered worse. But (15m) away. Later, Russ wrote what
they are a bit more intelligent about it; they happened as the Chinese tried to drag one
don't make raids very often. of the Marines away:

Nevertheless, formations that did not / was mesmerized ... It's taken me a month
control No Man's Land, unlike the Marine or to even think about writing a description ...
the Commonwealth Divisions, suffered The BAR was not in firing position; it was
heavy casualties and lost terrain to necessary to bring it up from my side. I did
Communist surprise attacks. this quickly, planting both elbows on the
Shortly before the end of the war, Russ ground with an audible thud. I squeezed off an
was temporarily sent to Fox Company. Able unnecessarily long burst before the Chinese
Company was about to relieve them and could react. The muzzle blast was blinding ...
Russ was to familiarize himself with Fox When my eyes became again accustomed to
Company's positions and No Man's Land in the dark, I saw that one of the Chinese lay
that area. On his second night with Fox crumpled up near the edge of the paddy. The
Company, Russ joined a 30-man combat other was nowhere in sight. The Marine had
patrol sent out to assault an enemy outpost. been dragged only a few feet and ankles
As the column approached the objective, the protruded from the first level or step of the
 Portrait of a soldier 69

paddy. At this moment - as 1 took notice of captured in the ambush. Chinese casualties
these things - I was fired upon from that area were impossible to estimate in the confusion
in which the two Chinese had appeared ... I and uncertainty of night fighting.
heaved grenades in that direction. After the Russ safely returned to the USA at the
explosions I could still hear people moving end of the war. In his last month in Korea,
around in the paddy. Someone fell noisily into he was promoted to sergeant, a job whose
a puddle off to the left. duties he had been performing for some
time as acting squad leader. He also earned
Of the two prone Marines, one was a a Purple Heart. Tiny splinters from a
corpsman (medic) playing dead and the grenade and barbed wire had injured him
other was unconscious. Russ and the during a combat patrol in May. He went
corpsman lifted the unconscious Marine and on to write several books on Marines in
withdrew to friendly lines. Six Marines were combat in the Second World War, Korea,
killed, 14 were wounded, and one was and Vietnam.
70 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Members of 3 RAR out on patrol. Australian and British infantry were adept at
patrolling. Regular and aggressive patrols kept the Chinese bottled up on their side
of No Man's Land. (Imperial War Museum)
The world around war

The domestic and international

impact
One of the remarkable characteristics of the exploited the disorder to show that most
Korean War was its significance to events prisoners indeed wanted to be repatriated
outside of the Korean peninsula. The conflict and that the UNC demand for voluntary
altered the domestic politics, economics, and repatriation was unfounded. The crisis did
security of regions far removed from the not end until June 1952 when Brigadier-
actual fighting. General Haydon Boatner, with
considerable bloodshed, brought the
situation under control.
Prisoners of war
By May 1952, the cease-fire delegations American domestic politics
had reached an agreement on Item Three
(cease-fire supervisory arrangements) Within the USA, there was widespread
through the establishment of a Neutral apathy to the Korean War. Americans were
Nations Supervisory Commission and a particularly uneasy with the concept of
Military Armistice Commission. Item Four limited war. The frequent reference to the
(the exchange of prisoners of war), however, war by government officials and the media
proved intractable. This issue typified the as a 'police-action' seemed like a cynical
ideological conflict between democracy and understatement when Americans were
Communism. In January 1952, Acheson dying in major battles. The phrase 'Why
and Truman decided to demand voluntary die for a tie?' was frequently used by
repatriation. This meant that every prisoner opponents of limited war. Opposition to
would have the right to return to his home the war was fuelled by the Republican
country or seek residence in a new country. Congress, which sought to undermine the
For the USA, voluntary repatriation was an Truman administration. The strategy of
inalienable right of all peoples. For the limited war was presented as yet another
Communists, the potential defection of example of the administration's
over 100,000 North Korean and Chinese appeasement of Communism.
prisoners would contradict the supposed The climax of the domestic American
Utopia of their ideology. Both sides believed debate over limited war was sparked by
that conceding on this one issue would MacArthur's dismissal. The American public
have dire effects on the acceptance of and Congress were outraged. A Gallup Poll
democracy or Communism throughout the
gave Truman a mere 29 percent approval
world. Consequently, neither side was
rating. MacArthur returned to the USA as a
willing to yield.
hero. On 19 April 1951, he spoke before the
The situation worsened in early 1952 US Congress and attacked the concept of
when pro-Communist prisoners began limited war as immoral. He said: 'once war is
violently resisting UNC authority in the forced upon us, there is no other alternative
prison on Koje-do, off the southern coast than to apply every available means to bring
of South Korea. On 7 May 1952, it to a swift end . . . War's very object is
pro-Communist prisoners captured the victory, not prolonged indecision. In war
prison commandant, Brigadier-General there is no substitute for victory.' He ended
Frank Dodd. China and North Korea the speech with the famous line: 'Old Soldiers
72 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Communist prisoners in a compound at Koje-do that fighting a total war with the PRC would
holding a demonstration against voluntary repatriation. involve a major diversion of American
Actions like this undermined the UNC stand for
resources from confronting the Soviet Union
voluntary repatriation in the eyes of the world.
(Defence Department)
in more critical areas. He said: 'Red China is
not the powerful nation seeking to dominate
the world. Frankly, in the opinion of the
never die, they just fade away.' Several Joint Chiefs of Staff, this strategy would
Senators and Congressmen were in tears. involve us in the wrong war, at the wrong
Looking for further political gains, the place, at the wrong time, and with the
Republican Senate opened the MacArthur wrong enemy.' Partly because of Bradley's
Hearings in June 1951 as a means of testimony, the MacArthur Hearings failed to
indicting the Truman administration for the discredit the Truman administration's
dismissal of MacArthur and the strategy of handling of the war.
limited war. MacArthur again appeared After the MacArthur Hearings, popular
before the Congress and attacked the opposition to the war died down, but it
concept of limited war. Then, Acheson, never faded away. The country grew tired of
Marshall, and Bradley testified in defense of interminable peace negotiations and the
the Truman administration's actions. Bradley stalemate on the battlefield. Consequently,
convincingly stated that MacArthur had there was broad support for Eisenhower's
disobeyed a presidential order to clear his campaign promises in 1952 to 'Go to Korea'
public statements with Washington. In doing and bring a swift end to the war. This
so, he had promulgated an American foreign domestic attitude provided impetus for
policy to the world that contradicted Eisenhower's preparations to escalate the war
Truman's actual policy. Bradley also argued in 1953. Nevertheless, there was always a
 The world around war 73

substantial percentage of the population in armed forces, German rearmament, and an

favor of peace talks and a compromise integrated and centralized command
solution to the war. Indeed, many Americans structure. In the first three months of the
disliked the indecisive way the war was war, France and Britain took significant
fought, yet approved of the cease-fire talks steps to build their armed forces. By 1953,
and the values of compromise and 15 well-armed divisions, including six
moderation they embodied. American, were deployed in West Germany
as part of NATO. The percentage of gross
domestic product spent on military
Geostrategic implications expenditures increased from an average of
5.5 percent to 12 percent for NATO
One of the most important effects of the countries. The Supreme Headquarters Allied
Korean War was the degree to which it Powers Europe was established to integrate
mobilized the West against Soviet planning and to command NATO forces in
expansionism. By signaling that the the event of war. Finally, serious
Communists truly had aggressive intentions, deliberations began on German rearmament.
the Korean War led to a massive The Korean War also led the USA to
mobilization of Western resources for war recognize east Asia as an area of vital
and gave the Cold War its notorious strategic importance. Prompted by the
complexion of two armed camps urgency of the Korean War, on 8 September
irreconcilably opposed to one another. 1951 the USA and Japan signed a peace
The outbreak of the Korean War caused treaty, normalizing their post-Second World
the USA to undergo a massive rearmament War relations. A military alliance, the
program. The attack confirmed the Japan-US Security Treaty, was established
assumptions about Communist aggression shortly thereafter, in 1952. Partly to offset
made in NSC 68. Accordingly, NSC 68's fears of a resurgence of Japanese militarism
prescriptions were rapidly implemented. As and partly to oppose Communism, the USA
early as July 19S0, Truman requested that signed security pacts with Australia, New
Congress add $10 billion to the $14 billion Zealand, and the Philippines in the same
US defense budget, remove the manpower month. In addition to these moves, the USA
limit on the size of the American armed increased its support of France in its war
forces, and provide greater military aid to against Ho Chi Minh in Indochina. At the
friendly countries. In September, Congress conclusion of the war the US also signed a
approved. Military expansion continued mutual security treaty with South Korea.
throughout the Korean War. For example,
by July 1951, the USA's military strength
had doubled and the defense budget for The economic situation in the
1952 was four times that of 1949. PRC and North Korea
The defense of Western Europe was also
bolstered. The West feared that the Korean The Communists were feeling the strain of
War was merely a prelude to a Soviet extended warfare by 1953. China's and North
invasion of Western Europe. In 1950, only Korea's poorly industrialized economic systems
14 weak divisions were assigned to NATO were not suited to sustaining high-intensity
and there was no unified command modern warfare. For the PRC, the Korean War
structure. No American divisions were even had come too soon after the Second World
War and the Chinese Civil War. Mao's plans
deployed in Europe. Shortly after the
for a gradual and peaceful transition to
outbreak of the Korean War, the USA put
socialism - including continued trade with the
forward a 'one package' proposal for an West - had to be set aside in order to mobilize
increase in American divisions assigned to the economy in support of the war effort.
NATO, a build-up of the French and British
74 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Socialism was rapidly instituted in the PRC bomb damage to every major city. Towns and
along Soviet, instead of Chinese, models of villages, often the location of supply depots,
economic development, and forced economic were repeatedly targeted for UNC air strikes.
activity caused inflation to run rampant. In Most North Korean civilians fled to the
1951, 50 percent of the PRC's revenues were countryside to escape the bombing. Major-
dedicated to the war, but despite heavy General William Dean, a prisoner of war,
taxation, the Chinese government lacked the reported that by 1952 the majority of the
revenues to pay for its expenditures and the towns he observed were 'rubble or snowy
PRC was burdened with a hefty debt The CCP open spaces.' And most North Koreans he met
was also concerned about the possibility of had lost a relative in an air strike. In the
internal dissension. After decades of conflict summer of 1952, Kim pleaded with Stalin to
the Chinese people were becoming implement a more decisive strategy in order
increasingly war weary. These economic and to reduce North Korea's hardship. Thus, the
political concerns compelled Mao to end the cumulative costs of war were driving both
war. In the fall of 1952, Zhou met with Stalin North Korea and the PRC to seek to end the
in Moscow. Zhou sought to conclude an fighting. Only Stalin's obstinacy and
armistice if the UNC made some motor determination to wear down the West
concessions at the negotiating table. But Stalin perpetuated the conflict.
opposed the idea because he did not want to
end the drain on US military resources. The devastated industrial area of Chongjin in
North Korea was in even worse condition North Korea. North Koreas industry was almost
entirely destroyed in the course of the war In the
than China. The economy was in ruins and
era before smart weapons, collateral bomb damage
the country was wracked by food shortages. was inescapably high. Significant portions of all of the
The air campaign had destroyed the major cities and towns in North Korea were reduced
country's industrial facilities and caused heavy to rubble. (Defence Department)
Portrait of a civilian

Kyonshill Kang

As noted previously, Korea was torn apart to move to South Korea in 1946. In fact,
during the three years of the Korean War. her grandmother crossed the border five
The war might have been a limited times in order to guide all of the family
endeavor for the USA and the Soviet members into South Korea. Living in
Union, but it was nothing less than a total Seoul, her father, a teacher, attained a
war for the Korean people. As a young girl, respectable position and earned a
Kyonshill Kang went through the ebb and reasonable standard of living. Kang
flow of Communist and UNC offensives in remembered hearing Rhee speak once.
South Korea. She described her experiences Most Koreans were impressed with him
in her book, Home was the Land of Morning because he was the first Korean to have
Calm: A Saga of a Korean-American Family. earned a PhD in the USA.
Her family was originally from Tanchon, a
city near the east coast of North Korea. A Korean family treks southward during the Fifth Phase
The increasing Communist control of Offensive. The mobile warfare of the first year of the war
North Korea after 1945 caused her family resulted in a huge number of refugees. (US Army)
76 Essential Histories • The Korean War

Kang's family first heard about the war on 25,000 Koreans per day were crossing UNC
26 June 1950 through the radio. Rhee made a lines. Many died during the journey.
subsequent radio broadcast that it was safe to The North Koreans tried to reconstruct
remain in Seoul. Although her grandmother South Korea into a Communist state. They
and mother (her father was in the USA as a instituted people's committees and created
Fulbright scholar) were worried about the Communist socio-political organizations.
invasion, they were reassured by Rhee's Land reform was implemented and tenant
announcement. Six days later, they learned farming was abolished. Leftist South
that Rhee and most of his government had Koreans assisted the North Koreans. Many
actually fled Seoul immediately after the members of the National Assembly were
radio broadcast. This caused the population neither as cowardly nor as wise as Rhee to
of Seoul to panic. Nevertheless, by that time, flee Seoul. Several were executed by the
Kang's grandmother had decided that it was North Koreans for their political beliefs. As
wisest to stay in Seoul. At night, they could David Rees related in Korea: The Limited
hear artillery fire. Meanwhile, thousands fled War, one captured Communist guerrilla
south on foot or by train. The roads were diary read: 'Apprehended twelve men;
clogged with refugees. By the end of July, National Assembly members, police
 portrait of a civilian 77

sergeants, and Myon [a town] leaders. boarded with Kang's family and extolled
Killed four of them at the scene, and the the virtues of Communism to her. The
remaining eight were shot after neighborhood even had to learn a
investigation by the People's court.' The Communist song:
North Koreans committed similar atrocities
throughout South Korea against Christians, Marks of blood on every ridge of the Jangbaek
rightists, and anyone else suspected of Marks of blood on every ridge of Amnol
opposing Communism. Still now over the blooming free Korea
When the North Korean soldiers Those sacred marks shed brilliant rays
entered Kang's neighborhood, many O dear is the name, our beloved general
Communist sympathizers spontaneously O glorious is the name. General Kim Il Sung.
appeared. They formed block committees
and observed the activities of everyone in
North Korean soldiers ana South Korean civilians dance
the neighborhood. Every household was
in Seoul following its occupation in the summer of 1950.
required to display pictures of Kim and Many South Koreans were apathetic towards the
Stalin. For a time, young high school North Korean invasion, but some actively supported it.
girls who supported the North Koreans (US National Archives)
78 Essential Histories • The Korean War

All adult males were conscripted for of the rest of the Korean community.
manual labor, serving as porters and Children jeered at any Korean woman
hauling ammunition for the NKPA. Women walking with an American soldier as a
were eventually recruited as well. To avoid 'Western whore.'
their conscription, Kang's family hid her Many Koreans believed that Americans
uncle and a family friend. 'Teacher' Song, in and other white UNC troops viewed them
small uncomfortable spaces in the house. as inferior. While still in Korea, Kang's
The men remained there, only emerging to father had felt that Americans looked down
relieve themselves, until August. Kang was upon Koreans. The slang name for all
given the duty of signaling whenever any Koreans, 'gook,' certainly was not
possible informants entered the endearing. Of greater infamy is the
neighborhood. As the weeks drifted into massacre of South Korean civilians at No
months, food supplies became scarce. The Gun Ri by the 7th US Cavalry Regiment in
family hid their rice so that the July 1950. Units of the regiment were
Communists could not requisition it. retreating from the North Koreans and
The family witnessed frequent American found their path underneath a bridge
air strikes. They took shelter in the blocked by refugees. Fearing that North
basement whenever the shiny fuselage of a Korean soldiers might be hiding among the
B-29 was spotted. Air raids usually lasted crowd, the Americans opened fire, killing
over an hour. Although most of the perhaps 100 South Korean civilians.
American targets were supply depots, once a However, racism and brutality to civilians
school was mistakenly bombed where were by no means universal. Many
civilians were taking refuge; several died. In Americans were impressed by the hardships
September 1950, Kang's family heard the endured by the Korean people as well as the
artillery of the approaching Marines. Kang courage of their soldiers.
remembered the arrival of 'pink-faced' South Koreans generally did not support
Americans and the widespread and the UNC strategy of fighting a limited war.
newfound optimism about the course of the They wanted Korea unified. Even before the
war. This was quickly shattered, though, by war, Kang remembered singing songs about
the Chinese intervention. Her uncle and unification. Kang's father was resentful that
'Teacher' Song were respectively conscripted the superpowers had arbitrarily divided the
into the ROK army and manual labor. peninsula. He despised Roosevelt for
When the Communists approached Seoul abandoning democracy in Korea. Given his
again in January 1951, the family fled to plans to unify Korea, most South Koreans
Pusan through Taejon, leaving behind most
admired MacArthur. They considered many
of their possessions. Kang and her mother
of MacArthur's bad qualities - his
traveled on the rooftop of a train against
arrogance, authoritarianism, and vanity -
the bitterly cold winter wind. Kang's
necessary in a strong leader. Kang's family
mother kept her awake throughout the trip
was shocked when he was dismissed.
to prevent hypothermia.
Rhee's government was authoritarian and
In Pusan, the family entered a packed despite Rhee's example, corruption existed.
refugee camp in Pusan. Thin partitions of His police forces executed and imprisoned
sheets and rags separated each family's hundreds of Communist collaborators. Rhee
living space. Life was very difficult. Pusan and the National Assembly were in constant
was crowded and dirty, and there were conflict. The ROK President was chosen by
frequent power outages and water the National Assembly, not directly elected
shortages. Kang remembered standing in by the people, among whom Rhee was more
line for hours for water. Many Korean popular. Therefore, Rhee wanted the
women became prostitutes to earn money, National Assembly to change the ROK
which only gained them the condemnation constitution so that he would be elected
 Portrait of a civilian 79

directly. To effect this, Rhee declared growth. For Kang's family, life eventually
martial law and imprisoned several improved. They were given a room in Pusan
members of the National Assembly in May outside of the refugee camp and Kang's
1952. The National Assembly conceded in resourceful grandmother began peddling
July, after the domestic political stability of goods. Kang herself attended a refugee
South Korea had been placed in question school and learned new songs about UNC,
for months, and the principles for which instead of Communist, valor. In the
the UN allies were fighting had been treated summer of 1951, they discovered that her
with contempt. father was working in UNC general
South Korea endured many more headquarters in Tokyo. In late 1952, the
hardships before the war ended, such as family left for Japan, and from there they
rampant inflation and slow economic would eventually move to the USA.
How the war ended

Closing moves

In the last nine months of the Korean War, The CPV also underwent major reforms in
the USA and the Chinese searched for 1952. The first half of 1952 was spent
political and military means to end the war. strengthening the front line, bringing
Heightened combat matched the final steps forward reinforcements and new equipment,
toward peace, as both sides tried to use and indoctrinating tactical lessons. The
military force to strengthen their respective Chinese extended and improved their
bargaining positions. fortifications from the front line to the waist
of Korea. Several Communist armies were
. echeloned behind the front line and along
New armies the North Korean coasts. Concrete bunkers
dotted the Communist positions. Giant
One of the important outcomes of the Korean tunnels, some 100 feet (30m) deep,
War was the modernization of the ROK army interconnecting trenches, and fieldworks
and the Chinese People's Volunteers. After were constructed, to protect the soldiers
1951, the major events in the ground war from UNC firepower. Assault units used the
involved battles between these two reformed tunnels to approach UNC outposts
armies. The South Korean army was very undetected. Logistics were also developed
important to the USA in lessening the burden and improved. Over 180,000 rear servicemen
placed on American military resources. After were dedicated to supporting the
the Fifth Phase Offensive, Van Fleet, who had Communist fighting units. Against these
been instrumental in rebuilding the Greek defenses, any major UNC offensive would
army after the Second World War, was now be extremely difficult.
determined to modernize the ROK army. The Mao was still resolved to fight a
Eighth Army initiated a program, protracted war, believing that the USA would
'Concentrated Training for the ROK Army,' to cave in under prolonged attrition. But to do
guide modernization. A Field Training so, a method of fighting needed to be
Command used American officers and NCOs developed that would reduce Chinese
to train each ROK division in operations from casualties. In April 1952, Peng returned to
individual to company level. Selected ROK Beijing to oversee the Central Military
officers went to infantry or artillery school in Commission (the PLA high command).
the USA. Additionally, a staff school and a Although Peng was still officially
military academy were established in Korea. commander of the CPV, Deng Hua became
Meanwhile, the divisions were given proper the acting commander and Yang Dezhi,
levels of equipment. In January 1952, Van commander of the Nineteenth CPV Army
Fleet decided to rebuild the II ROK Corps and Corps, was given charge of all combat
place it under the command of Major-General operations. 'Active positional defense'
Paik Sun Yup. Unlike previous ROK corps, the became the new doctrine of the CPV. Any
new corps headquarters would have artillery, UNC advance would be immediately
engineer, and quartermaster supporting units counterattacked with CPV reserves. Small
directly under its command. The II ROK Corps attacks on enemy outposts would seize the
entered the line in April 1952 between the initiative and destroy UNC units piecemeal
IX and X US Corps, a symbol of the new in 'see-saw battles'. In the course of the
ROK army. continuing battles, the tactics of 'see-saw
 How the war ended 81

Chinese soldiers conferring underground. The that had marked their earlier tactics. Rather,
Communists built extensive underground fortifications careful reconnaissance, combined-arms
along their MLR and back to the waist of Korea from
tactics, artillery preparation, and
the summer of 1951 until the end of the war Large
tunnels cut through their defensive positions.
concentration of forces were emphasized.
(Chinese National Army Museum) Army commanders were to be certain of
success before launching an attack.
In early September 1952, Deng and Yang
battles' were modified in order to reduce began a series of attacks against a salient
casualties. Chinese infantry rarely made the held by the II ROK Corps, known as the
kind of unsupported mass frontal assaults Kumsong bulge. In October, the CPV
82 Essential Histories • The Korean War

captured several outposts and briefly Nevertheless, he and his administration were
penetrated the Eighth Army MLR. Once the firmly resolved to end the war quickly. By
Chinese attacks lost momentum, Van Fleet signaling that the USA was willing to fight a
ordered the IX US Corps to launch a much bigger and more destructive war,
counterattack, Operation Showdown, on Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster
10 October. Given that this area had been Dulles hoped to convince the Communists
the focus of operations for the past month. that further fighting was not worthwhile.
the Chinese were ready for the attack. For six The use of atomic weapons was a very
weeks, a major 'see-saw' battle persisted in an dangerous proposition. In the early 1950s, the
area of less than three square miles USA did not possess a large stock of atomic
(7.75km2). bombs. A saturation bombing of the PRC or
Deng was pleased with the opportunity to even the Communist front line was out of the
destroy UNC manpower. The mountainous question. Atomic weapons could only be used
area, laced with Communist fortifications, to support an Eighth Army advance or destroy
was well suited for defense. Once more, the certain military and industrial targets in
South Koreans did most of the fighting. North Korea or the PRC. On the other hand,
Supported by American firepower, they drove the UNC was very vulnerable to atomic
the Chinese into their tunnels during the attack. The huge supply base at Pusan and the
day. The Chinese would then counterattack cities of Japan would be particularly lucrative
at night and regain their positions. One targets for the Communists. Escalating the
position, Sniper Ridge, changed hands war conventionally was not an easy task
14 times. Deng and Yang fed reinforcements either. The UNC lacked the manpower and
into the battle until they held all of the materiel to launch a major ground offensive
important terrain. Given the heavy UNC against the strong Communist defenses. At
casualties and under pressure from Clark and least six months would be required to build
Collins, Van Fleet broke off Operation the forces necessary for an offensive to the
Showdown on 28 November. waist of the peninsula.
The battles of fall 1952 were the first In the fall of 1952, Clark began pressing for
significant Communist successes since the escalated American military action. On
Second Phase Offensive. Van Fleet had 8 October, after weeks of deadlock, Clark
committed a major operational error in recessed negotiations indefinitely. He then
submitting to this kind of slugfest. UNC presented the JCS with a plan to compel the
casualties were over 9,000. The CPV lost Communists to agree to a cease-fire on
11,500 men but could sustain these losses. American terms. He wanted to blockade
By emphasizing concentration, firepower, China, bomb targets in north China and
and better infantry tactics, Deng and Yang Manchuria, and launch a ground offensive
learned that they could wear down the UNC to the Yalu. Clark requested that the JCS plan
without suffering exorbitant losses to their to use nuclear weapons in the attack. The
own forces in the process. JCS would not authorize the plan. When
Eisenhower visited Korea in late 1952 as
president-elect, Clark pressed for the plan's
Threats of escalation implementation. Eisenhower also rejected it.
Nevertheless, when Eisenhower returned to
Dwight Eisenhower was elected President of the USA, and later in his State of the Union
the United States in November 1952. It was address, he hinted that he might escalate
widely believed that he would embrace a the war.
decisive military strategy. However, As noted previously, by the end of 1952
Eisenhower was actually very cautious. He both the Chinese and the North Koreans
was wary of making any reckless moves that were feeling the strain of war and looking for
might cause the Soviets to intervene. a way out. However, Stalin had been refusing
 How the war ended 83

to end the war. Predicting that a Third World 2 miles (3.2 km) and into the MLR by 14 June.
War with the West was inevitable, he The South Koreans fought back hard. They
believed that compromise in Korea would established blocking positions and moved
damage Communist prestige and end the reserves to the front. The onslaught continued
drain on Western resources that the war until the first cease-fire was concluded on
entailed. Stalin died on 5 March 1953. The 16 June. The CPV had suffered 6,600 casualties
new Soviet leadership wanted to pursue a while the South Koreans had lost 7,300 men.
less confrontational mode of competition CPV commanders were convinced that this
with the USA. Thus, at Stalin's funeral, they offensive brought the UNC to terms. Actually,
were receptive to Zhou's proposal for American decision-makers were too focused on
compromising on a cease-fire in Korea. The the possibility of escalating the war to be
Soviet leadership appreciated that the affected by this relatively minor defeat,
continued costs of war were too high and especially as most of the casualties were
agreed that the stand on forcible repatriation South Koreans, not Americans.
should be abandoned. While the Communists attacked on the
Accordingly, on 28 March 1953, Zhou ground, the USA and UNC intensified the air
accepted a February proposal by Clark, war. For the first time, Sabre squadrons were
dubbed 'Little Switch,' for an exchange of instructed to seek out and destroy the MiG-
sick and wounded prisoners of war. Progress 15s in MiG Alley, rather than merely to ward
in negotiations followed. On 26 April, the off their attacks. The object was to destroy
six-month recess in negotiations finally the enemy aircraft faster than new pilots
ended. In early May, the Communists could be trained for combat. Sabre sorties
proposed a Neutral Nations Repatriation doubled in the last months of the war.
Commission. The commission would Unfortunately for the Chinese, the Soviets
temporarily supervise the POWs in Korea decided to withdraw their air divisions in
after the armistice. Each side would be late April. The Chinese were decimated. The
allowed to send representatives to convince Sabres shot down over 150 MiG-15s in May,
their prisoners to return home. However, no June, and July 1953; by far the greatest
prisoner would be repatriated against his Communist monthly losses of the war.
wishes. Unfortunately, minor disagreements Additionally, Clark targeted 20 dams in
impeded the quick conclusion of North Korea for destruction. Doing so would
negotiations, leading to a new round of flood North Korea's rice fields and inhibit
heightened military activity. the country from feeding itself. In the past,
Despite compromising at the negotiation such agricultural targets had been avoided
table, Deng and Mao continued to pressure because of humanitarian concerns and the
the UNC on the battlefield. This was partly a risk of escalation. Starting on 13 May, FEAF
means of saving face while making fighter-bombers struck five dams, including
concessions. More importantly, though, Toksan, near Pyongyang. The rice fields were
Deng and the other CPV generals seriously flooded and 70 nearby villages were allegedly
believed that the UNC would not come to submerged. The North Koreans scrambled to
terms unless they suffered unsustainable repair the damage and enact preventive
losses. The initial attacks focused on the ROK measures as the strikes continued. Bombing
army in the east and American and was also renewed against the North Korean
Commonwealth forces in the west. But when hydroelectric plants, some of which had
Rhee opposed UNC compromises at been repaired.
Panmunjom, Deng and Yang refocused their In March 1953, the JCS and the NSC,
attacks upon ROK formations. believing that the Communists were not
On 10 June, the Chinese attacked the feeling sufficient military pressure, began
II ROK Corps around Kumsong. With heavy discussing ending restrictions on all
artillery support, the Chinese pressed forward operations. Specifically, they studied NSC
84 Essential Histories • The Korean War

A South Korean mortar team on Capitol Hill. strategy if escalation became necessary.
Capitol Hill was one of the several terrain features Following the endorsement of NSC 147,
fiercely fought over during the 'see-saw' battles of
fall 1952. Although it was eventually lost, the
American leaders issued a series of nuclear
South Koreans defended the hill staunchly and threats. First, on 21 May, Dulles told Indian
inflicted numerous casualties on the Chinese. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru that the
(Defence Department) USA would expand military action if the
current round of talks failed. Dulles
147, which outlined options for an advance expected that his statement would be
to the waist of Korea, bombing air bases in relayed to the Chinese. Second, on 27 May,
Manchuria, and the use of atomic weapons. Clark sent Kim and Peng a letter stating that
Bradley and Eisenhower worried that the last negotiations had reached their final stage.
option could dramatically escalate the Third, on 3 June, Ambassador Charles
conflict and cause Soviet retaliation. After Bohlen in Moscow told Soviet Foreign
much deliberation, on 19 May, the JCS Minister Vyacheslav Molotov that the
endorsed the implementation of options failure of armistice talks would create a
within NSC 147, including the use of atomic situation that the USA hoped to avoid. All
weapons, if there was no progress in of these statements were meant to convey
negotiations in the next months. Eisenhower American intent to escalate the war, and
approved NSC 147 as a rough guide for possibly use atomic weapons, if the
 How the war ended 85

Communists did not concede soon in Communist proposal for a Neutral Nations
negotiations. Repatriation Commission and made a number
The UNC delegation presented their 'final of concessions on the details of an agreement.
position' on 25 May 1953. It accepted the If the Communists did not accept the 'final

South Koreans demonstrating against an armistice in Seoul.

Most South Koreans supported President Rhee's stance that an
armistice should not be concluded until North Korea was liberated.
(Defence Department)
86 Essential Histories • The Korea War

position,' Clark was authorized to end Rhee vociferously opposed the armistice.
negotiations and escalate military action, He wanted Korea unified and all Chinese
including implementing his offensive plan forces withdrawn from Korea. Koreans filled
from October 1952. In the event the the streets of Seoul and other cities
Communists accepted the final position. This throughout South Korea to demonstrate
allowed a cease-fire agreement to be concluded against an armistice. The climactic event
to take effect on 27 July. On that day the occurred on 18 June when Rhee unilaterally
15 nations supporting South Korea signed the released 25,000 North Korean prisoners of
China Warning Statement, which threatened war. Clark and Eisenhower were surprised
that renewed aggression would make them and angered. Urgent negotiations ensued
return to hostilities, which probably could not between Rhee and Clark. Clark finally
be confined within the borders of Korea. secured Rhee's acceptance of the armistice
agreement by promising that the USA
would sign a security treaty with the ROK
South Korean President Syngman Rhee speaking with
US Ambassador Muccio. In June 1953. Rhee unilaterally
and continue to build the ROK armed
released 25,000 North Korean prisoners of war forces after the war.
because of his opposition to the armistice accords. Not surprisingly, the Communists were
(Defence Department) outraged by Rhee's intransigent act. Mao
 How the w a r ended 87

The Kumsong bulge and the final armistice line, 27 July 1953

From September 1952 to July 1953, a series of see-saw the Communists signed a second cease-fire
battles' were fought for the Kumsong bulge. By the end on 27 July 1953.
of the war the Chinese had captured most of it.
Conventional wisdom claims that
Eisenhower's nuclear threats compelled the
ordered another offensive in order to Communists to compromise and end the
punish Rhee and demonstrate Chinese Korean War. There is actually little evidence to
resolve. On 13 July, five CPV armies support that claim. Eisenhower's nuclear
(150,000 men) again attacked the II ROK threats were important, in that they signaled
Corps defending the Kumsong bulge. that the USA countenanced continued and
Exploiting tactical surprise, darkness, and heightened warfare. But the Communists
overwhelming numbers, the Chinese broke were motivated to compromise primarily by
through the MLR along 21 miles (34km) of the exhaustion of nearly three years of war.
front. The South Koreans were forced to The cumulative loss of manpower, destruction
withdraw 19 miles (31km) to avoid of industry, and military expenditures
encirclement. Nevertheless, the South were a heavy burden. By early 1953,
Koreans were fighting hard and not continuing to bear this burden was not
panicking. Once again, the new ROK army worthwhile, even though the CPV was a
proved its resilience. Morale was high and more efficient fighting force than ever before.
units were not dissolving. After 16 July, The key event that facilitated the Communist
ROK formations began to counterattack decision to compromise was Stalin's death.
and even pushed the Communists back The institution of more moderate leadership
5 miles (8km). But the Chinese were not in Moscow enabled the PRC and North
seeking to scrap the armistice agreement. Korea to make the concessions necessary
After attaining success on the battlefield, to reach an armistice.
Conclusion and consequences

The significance of the Korean

War in the history of warfare
In spite of its limited nature, the Korean in east Asia. It would be one of the few
War was tremendously destructive. Korea's nations to provide a sizable military
industrial base was wiped out. Four million contribution to the American war effort in
Koreans, 10 percent of the population, were Vietnam. However, South Korea would not
rendered casualties and five million became experience substantial economic growth
refugees. The North Korean armed forces until the 1960s. The constant threat of war
lost approximately 600,000 men in the led Rhee toward greater authoritarianism
fighting, in addition to two million civilian and high levels of military spending, which
casualties. The Chinese suffered an detracted from economic development. The
estimated one million casualties. Losses to political context of South Korea was marked
the ROK armed forces are estimated at by authoritarian governments and
70,000 killed, 150,000 wounded, and intermittent student protests. Rhee himself
80,000 captured (the majority of whom died was overthrown in a coup d'etat in 1961.
from starvation or mistreatment). One North Korea remained a potent military
million South Korean civilians were killed or power after the war. Close ties were
injured. The USA lost 33,600 men killed and maintained with the Soviet Union and the
103,200 wounded. PRC. Indeed, North Korea became intensely-
The Korean peninsula was divided along Communist. The re-indoctrination of
the line of contact at the end of the war and Communism was necessary to mobilize
remains so to this day. A political conference sufficient resources for economic-
called for in the armistice agreement was reconstruction. The effort was largely
held in Geneva in 1954, but the two sides' successful, and the North Korean economy
demands were too far apart to permit any was rebuilt by the late 1950s. Politically, the
compromise. The peninsula became a defeats of the Korean War undercut Kim Il
microcosm of the Cold War itself. Heavily- Sung's leadership position. In order to stay
armed, North and South Korea faced each in power, he executed a number of his
other across the demilitarized zone. But, opponents. He then built a cult of
other than desultory skirmishing, a second personality around the myth that North
war has not broken out. Korea had won the Korean War. Kim
South Korea emerged from the war ultimately survived the Cold War, and
militarily secure but domestically unstable. North Korea remains a Communist state to
The ROK armed forces had grown to number this day under his son's leadership.
600,000 men. They could hold their own The Korean War is often considered a
against the North Koreans and, to a lesser draw or even a defeat for the UNC. The
extent, the Chinese. Following his unilateral Soviet Union and the PRC had achieved
release of North Korean POWs, Rhee had their minimal goal of defending their
secured from the USA a mutual defense positions in east Asia. The two countries
treaty, long-term economic aid, and remained powerful obstacles to American
assistance in expanding the ROK armed hegemony in the area. The independence of
forces. Additionally, the Eighth Army North Korea had been preserved. However,
remained in South Korea throughout the this reasoning assumes that the lack of total
Cold War. The ROK was now an important victory was a defeat. In fact, the Korean War
bulwark against Communist expansionism was an unmistakable victory for the UNC.
 Conclusion and consequences 89

First, the important UNC demands were met firepower, a core of experienced soldiers,
in negotiations. Concessions were only and innovating commanders engendered
made on minor points. The line of contact, military efficiency. Moreover, the economic
not the 38th Parallel, became the border strength of the USA meant that the UNC
between North and South Korea, and could fight the war virtually indefinitely.
voluntary repatriation was enforced. Second, China's economy, on the other hand, had
in the course of military operations, the never recovered from the Chinese Civil War
Communists suffered far greater manpower or the Second World War. As the Korean War
and economic losses than the UNC. For the dragged on, the need for internal economic
PRC and North Korea, the opportunity cost development and an end to the burden of
of these lost resources for internal military expenditure created an impetus for
development was great. Third, the West compromise. For the Soviet Union, the
halted the first major Communist attempt at heavy costs of financing and supplying a
overt aggression. Without delving into a major regional war were not worth the
counterfactual, it is reasonable to assume marginal reward of enforcing the
that if South Korea had not been Communist bargaining position in
successfully defended, China and the Soviet negotiations. Hence, by 1953, the
Union would have continued with a more Communists preferred to compromise rather
overtly aggressive foreign policy against the than overburden their economies with an
West. Instead, for the remainder of the Cold interminable war.
War, they resorted to guerrilla warfare as the The Korean War had wide implications
primary means of expanding their influence. for the entire international system. First, as
There were no truly decisive battles in the technically a United Nations action, the
Korean War. Success for the Communists or Korean War was pivotal in the development
the UNC ultimately depended on their of that organization. Second, in the area of
ability to sustain protracted warfare through military strategy, Korea was significant as
a combination of economic strength and the first limited war. Hard practical
military efficiency. The Communists proved experience in the Korean War had raised
less able to do so. Despite their numerical major questions regarding the usability of
superiority, the Communists needed to nuclear weapons. Third, and most
break the military ascendancy of the UNC importantly, the war affected the balance of
before the weakness of their economic power between the two superpowers.
systems made continued warfare It was in Korea that the UN first
unacceptably expensive. Instead, the clumsy authorized the use of force in the name of
Communist tactics in the first year of the collective security. Unfortunately, the
war and Ridgway's generalship crippled their Korean War showed that, in reality, the UN
war effort. Deng Hua and Yang Dezhi did a was not a guarantor of collective security.
remarkable job reforming the CPV in 1952. UN action was a fluke resulting from Soviet
But by the time these reforms took effect, absence in the Security Council. The UN was
the Chinese could no longer shoulder the not acting out the will of the entire
costs of war. international community, but that of the
After overcoming the initial Chinese West. Later in the Cold War, UN action in
intervention, the UNC became an support of collective security was usually
exceptionally efficient military force. The impossible because of opposition from
UNC mounted offensives without sustaining either the USA or the Soviet Union,
heavy casualties; repeatedly halted depending on whose sphere of influence the
Communist attacks; conducted air strikes UN was considering intervening in.
throughout North Korea; and controlled Nevertheless, several important diplomatic
the seas surrounding the peninsula. initiatives originated in the UN, including
Technological superiority, abundance of the first cease-fire resolution in December
90 Essential Histories • The Korean War

1950 and Jacob Malik's proposal for protracted nature, attrition on the ground
negotiations in June 1951. The 'Uniting for entailed a steady flow of casualties for both
Peace' procedure was also created in the the UNC and the Communists. Indeed, after
Korean War. It would be used again in the 1953, the Eisenhower administration
Cold War, most notably as a means for the forswore the use of conventional force
USA to punish the British and French during largely because of the costs of attrition in
the Suez Canal Crisis. Most importantly, the Korea. Nevertheless, attrition would be
fact that the Korean War was heavily applied as a strategy in many later conflicts
debated in the UN by all member states in the Cold War - not always successfully -
validated the UN's role as the legitimate such as Vietnam, the Egyptian-Israeli War of
mediator of international conflicts and a Attrition, and the Iran-Iraq War.
forum for diplomacy. The use of air power was less effective as a
Regarding military strategy, the Korean means of fighting a limited war. It could not
War was the first illustration of the new inflict the damage necessary to make the
context of warfare that emerged in the Cold Communists crack. Nevertheless, it remained
War. The former aim of warfare, the total a preferred, if often overrated, means of
annihilation of an opponent, was applying force after Korea. In the US air
excessively dangerous. The dramatic force, the perceived success of the air
victories of the North Korean blitzkrieg, the campaign was used to confirm the
Inchon landing, and the Second Phase decisiveness of air power in modern warfare.
Offensive caused a rapid escalation of the Strategic air campaigns that were very similar
Korean War that brought each combatant to to Operation Strangle and the sustained air
the brink of world war. A limited aim was pressure strategy were implemented in
now the goal of most wars. In Korea, and Vietnam, the 1991 Gulf War, and the 1999
frequently thereafter, a limited aim conflict in Kosovo. Although rarely decisive,
embodied seeking minor political gains the allure of a painless and quick victory
through a negotiated resolution of the war. makes air power the West's principal means
Military operations were carefully restrained of waging war to this day.
in order to reduce the risk of escalation. Eisenhower's nuclear threats represented
Similar restrictions on military operations the final new method of warfare
would reappear in subsequent wars, such as
implemented in Korea. As noted above,
Vietnam, the Arab-Israeli Wars, and the
while the nuclear threats signaled that the
Indo-Pakistani Wars. The methods of warfare
USA was resolved to fight a heightened war
implemented under these restrictions in the
if necessary, they probably had only a
Korean War - attrition, air power, and
marginal effect on the Communist decision
nuclear threats - were the first adaptations
to compromise. Historically, the nuclear
to limited war. Consequently, the Korean
threats were a part of the development of
War was the formative experience in the
deterrence strategy, which dominated
strategic thought and operational doctrines
developed during the Cold War. strategic discourse in the Cold War. In 1954,
Eisenhower and Dulles instituted the New
Attrition was the first method of warfare Look doctrine, hoping to repeat the
that the UNC applied to fighting a limited supposed success of their nuclear threats at
war. Ridgway found that gradual and careful the end of the Korean War. The New Look
attrition could defeat the Communists on threatened that Communist aggression
the battlefield and enforce the UNC anywhere in the world would be the subject
bargaining position yet not escalate the of a devastating American nuclear strike. It
conflict. The significance of attrition was was believed that this threat of massive
underlined when Peng Dehuai and Deng retaliation would deter future Communist
Hua adopted it as the operational doctrine expansionism. Although massive retaliation
of the CPV. However, because of its was eventually discredited, nuclear threats,
 Conclusion and consequences 91

as a component of deterrence, were used forces to fight the Viet Minh, nor would he
again in international crises such as the agree to use nuclear weapons to save the
Cuban Missile Crisis and the 1973 French at Dien Ben Phu. Later
Yom Kippur War. administrations were less cautious and
In terms of the balance of power, the believed that the ultimate success of the
Korean War motivated the Western powers to Korean War in halting Communism meant
view Communism as an imminent threat to that the USA would also be successful in a
their security and take a more determined war in Vietnam.
stance against its expansion. The USA The growth of American power in east
mobilized meaningfully to enforce Asia was inhibited by the emergence of the
containment throughout the world. As the PRC as a military power in the region. The
Soviet Union strove to match this impressive world now viewed the PRC as a major
military build-up, Western rearmament set Communist military power and not a
the tone for the arms races that marked the backward agricultural state. The Chinese
remainder of the Cold War. The size of the military had proven that they could
American armed forces multiplied. Massive contend with the best forces of the West.
programs for new ships, missiles, tanks, and The catastrophic defeat of the US Eighth
aircraft were implemented. In Europe, Army in November and December 1950
England and France also increased the size of showed that liberating Communist
their armed forces. NATO was greatly countries could be excessively dangerous.
strengthened through the establishment of After the defeat, the USA never again tried
unified command with strong military forces to liberate a Communist state by invasion.
under its authority. Moreover, the impetus For example, in the Vietnam War, the USA
had been created to rearm West Germany as would not invade North Vietnam for fear
a part of NATO, which would actually occur of Chinese intervention. The PRC
in 195S. enjoyed increased influence in east
Outside Europe, the USA ceased Asia and the Third World. Its veteran
neglecting east Asia in its geostrategic officers became advisors in numerous
planning. The Japan-US Security Treaty national liberation movements,
facilitated the long-term stationing of particularly in Vietnam. Mistakenly, the
formidable American air, ground, and naval USA predominantly treated China as the
forces in Japan. Additionally, increased unswerving and unpredictably dangerous
American military spending in Japan during ally of the Soviet Union. In fact, the
the Korean War helped it on the path to PRC was denied entry into the UN until
economic recovery. With its relatively secure Nixon's presidency.
island status, large population, and growing The Korean War also had implications for
economy, Japan became the centerpiece of China's relationship with the Soviet Union.
American security architecture in east Asia. In the short term, fighting the USA
The USA also took greater interest in the reinforced the Sino-Soviet Alliance. The
defense of Taiwan. In the Taiwan offshore level of military and economic assistance
islands crises of 1954-55 and 1958, the USA provided during the war continued after
appeared willing to defend Nationalist 1953, with a tremendous amount of
territory against Communist encroachment. technology being transferred to the PRC.
But the Korean War also caused the USA to However, the war also caused the
embrace global containment and the beginning of cracks in the alliance. The
precepts of NSC 68 too tightly. In Chinese had fought the war largely on their
Indochina, the USA was paying for own and were disappointed by the limited
80 percent of France's military operations by military involvement of the Soviet Union.
1954. With the losses of Korea fresh in The Soviet demand that China pay for all of
mind, Eisenhower would not send military the military equipment provided was
92 Essential Histories • The Korean War

particularly galling. More fundamentally, by American pilots, and Chinese infantry

the late 1950s, Mao found deep Soviet grappled with American infantry. Hundreds
involvement in Chinese economic of thousands of men were taken prisoner,
development and military affairs to be injured, or killed. Some of the most modern
curtailing the PRC's independence. By new weapons were utilized and the best
the mid-1960s, these cracks would widen generals of the three countries planned
and the Sino-Soviet Alliance would operations for the war. Historian William
break apart. Stueck has gone so far as to describe it as a
Finally, the Korean War symbolizes the substitute for a Third World War. In any
superpower competition of the Cold War. It event, the Korean War brought the
was the only occasion in the Cold War superpowers to the brink of world war. Less
when the armed forces of the Soviet Union, dramatically, the Korean War was the point
the People's Republic of China, and the where the differences between Communism
United States - plus the other Western and democracy, the Soviet Union and the
powers - were regularly in direct combat USA, actually warranted major conventional
with one another. Later in the Cold War, the warfare. The fact that the Korean War was a
superpowers only fought each other's conflagration of this magnitude and
proxies or client states. But in Korea, Soviet intensity is sufficient reason that it should
fighter pilots engaged in dogfights with not be forgotten.
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Index

Figures in bold refer to illustrations fall offensives 50

Far East Air Force (FEAF) 24, 54-55, 58, 61
Acheson, Dean 15, 16, 29. 41. 71 Fifth Phase Offensive 7, 8, 9, 41-46, 42, 43, 45, 46
air warfare 53-60, 54, 56-57, 61, 65 First Phase Offensive 9, 32
Almond, Lieutenant-General Edward 25, 27 Fourth Phase Offensive 39-40
Andong 28, 54 French soldiers 40
armistice 7-8, 85, 87 front-line warfare 66-69
arms pact, Soviet Union/North Korea 15
artillery 18-19,. 48 Gloucestershire Regiment 43-44, 44
Attlee, Clement 37 guerrilla war 13-14
attrition, war of 36-46, 47, 48, 90
Hagaru 36
blitzkrieg 7, 19, 20, 22 Han river 23, 39
Bloody Ridge 49 Hodge, General John 12
Boatner, Brigadier-General Haydon 71
Bradley, General Omar 16 Imjin river 43-45
British Army 43-44, 44 Inchon landing 24-28, 26, 28
British Commonwealth forces 50-53, 52, 61-62 independence 13
Brodie, Brigadier Thomas 43-44 infantry
American 32
Capitol Hill 84 Chinese 29, 33
Carne, Lieutenant-Colonel James 43 South Korean 19-20
casualties 27, 34, 36, 40, 41, 43, 44, 49-50, 60, 83, 88 Iron Triangle 45
cease-fire negotiations 46-53
Chae Pyongdok, Major-General 20 Jamestown Line 50
Cheju Rebellion 13 Japan 12, 16
China see Chinese People's Volunteers (CPV); People's Japanese Army 11
Republic of China (PRC) Japan-US Security Treaty 73, 91
China Warning Statement 86 Johnson, Louis 16
Chinese Civil War 14, 15, 16 Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), US 13, 16, 46
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 14, 15, 28, 40-41 Joy, Vice-Admiral C. Turner 23, 46, 47
Chinese Nationalists 14, 16, 41
Chinese People's Volunteers (CPV) 8, 28, 30-34, 33, 42, Kaesong 20, 46
80-82, 87 Kang, Kyonshill 75-79
Chongjin 74 Kansas-Wyoming Line 53
Chosin Reservoir, Battle of the 34, 34-36 Kim Cha'ek, General 19, 24, 25
Chung Il Kwon, Major-General 23 Kim Chong O 21
Clark, General Mark 59-60, 60, 82, 83, 84, 86 Kim Hong II, Major-General 23
Cold War 7, 8, 10-11, 14 Kim Il Sung 12, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 25, 28, 60, 84
Collins, General Lawton 25 Kimpo 27
Communism 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 88-89 Korean peninsula 11, 11-14
Kumsong bulge 87
Dean, General William 23
defense expenditure, US 10 Litzenberg, Colonel Homer 36
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) 13
Deng Hua, General 8, 30, 39, 47, 80, 83 MacArthur Hearings 72-73
Dodd, Brigadier-General Frank 71 MacArthur, General Douglas 7, 8, 12, 16, 17, 24-25, 27,
Dulles, John Foster 82 29, 32, 34, 37, 37-38, 41, 78
Main Line of Resistance (MLR) 66-67
East Asia 11 Malik, Jacob 46, 89
Eighth US Army 24, 29, 36-39, 39, 41-42, 48-50, 62 Manchuria 11, 12, 28
Eisenhower, Dwight 82, 84, 87 maneuver warfare 18-28
elections 13 Mao Zedong 14, 28, 46, 48, 60, 80, 83
Europe 11 Marshall, George C. 29
expansion, military 73 Martin, Joe 41
Maryang San, Battle of 51, 52-53
F-86 Sabres 56-57 Mayo, Lieutenant-Colonel 59
 Index 95

MiG Alley 55, 58 Russ, Corporal Martin 66, 66-69

MiG-15 54, 54
Milburn, Lieutentant-General Frank 44 Second Phase Offensive 9, 31, 32-39
Moscow Conference 12 'see-saw battles' 48, 49, 84
Seoul 12, 23, 27, 75-77
Naktong Bulge see also Inchon landing
First Battle of the 24 Sherman, Admiral Forrest 25
Second Battle of the 25 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual
Nam 11, General 46, 47 Assistance 14
napalm 27, 35, 60 Smart, General Jacob 59
National Assembly 13 Smith, Major-General O. P. 27, 34
National Security Council (NSC) 13, 17 Soule, Major-General Robert 43
NSC 68 15, 73 South Korea 13
NSC 147 84 South Korean army 19-20, 23
Nationalists 7, 11, 13 Soviet Union 7, 10-11, 12-13, 14, 15-17
see also Chinese Nationalists intervention 28-29, 36
naval power 20 Stalin, Josef 7, 8, 11-12, 14, 15-16, 28-29, 46, 60,
naval warfare 60-66, 62-63, 64 82-83
Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission 83, 85-86 Superfortresses 57-58
No Name Line 44 supply lines 44-45, 49
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 8, 10, 73 Supreme People's Assembly 13
North Korea 13, 73-74, 74
North Korean Communist Party 12 tactics 35, 48, 80-81, 81
North Korean invasion of South Korea 7, 16, 20-24, Taiwan 16, 17
22, 76-77 tanks 18-19, 52, 67
North Korean People's Army (NKPA) 18-19, 27, 28, 29 Task Force 77 60, 63
North/South division 11-13 Tehran Conference 11
Northeast Border Defense Army (NBDA) 28 Third Phase Offensive 39
nuclear warfare 8, 10, 84, 87 38th Parallel 12, 16, 19, 20, 28, 29, 48
Truman Doctrine 10
Oak Hyung-uk, Lieutenant 23 Truman, Harry, US President 10, 13, 15, 16, 29, 36, 41,
Operation Commando 51, 53 71, 73
Operation Killer 40
Operation Ripper 40 unification 29
Operation Rugged 40 United Kingdom 20
Operation Showdown 82 see also British Army; Royal Navy
Operation Strangle 55-59, 63 United Nations (UN) 13, 29
Operation Thunderbolt 39 United Nations Command (UNC) 7, 8, 17, 24, 25, 27,
Operation Wolfhound 39 29, 32, 42, 45-46
Osan 27 cease-fire negotiations 46-53, 47, 71
United Nations Security Council 14, 16
Paik Sun Yup, General 8, 20-23, 21, 47 United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea
Pak Il-yu 28 (UNTCOK) 13
Panikkar, K. M. 28 United States of America 7-8, 10, 11-13, 14, 15-17, 20,
Peng Dehuai, General 30, 32, 39, 40, 44, 46, 48, 80, 84 36, 71-73
People's Liberation Army (PLA) 18, 28 US Army 24
People's Republic of China (PRC) 7, 8, 14, 15, 28-36, US Infantry 25
73-74 US Marines 25-27, 25, 27, 34-36, 66
prisoners of war (POW) 71, 72, 83, 86 US Navy 23, 61
Pusan Perimeter 23, 24, 26, 27
Pyongyang 60 Van Fleet, General James 41, 41-42, 44, 48-50, 80, 82
Vandenberg, Hoyt 55
Randolph, Colonel Richard 59 voluntary repatriation 71
Red Army, Soviet 11
reform, military 80 Walker, General Walton 24, 32
refugees 75 warfare 8, 10-11, 20
Republic of Korea (ROK) 8, 13, 17, 29 Wolmi-do 26
army 19-20, 20 Wonsan 29
Rhee, Syngman 11, 12, 13, 15, 24, 86, 86-87, 88
Ridgway, General Matthew 8, 23, 37, 38-42, 45, 48, 59 X US Corps 25, 27, 29, 36
rightists see Nationalists
Rongzhen, Nie 28 Yang Dezhi 80, 81-82
Roosevelt, Franklin, US President 11
Royal Navy Far East Fleet 23-24 Zhou Enlai 12, 28, 36